Ch is ian Democ a ic Pa ies in Belgium
Lie en de WINTER
Uni e si é du Lou ain la Neu e
Wo king Pape n.13
Ba celona 1990
I. RELEVANCE OF STUDYING CHRISTIAN DEMOCRATIC PARTIES IN BELGIUM
S udying Ch is ian Democ a ic pa ies in Belgium is mainly in e es ing o
h ee pa icula easons. Fi s , in he pos -Wa pe iod, mos o he ime he Ch is ian
Democ a s ha e been he s onges poli ical o ma ion in Belgium. I eached he
peak o i s pos -Wa elec o al s eng h in 1950, by cap u ing 48% o he na ional o e
(and an absolu e majo i y in pa liamen ), while i s lowes sco e occu ed in 1981
(26%). The CVP, he Ch is elijke Volkspa ij (Ch is ian People's Pa y) has always
been he s onges pa y in Flande s (i s o e a ying be ween 60.4% in 1950 o
31.4% in 1987). Bu in Wallonia he PSC, he Pa i Social Ch é ien, is only he
second o he hi d pa y (wi h a maximum o 34.2% in 1958 and a minimum o 20.1%
in 1971.
Second, he CVP-PSC is he mos impo an go e nmen al pa y o he
pos -Wa pe iod. I became he pi o al coali ion pa y a e he 1950s, he ha d co e
o each coali ion om 1958 on. I has always been in go e nmen , (apa om he
1945-1947 and he 1954-1958 pe iod), usually choosing i s pa ne be ween he
Socialis and he Libe al pa ies. Thus, i has s ongly domina ed cabine policies and
p o ided mos minis e s. In, addi ion, nea ly all pos -Wa p ime-minis e s ha e we e
Ch is ian Democ a s, usually belonging TO he CVP. Th ough his pe manen
pa icipa ion, i has also s ongly "occupied he s a e" and semi-public ins i u ions.
Finally, he CVP-PSC is he poli ical ep esen a i e o he Ca holic pilla and
i s wide a ie y o o ganisa ions, which in i sel has unde gone majo changes in he
pos -Wa pe iod (decon essionalisa ion, secula isa ion, p o essionalisa ion, e c.) I is
hus an in e es ing case as a as he ela ions be ween pa y, pilla and socie al
changes a e conce ned.
II. CREATION AND RECENT HISTORY (SHORT VIEW)
1. F om he 19 h cen u y un il Wo ld Wa II
A i s c ea ion in 1830, he Belgian Kingdom was a hyb id s a e. In he No h
he e was a Ca holic, conse a i e, la gely ag icul u al Du ch-speaking Flande s, and
in he Sou h he mo e ee- hinking, p og essi e, la gely indus ialised
F ench-speaking Wallonia. The c ea ion o he Belgian s a e was he esul o he
collabo a ion o Ca holic and Libe al bou geoisie in opposi ion o he Du ch King.
Thus he i s 16 yea s o he exis ence o he Belgian s a e we e cha ac e ised by
"unionis " go e nmen , i.e. coali ions o Ca holic and Libe al no ables. The i s
poli ical endency which o ganised i sel as a na ional poli ical pa y we e he Libe als
in 1846, and he Ca holics s a ed o ganising na ional cong esses om 1863 on, bu
only in 1879 he Ca holics began o o ganise hemsel es se iously as a poli ical pa ,
b inging he local ca holic elec o al associa ions unde one oo . A i s , he pa y was
mainly a bou geois, conse a i e o ganisa ion, in e es ed mainly in de ending he
in e es o he Chu ch and he Ca holic schools. The wo king class wing, ep esen ing
he Ca holic wo ke s o ganisa ions which we e se up (a e he enla gemen o he
anchise in 1893) in o de o o se he a ac ion o he Socialis pilla o ganisa ions,
g ew in s eng h wi hin he pa y, oge he wi h he peasan 's league. Thus by 1914,
he Ca holic Pa y consis ed o h ee dis inc wings: he conse a i e, Fédé a ion des
Ce cles, he wo king-class Ligue Démoc a igue Belge, and he peasen s Boe enbond
("Fa me s League").
In he In e bellum, hese h ee "s anden" ("es a es") o " amilles" ( o which
was added an es a e ep esen ing he so-called middle classes (i.e. shopkeepe s,
a isans and small en ep eneu s) became mo e impo an han he ac ual pa y
o ganisa ion. People could no join he Union Ca holique di ec ly, bu only by one o
i s ac ions. In ac , he Union Ca holique was only a ede a ion o ou dis inc
es a es, each enjoying a la ge au onomy. The e was no common poli ical
p og amme, only collabo a ion a he momen o he composi ion o he elec o al lis s
o he pa liamen a y elec ions. In 1936, a eo ganisa ion ook place, c ea ing he
Bloc Ca holic Belge, wi h a Flemish and a Walloon wing (wi h indi idual
membe ship), which educes somewha he impac o he ac ions.
2. F om Wo ld Wa II un il 1968
The new Ch is ian Democ a ic pa y, he CVP-PSC, was. c ea ed in 1945,
and was a pa y qui e di e en om i s p edecesso s. I e mina ed i s o mal links
wi h he Chu ch, o ganised i sel on he basis o indi idual membe ship ins ead o
indi ec membe ship h ough he s anden (al hough i did no abolish he s anden); i
became an in e class pa y, aiming a he ealisa ion o social and economic jus ice
o all ci izens. I had wo wings, a Flemish (CVP) and a Walloon (PSC), bu kep an
uni a y s uc u e. The o mulae soon became e y success ul and he pa y ob ained
an absolu e majo i y in 1950 in bo h chambe s and in 1958 in he Sena e.
3. The pos -1968 pe iod
The pa y spli up along linguis ic lines due o he g owing linguis ic con lic
be ween Flemish and F ancophones in he 1960s. The di o ce was igge ed o by
he ques ion o he di ision o he Ca holic Uni e si y o Lou ain, whe eby he
F ench-speaking sec ions we e o ced o mo e ou o he Flemish-speaking ci y o
Leu en in o new campus on F ench-speaking e i o y. This demand was s ongly
suppo ed by Flemish public opinion, bu esen ed by he F ench-speake s as
disc imina o y and insul ing. The go e nmen o he PSC-p ime minis e Vanden
Boeynan s could no each an ag eemen on his issue and esigned, los
conside ably in he subsequen gene al elec ions, and consequen ly bo h wings
op ed o ac as au onomous pa ies, lea ing some coo dina ion s uc u es (na ional
p esiden , p aesidium, na ional headqua e s and sec e a ia ) in exis ence, bu hese
o gans slowly became inope a i e o we e spli la e on. Since he spli up, bo h
pa ies ha e d i ed apa conside ably, in e ms o o ganisa ion, unc ioning, ideology
and elec o al e olu ion. The e o e we canno conside he PSC and he CVP as one
pa y "disguised" o elec o al easons as wo pa ies, bu wo compe i i e ac o s in a
pa ially o e lapping poli ical a ena (elec o ally, hey only compe e in he elec o al
ci consc ip ion o B ussels Halle Vil oo de, (Lou ain and Ni elles), in he cabine and
in pa liamen hey ope a e as ully independen and o en compe i i e ac o s). On he
o he hand, since hei c ea ion as wo independen pa ies, hey ha e always been in
go e nmen , hus asyme ical coali ions (one pa y in he majo i y, he o he in he
opposi ion) ha e no a isen ye (which is also he case o he o he adi ional pa ies
-Socialis and Libe als wich also spli up along linguis ic lines in he 1970s).
III. PRESENT CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CVP AND THE PSC.
Wha a e he cha ac e is ics o bo h pa ies in e ms o in e nal s uc u e,
leade ship, ac ionalism, ideology, and go e nmen al pa icipa ion? These aspec s
could be app oached in se e al ways: one could o e a snapsho o he pa y a a
gi en momen in i s his o y, one could adop a his o ical app oach, s essing changes
o e ime; one could s ess he di e ences be ween he CVP and he PSC, o
be ween hese wo pa ies and he o he ( adi ional) pa ies in Belgium, o be ween
he CVP-PSC and he ea u es o o he Ch is ian Democ a ic pa ies in compa able
poli ical sys ems (such as he Ne he lands, I aly, Aus ia, Luxembou g, he Ge man
Fede al Republic, e c.).
We p e e o adop a mo e lexible app oach which basically e e s o he
ea u es o he CVP and he PSC in he mos ecen si ua ion (1980s), bu in case o
majo changes o e ime di e ences be ween he p esen si ua ion and he si ua ion
in p e ious decades will be sho ly ouched upon. Occasionally, some speci ic
di e ences in compa ison wi h o he Belgian pa ies and o he Ch is ian Democ a ic
pa ies in Eu ope will be highligh ed. A he end o my expose, we will ouch upon
some majo p oblems which he Belgian Ch is ian Democ a s a e acing.
A. The in e nal pa y s uc u e o he CVP and he PSC
The CVP and he PSC ha e basically h ee o ganisa ional le els: he na ional
le el, he cons i uency le el (" ede al", "a ondissemen al"), i.e. he le el o he
ci comsc ip ion o he pa liamen a y elec ions; and he local le el ( he comunes) (in
bo h pa ies he e also exis a p o incial o ganisa ional s uc u e, bu his le el is no
ope a ional in all p o inces. In some cases he e is e en a speci ic o ganisa ion a
he sub-cons i uency le el ( he "can ons"), and he local sec ions can also- c ea e
subdi ision ("sec ions").
1. Pa y o ganisa ion a he na ional le el
A he CVP na ional le el, we ind basically he ollowing o gans:
a) he Na ional Pa y Cong ess
The Na ional Pa y Cong ess is mainly composed o ep esen a i es o he
local pa ies, and o iceholde s wi hin he cons i uency and na ional pa y s uc u es.
In p inciple, he cong ess is he highes decision-making body o he pa y: i
es ablishes he pa y s a u es, he pa y p og am and he policies o pu sue. In
p ac ice, i decides on he adop ion o he pa y's elec o al mani es o, on
go e nmen al pa icipa ion (by app o ing he go e nmen al ag eemen eached
be ween coali ion pa ies), and he pa y's basic ideological posi ions. I elec s he
na ional pa y bu eau and he na ional pa y p esiden . I also holds con e ences on
speci ic hemes which a e on he poli ical agenda (like he en i onmen ). I has o
mee a leas once a yea . I usually d aws abou one housand pa icipan s.
b) he Na ional Pa y Bu eau
The Na ional Pa y Bu eau is composed o he pa y p esiden and
ice-p esiden s, 10 non-MPs, he leade s o he pa liamen a y pa ies in he
Chambe , he Sena e, he Eu opean Pa liamen and he Flemish Council ( egional
pa liamen ), he p ime minis e and ice-p ime minis e s o he na ional cabine and
he Flemish Execu i e, e en ually he chai man o he House and he Sena e, he
p esiden o he pa y you h o ganisa ion, and o he pa y women's o ganisa ion. The
na ional sec e a y, he head o he pa y esea ch cen e and o he poli ical o ma ion
ins i u e and he pa y spokesman ha e an ad iso y o e. I coun s abou 40
membe s (1986). I is esponsible o he daily leade ship o he pa y o ganisa ion: i
coo dina es he ini ia i es and posi ions o he pa liamen a y g oups, and de ines he
posi ions o he pa y on cu en issues in be ween cong esses. I mee s a leas once
a week.
In be ween he cong ess and he pa y bu eau, he e is he Na ional Pa y
Boa d ("Pa ijbes uu ") (N=37, 1986): i is mainly esponsible o pa y discipline,
pa y ules and he gene al pa y o ganisa ion and managemen , pa y inance and
elec o al campaigns, pa y nomina ions in he public sec o , e c. I mee s less

equen ly (once a mon h). I can call o a Na ional Pa y Council, which includes he
membe s o he na ional pa y boa d, o he pa liamen a y pa ies, he p esiden s o
he cons i uency and local pa ies, and some ep esen a i es o he women and
you h o ganisa ion. Usually a pa y council is held when he e is no enough ime o
call o a cong ess and he pa y leade ship s ill wan s o sound a pa y basis wide
han he ela i ely na ow pa y bu eau and boa d (such as o he elec ion o an
in e im pa y p esiden and a modi ica ion o he coali ion ag eemen ).
The FISC is o ganised mo e o less in he same way as he CPV: a he op
we ind he P ésiden Na ional (assis ed by he Séc e a ia Na ional), he daily
leade ship is exe cised by he Comi é Di ec eu . The Cong ès Na ional howe e is
open o all pa y membe s, and deals basically wi h ideological ma e s. In be ween
he Comi é Di ec eu and he cong ess, we ind he Conseil Géné al, a body simila
o he CVP Na ional Pa y Council, and wich ga he s only when he Comi é Di ec eu
wan s o sound a la ge audience, wi hou calling o an all-membe cong ess, such
as o he app o al o go e nmen al ag eemen s, o ecen ly he composi ion o he
candida e lis and p og amme o he 1989 Eu opean elec ions. The main di e ence
wi h he CVP na ional pa y o ganisa ional s uc u e is he selec ion mechanism o
he na ional pa y p esiden .
c) he Na ional Pa y P esiden
Un il he all o he Vanden Boeynan s go e nmen o e he di ision o he
Ca holic Uni e si y o Lou ain, he uni a y pa y elec ed a na ional p esiden , and also
wo ice-p esiden s ("wing"-p esiden s), who we e appoin ed sepa a ely by he
Flemish and he F ancophone wings.
The s a u es o he CVP s ipula e ha he Na ional Cong ess elec s he pa y
p esiden , om a candida e lis composed by he Pa y Council. The PSC in oduced
in 1969 an en i ely di e en selec ion sys em, i.e. a di ec , sec e o e by all pa y
membe s. The e olu iona y idea o a di ec membe elec ion o he pa y p esiden
was p omo ed since 1965 by he pa y you h o ganiza ion o he PSC and o he
eno a ing o ces, in o de o s op he coop a ion o he pos -Wa e e ans by hei
ellows. I was mean o acili a e he eno a ion o he pa y by inc easing he
chances o he ollowing gene a ion o seizing he p esidency and o he pa y o ices.
In ac , he new 1969 s a u es did no only ende he selec ion o he na ional
p esiden mo e democ a ic: on all pa y le els, leade ship posi ions we e o be
acco ded by a sec e o e o he membe s.
The CVP-s a u es conce ning he selec ion o he pa y p esiden sugges a
ully democ a ic elec o al p ocess while p ac ice s ongly de ia es om he s a u a y
model. Fi s , wi hin he CVP (and he uni a y pa y), he e was e y a ely mo e han
one candida e ( h ee imes ou o 33). No incumben p esiden was e e challenged
in he uni a y pa y and in he CVP. The single candida e is usually elec ed by an
o e whelming majo i y.
The selec ion o he PSC p esiden s displays qui e a di e en pic u e. Fi s , in
mos cases he e was mo e han one inal candida e. A con es ed elec ions, he
winne 's majo i y anged be ween 46% and 77% (a e age = 66%), which does
indica e ha a eal compe i ion be ween he candida es was going on. In addi ion,
wice an incumben p esiden was challenged. The o icial pa icipa ion igu es ange
be ween 54% and 29% o he membe s, and i seems he pa icipa ion a e is in
decline.
While he PSC-p ocedu e is ob iously mo e democ a ic, i allows discon en
o he ank-and- ile membe s wi h a p esiden in o ice o mani es i sel mo e easily.
In addi ion, he sec ecy o he o ing p ocedu e ende s opponen s o he leade ship
less iden i iable, and he e o e less ulne able o leade ship ep isals. This is ano he
incen i e o mani es disag eemen in he o e. The ac ha he PSC p esidency
changed hands se en imes since 1969 seems o indica e ha he democ a iza ion o
he p ocedu e jeopa dized he s abili y o he o ice, as well as he au ho i y o he
p esiden . E en when up un il now no incumben p esiden has been ous ed by
membe o es, a close eelec ion, such as he me e 60% o Dep ez in 1988, clea ly
does no s eng hen he p esiden 's in e nal and ex e nal au ho i y.
The pa y leade is esponsible o he daily poli ical leade ship o he pa y.
He chai s he mee ings o he pa y bu eau and ac s as he main pa y spokesman
owa ds he media. He is also esponsible o he managemen o he pa y as an
o ganisa ion, and some imes he de ac o con ols he sec e a ia (which is no always
he case in o he Ch is ian Democ a ic pa ies, like in he I alian Democ azia
C is iana).
Bu in a sys em o "pa i oc azia", as he Belgian poli ical sys em is o en
de ined, pa y leade s exe cise addi ional in luence o e he na ional poli ical
p ocesses. Fi s , pa y p esiden s play an impo an ole in he selec ion o minis e s.
Cons i u ionally minis e s a e nomina ed by he King. By now, he ole o he King in
he selec ion o minis e s is educed o his appoin ing he cabine " o ma eu ", who
will ha e o negocia e be ween pa ies in o de o elabo a e a go e nmen al p og am.
Hence he selec ion o minis e s is delega ed o he o ma eu . Bu also he e we
no ice an e olu ion in he pos -Wa pe iod. Un il he beginning o he six ies, he
o ma eu himsel looked o capable people in each coali ion pa y ( aking ac ional
equilib ia wi hin hese pa ies in o accoun ). By now, he selec ion p ocedu e is o ally
con olled by he coali ion pa ies, and in pa icula by hei p esiden s and he pa y
bu eaus. A he end o he coali ion negocia ions, he numbe o minis e ial pos s and
he depa men s each pa y acqui es is decided, and pa y p esiden s ill hese
acancies acco ding o hei wishes.
Pa y leade s do no only decide on he ques ion o who will go e n, bu also
on he how o go e ning. Go e nmen al ag eemen s in Belgium end o be e y
ex ensi e and e y de ailed, and se e as a "sup eme guide" o " he bible" o he
go e nmen al ac ions o be aken by a cabine once s a ed. Pa y leade s (and some
pa y expe s) play a p edominan ole in he elabo a ion o hese ag eemen s.
Bu he impac o pa y p esiden s is no only limi ed o he c ea ion phase o
a cabine . Each week, he minis e s o CVP and he PSC dine wi h hei pa y
p esiden (and some imes he leade s o he pa liamen a y g oups) in o de o
discuss he cabine agenda and de ine he posi ions minis e s should adop .
Finally, pa y p esiden s a e usually po en ial challenge s o he posi ion o
he minis e s o e en o he p ime minis e . Mos CVP and PSC pa y p esiden s
became minis e o e en p ime minis e (some became chai man o a legisla i e
body). Hence, he p esiden 's o ice in he CVP and he PSC se es as a sp ingboa d
o he highes public o ices.
d) Coo dina ion be ween CVP and PSC
A e he o icial spli o he uni a y pa y in o wo au onomous pa ies in 1969,
some o eign au ho s s ill con inue o conside he CVP and PSC as one pa y. In
ac , jus a e he b eak-up, se e al in e pa y decision-making s uc u es we e
main ained o c ea ed, bu slowly hey became inope a i e. Fo ins ance, in 1969 a
na ional pa y p esiden was elec ed (while each pa y elec ed also hei own
p esiden ), bu al eady in 1972, his unc ion was no illed up anymo e. The e used o
be a Pe manen Poli ical Liaison Commi ee (composed o he membe s o he pa y
bu eau o each pa y), and a P aesidium (composed o he p esiden s o he pa ies,
he na ional sec e a y, leade s o he pa liamen a y pa ies, and some minis e s), bu
also hese con ac s slowly aded away, and by now he p esiden s o he CVP and
he PSC do no see each o he mo e han hey mee wi h p esiden s o o he coali ion
pa ies. Also he ins i u ionalised collabo a ion be ween pa liamen a y g oups (as a
as he ep esen a ion in commi ees is conce ned) has anished. The na ional
sec e a ia has also spli in o wo. The only eal emainde o he old uni a y pa y is
he pa y esea ch cen e, he Cen e d'E udes Poli iques, Economiques e Sociales
(CEPESS), bu in p ac ice he du ch-speaking collabo a o s conduc esea ch o he
CVP and he F ancophone esea che s o he PSC (bu MPs o bo h pa ies s ill
ha e he occasion o mee each o he a he join subjec mee ings o he CEPESS
esea ch g oups). Thus, a he end o he 1980s, he CVP and PSC ha e o be
conside ed as ully au onomous pa ies (jus like he o he adi ional pa ies
-Socialis s and Libe als- which spli up in he 1970s along linguis ic lines). G adually
hey d opped all ins i u ional o ms o collabo a ion and join -decision-making.
In addi ion, a he go e nmen al le el, compe i ion be ween CVP and PSC is
some imes as ie ce as he compe i ion wi h he o he coali ion pa ies. Fo ins ance,
in 1987 Gé a d Dep ez, he p esiden o he PSC, p o oked he esigna ion o he
Ma ens VII go e nmen , because he wan ed a change in coali ion, d opping he
Libe als o he Socialis s, while he CVP was s ongly opposed o any coali ion wi h
he Socialis s. And wi h ega d o egionalis and linguis ic issues, CVP and PSC
minis e s a e as s ong ad oca es o he (sel -) in e es s (o g oup egoism) o he
Flemish o Walloons as he minis e s o he mo e adical Pa i Socialis e o he
Flemish Na ionalis s. Thus a he cabine le el, clashes be ween CVP and PSC
minis e s o e egional and linguis ic issues a e ela i ely equen .
2. Pa y o ganisa ion a he cons i uency and he local le el
A he local and cons i uency le el, he pa y is o ganised acco ding o he
same amewo k as he na ional pa y: cong ess, (boa d), bu eau and p esiden . The
local pa y o ganisa ion plays a ce ain ole in he selec ion o candida es o he local
elec ions. The selec ion o candida es o he gene al pa liamen a y elec ions is
decided by he cons i uency pa y (in a).
The CVP and he PSC ha e by now easonably ac i e local sec ions in all,
communes ( he e a e 308 communes in Flande s, 262 in Wallonia, and 19 in he
B ussels egion). In a majo i y o he Flemish communes (56.5%), he majo belongs
o he CVP (N=174), and in 62% o he Flemish communes (N=192) (1983-1988) he
CVP is pa icipa ing in he local go e nmen . The CVP sco es in gene al be e a he
local elec ions han a he na ional elec ions, especially in hose communes in which
i pa icipa es in he local majo i y. Being only he second o hi d F ancophone pa y,
he PSC is o cou se less ep esen ed in he execu i e o gans a he local le el.
3. Pa y managemen , membe ship and poli ical pe sonnel
The CVP has abou 140.000 membe s (1987), a membe ship which
cons i u es nea ly 12% o i s elec o a e. The PSC has only 43.000 membe s, o abou
8% o i s elec o a e. The deg ee o o ganisa ion (i.e. he a io membe s/ o e s) o he
CVP-PSC lies a ound he na ional a e age, bu a behind he bes "encad ed"
elec o a e, i.e. he elec o a e o he Pa i Socialis e (which 18% o i s o e s being
pa y membe in 1985).
In Belgium, he CVP is p obably he bes p o essionally o ganised pa y, wi h
a highly epu ed esea ch cen e (CEPESS), and Ins i u e o Poli ical Fo ma ion
(IPOVO) o he pa y cad es, an o ganisa ion o elec ed o ice holde s, a speci ic
women's and pa y you h o ganisa ion, and a wide ange o publica ions (including a
unde s andable gi en he s eng h o he Ch is ian Democ a ic economic p essu e
g oups). Wo ke s should pa icipa e in he decision-making wi hin hei en e p ises o
all i al ma e s (in es men s, employmen , incomes, echnology). I suppo s a
maximal e sion o ede alism, whe e he egions would ge all compe ences, wi h
he excep ion o hose which a e i al o he unc ioning o he Belgian s a e. The
pa y pays pa icula a en ion o he amily, a ou ing a ax sys em which is a o able
o he amilies.
On he socio-economic clea age, he CVP is in p ac ice o he le o he
Libe als and o he igh o he Socialis s. The PSC s esses i s cen e posi ion on he
socioeconomic le - igh dimension and p eaches solida i y be ween di e en social
classes. Wi h ega d o denomina ional issues, he CVP and he PSC p oclaim o be
a decon essionalised pa y, bu hey ac as he s onges de ende s o Ca holic
schools and o he pilla o ganisa ions ( he deba e wi h o he pa ies u ns a ound he
ques ion "how much schould be gi en", and no "whe he " hey schould be
subsidised). In addi ion, on many mo al issues, he CVP and he PSC a e a he
ex eme o he poli ical spec um (on ha dimension). Finally, he CVP is mo e
sensi i e o linguis ic issues han he Flemish Libe als and Socialis , bu o cou se
less ede alis han he Flemish Na ionalis s (Volksunie). On he o he hand, he PSC
is epu ed o be he s onges uni a is pa y, nos algic o he "Belgique à papa", he
heyday o he uni a y F ancophone bou geois s a e. I a o s a " édé alisme d'union",
o a a he minimal in e p e a ion o ede alism. Recen ly, unde he p esidence o
Dep ez, he ede alis s ha e gained g ound in he PSC, and o he momen , he old
g ade o uni a is s seems o ha e los p edominance.
D. The impac o he CVP and he PSC on go e nmen policy
P. De G auwe, a neo-libe al economis conce ned wi h he eno mous
inc ease in he ole o he Belgian s a e in he economy, ound ha he poli ical
composi ion o he go e nmen al majo i y has li le i any impac on he a es o
inc ease in go e nmen al spending in he 1960-1983 pe iod. He dis inguishes
be ween cen e-le (Ch is ian Democ a s and Socialis s) and cen e- igh
go e nmen s (Ch is ian Democ a s and Libe als). In he pe iod unde conside a ion,
g ow h o go e nmen al spending is-à- is he GNP is highe unde cen e- igh
go e nmen s (3.4%) han unde cen e-le coali ions (2.5%).
In a second analyses, he au ho looked a " unc ional" expenses ( o he
1960-1982 pe iod), and came o some ema kable indings, especially as a as he
ideology-sensi i e ca ego ies a e conce ned. Fo ins ance, de ense spending
dec eases mo e unde a cen e- igh go e nmen han unde a cen e-le . Also
ca ego ies wi h a "social" cha ac e such as social secu i y, public heal h and public
housing inc ease less as unde a cen e-le go e nmen han unde a cen e- igh

one.
The au ho also analysed he "poli ical economy" o ax bu dens in Belgium.
In he 1960-1983 pe iod, he o e all ax bu den inc eased by 2.6% pe yea . Unde
cen e- igh go e nmen s, he a e age annual inc ease amoun ed o 13.3%, and
unde cen e-le i was only 2.2%. In addi ion, de ici spending seems o be mo e a
habi o cen e- igh go e nmen s han o cen e-le .
De G auwe concludes ha " he e olu ion o he o al go e nmen al expenses
and i s composi ion nea ly ne e e lec s he ideological p e e ences o he
consecu i e go e nmen s" and ha "in some pa ial domaines o go e nmen al
inances plays a pe e se e ec ". The au ho explains hese phenomena by using he
hypo hesis o he median o e . Go e nmen s ha wan o s ay on ha e an in e es in
di ec ing hei ac ions owa ds he p o ile o he o e who is si ua ed in he middle o
he poli ical spec um. In o de o co e he mid ield, go e nmen s will some imes
e en end o "o e shoo ". Fo ins ance, cen e- igh go e nmen s will end o mo e
e en o he le o he cen e, in o de o compe e wi h he le opposi ion. They will be
accused by he le opposi ion (and he le o he cen e- igh coali ion) o a ou ing
he ich and neglec ing he poo . In o de o sa is y he le wi hin he majo i y and he
le o he cen e o e s, a cen e igh go e nmen will adop a numbe o policies
ad oca ed by he le opposi ion. And ice e sa o a cen e-le go e nmen . In
coali ion go e nmen , he pa y mos likely o "o e shoo ", is o cou se he pa y
closes o he cen e, because i is pa icula ly he igh o le lank ha is h ea ened
by he opposi ion. The analysis o he e olu ion o he s uc u e o go e nmen
expendi u es in Belgium sugges s ha he CVP-PSO has been "o e shoo ing"
sys ema ically.
Ano he explana ion o he lack o policy a ia ion in e ms o go e nmen al
expendi u es s uc u es can be de i ed om he analysis o Klingemann and
Ho enbe g o he impac o he Ge man pa ies on go e nmen al expendi u es. They
ound ha he changes in he go e nmen al expendi u es s uc u e is much mo e
de e mined by he policy p e e ences exp essed in he FDP p og amme ( he smalles
coali ion pa ne ) han he p og ammes o he CDU o he SPD. The au ho s explain
his s ong FDP policy impac by e e ing o he pi o al powe o he FDP in he
coali ion. The hypo hesis s a ing ha in coali ion go e nmen he pi o al pa y
de e mines mo e he go e nmen al policy han he o he coali ion pa ies, could
explain he lack o a ia ion be ween cen e- igh and cen e-le go e nmen s in
Belgium. Fi s , he pi o al pa y in he Belgian pa y sys em, i.e. he CVP-PSC is he
pa y a he cen e o he poli ical uni e se (a leas on he socio-economic le - igh
dimension), and he e o e cen is policies will end o be dominan . In addi ion, he
pi o al-cen is pa y is also he la ges pa y in e ms o pa liamen a y s eng h. Bo h
ac o s, s eng h and pi o al posi ion, explain he e y cen is , s able and immobile
cha ac e o Belgian go e nmen al policies (in e ms o expendi u es).
Ano he ac o which s eng hens he impac o he CVP-PSC on go e nmen
policy is pa y pa onage. The Belgian ci il se ice is highly poli icised, in he sense
ha all uni e si y ained pe sonnel is p omo ed h ough pa y-poli ical pa onage.
The quo a o nominees o each coali ion pa y is negocia ed du ing he cabine
o ma ion alks. Hence, adminis a i e eli es a e composed o no hing bu pa y
ec ui s. Gi en he ac ha he CVP and he PSC ha e been pe manen ly in
go e nmen since 1958 and ha e been usually also he la ges coali ion pa y, hey
always managed o nomina e mo e ci il se an s han hei elec o al s eng h would
allow o (be ween 50 and 80% o he nomina ions). This pa onage a ou s a
Ch is ian Democ a ic policy "ou look" o he adminis a i e eli es, and hus adds o he
s abili y o he go e nmen al policy in spi e o changing coali ions ( his pe mamen
and p o ound "occupa ion o he s a e" allows he CVP and he PSC also o ope a e a
well oiled clien elis machine y, which is essen ial o e main enance and ec ui men
o pa y o e s (in a)).
IV. PROBLEMS OF CHRISTIAN DEMOCRACY IN BELGIUM
1. Ideological ambigui y and lack o cohe ence
Up un il he end o he 1950s, he con lic dimension be ween he Ca holics
and he non-Ca holic pa o he popula ion was e y salien , and mos clashes
be ween he wo g oups occu ed o e he issue o he inancing o Ca holic schools.
This dimension was a s ong ac o o he ideological and o ganisa ional cohesion o
he CVP-PSC. Howe e , in 1958 a pac ( he "Schoolpac ") was signed be ween he
leade s o he Ch is ian Democ a , he Socialis and he Libe al pa ies, which sol ed
in a sa is ac o y way he p oblem o he inancing o he schoolsys em. Thus he
s onges "cemen " o he Ch is ian-Democ a s ( he in e es s o he Ca holic pilla ),
aded away. Thus space was c ea ed o he o he wo impo an con lic dimensions
o become mo e impo an . In he six ies, he linguis ic p oblem became e y obe .
The ede alis pa ies in Flande s, Wallonia and B ussels b oke h ough elec o ally,
becoming a se ious h ea o he adi ional pa ies. This e en ually led o he spli o
he uni a y CVP-PSC in 1968 (which also made he Libe als and he Socialis s spli in
he 1970s), and his p oblem emained on he poli ical agenda since hen. Bu wi h
he economic c isis o he 1970s, also he economic le - igh opposi ion became
mo e salien . The Socialis s pleaded o a p og essi e on be ween Socialis s and
he wo ke s wings o he Ch is ian Democ a s, opening hei anks o Ca holics o he
le . The Libe als, who had opened hei anks o Ca holic conse a i es al eady in
he 1960s, became an in e es ing al e na i e o he igh wing o he pa y. Fo a
sho while, in he middle o he 1970s, he CVP and he PSC managed o cope wi h
his cen i ugal endencies, p ima ily due o p o essional pa y managemen o he
pa y by p esiden Ma ens, he eplacemen o he pos -Wa poli ical gene a ions by
a ela i ely young gene a ion, and he cha isma ic leade ship o P ime Minis e
Tindemans. Bu in 1981, he CVP and he PSC los a qua e o hei o e s, and hey
emained mo e o less on ha le el since hen. The CVP-PSC ha e hus a se ious
p oblem in de ining he speci ici y o hei ideological p og amme as being mo e han
a p agma ic comp omise be ween he posi ions o he pa ies a i s igh and i s le .
In addi ion, in he 1980s he Ecologis s became an impo an h ea o he pa y's
elec o al s eng h as well. A he Eu opean Elec ions o 1989, he G eens sco ed o e
12% in Flande s and o e 16% in Wallonia, mos o es coming om o me Ch is ian
Democ a ic o e s ( o ing in en ions o he pa liamen a y elec ions e eals a
elec o al s eng h o abou 10% o he G eens).
2. The g owing impac o ac ions in he pa y o ganisa ion
The g owing impac o ac ions in he pa y o ganisa ion dec eases he
lexibili y o he pa y as an o ganisa ion, and he necessi y o ind comp omises
be ween he ac ions ou side he o mal pa y s uc u es. This educes he o icial
pa y o gans o some hing like "phan om" decision-making bodies, who o icially
endo se decisions aken ou side he o mal pa y s uc u es. This jeopa dizes he
democ a ic ope a ion o he pa y, and discou ages pa icipa ion o he pa y mili an s.
I some imes leads o discon en o he ank-and- ile exp essed a pa y cong esses
o mo e equen ly o e ol s amongs he backbenche s in pa liamen . These e ol s
make i di icul o minis e s and pa y leade s o ully espec he ag eemen s made
wi h coali ion pa ies a he momen o he c ea ion o a go e nmen . This leads o
ne ousness and dis us by he o he pa ies and in he end o cabine ins abili y.
"Wha does he CVP wan ?" is a ques ion ha occupies s a egis s o he coali ion
pa ies pe manen ly. They ha bou a cons an ea ha he CVP will "pull a ick on
hem", making he go e nmen all o e on a issue ha a ou s he Ch is ian
Democ a s, and hen call o a gene al elec ion. Belgian go e nmen s usually all
because one (o mo e) ac ion (s) o he Ch is ian Democ a s wi hd ew i s suppo o
he cabine (and usually calls o a change in coali ion).
3. Leade ship compe i ion and ac ionalism
Being a ac ionalised pa y, s ong leade ship wi hin he CVP and he PSC is
di icul o a i e a . The eme gence o a s ong leade would jeopa dize he powe o
he ac ions. E e y ac ion ies o boos he popula i y and powe o i s us ees in
go e nmen and in he pa y leade ship, and play down he quali ies o he leade s o
he o he ac ions.
The p ime minis e can no ully play he ole o a s ong leade . Fi s , he is
no always he mos impo an leade o his pa y, bu o en he esul o a
comp omise (be ween he ac ions, o because he is mo e accep able o he coali ion
pa ne s). He usually does no ha e enough powe o ha e he policy o his coali ion
cabine ully accep ed by all he ac ions o his pa y as he bes policy al e na i e.
Finally, usually he pa y p esiden is o becomes a i ual challenge o his posi ion
as he eal leade o he pa y, and e en a po en ial successo o his posi ion as
p ime minis e . So, in p ac ice, he CVP and he PSC, which in he pos -Wa pe iod
nea ly always p o ided o he p ime minis e , ha e consumed many p ime minis e s.
Many p ime minis e s ha e been disa owed by hei own pa y. Some we e pu in a
"qua an aine" o a while (G. Eyskens, VDB, Ma ens) and we e allowed o make a
come-back a e a couple o yea s. Gas on Eyskens was o ins ance p ime minis e
in 1949-1950, 1958-1961 and 1968-1973, and in be ween hese pe iods he was "sen
in o he dese ".
4. The dec easing elec o al s eng h o CVP-PSC
The analysis o he socio-demog aphic and poli ical cha ac e is ics o he
Ch is ian Democ a ic elec o a e e eals some impo an s uc u al weaknesses,
which migh ein o ce he al eady conside able elec o al decline o he pa ies ( he
CVP-PSC ep esen ed 48% o he na ional elec o a e in 1950, and by now (1987) i
has allen back o 27%).
The CVP and he PSC ha e g owing di icul ies o a ac young o e s: in he
age ca ego y o 15-25 he CVP and he PSC only a ac wo hi ds o i s o e all
sha e o he elec o a e, while in he age g oup o +55, he CVP is o e ep esen ed by
21.3% and he PSC 59%. Thus he elec o a e o he CVP and he PSC is g owing
old, and e en ually will die ou , while he ec ui men o new o e s is insu icien o
compensa e he na u al disappea ance o he old o e s.
As a as he socio-economic composi ion is conce ned, he CVP and he
PSC a e o e ep esen ed amongs he non-ac i e (housewi es, pensione s). The
CVP is in gene al no mally ep esen ed amongs all p o essional ca ego ies, which
illus a es he in e class cha ac e o he pa y. Howe e , he PSC is s ongly
unde ep esen ed amongs wo ke s, and sligh ly o e ep esen ed amongs he
employees and he highe cad es.
The CVP and he PSC a e o e ep esen ed amongs hose wi h he lowes
educa ional backg ounds, while he PSC is also o e ep esen ed amongs hose wi h
uni e si y aining.
Finally, wi h ega d o chu ch p ac ice, 44% o he CVP- o e s and 46% o
he PSC- o e s a end chu ch se ices weekly, agains 21.3% % o he o e all
popula ion. Only 16% o he CVP and 12% o he PSC o e s do no a end chu ch
se ices a all, agains 39% o he o e all popula ion. In spi e o he o icially
p oclaimed decon essional na u e o he pa y, he CVP and he PSC emain
p edominan ly a pa y o Ca holics, and up un il now, eligion is he s onges
s a is ical de e minan o p edic ing he Ch is ian Democ a ic o e.
When we look a he mo e di ec mo i a ions o o ing o he CVP and he
PSC, we ind ha o he CVP o e s ha cas a lis o e on he pa y, 59% decla e o
o e o he pa y ou o adi ion (PSC 55%). This is he highes sco e amongs he
adi ional Belgian pa ies. Only 27% (PSC 24%) say hey o e o he pa y because
o he policies i pu sues (agains an o e all a e age o 38%). In gene al, we no ice
ha he longe a pa y in Belgium has pa icipa ed in go e nmen , he less i 's
elec o a e o es o ha pa y because o he policies i pu sues. The explana ion is
simple. Belgian go e nmen s a e always coali ion go e nmen s, and e e y coali ion
pa y has o make comp omises. Thus he e is always a gap be ween wha he pa y
wan s, o p omises du ing i s elec o al campaign, and wha i ealises in he
go e nmen . This gap be ween eali y and wha is desi ed g ows he longe a pa y
pa icipa es in go e nmen . I becomes e y la ge in he case o a pa y like he CVP
and he PSC, who a e always in go e nmen . The Libe als and he Socialis s ha e
om ime o ime he occasion o ge an ideological " ace li " in he opposi ion. Thus,
wi hin he CVP, egula y some seconda y pa y leade s plead o an "opposi ion cu e"
in o de o easse he pa y's ideological speci ici y.
On he o he hand, he pe manen pa icipa ion in go e nmen also has
posi i e aspec s o a ac ing o e s. The demands o o e s o go e nmen jobs,
he accele a ion o he clea ance o a ci izen's dossie by he public adminis a ion (in
Belgium, all ypes o social ans e s, like o ins ance a pension, a e subjec o
poli ical in e en ions, e c.), can mo e easily be "a anged" by MPs o he CVP and
he PSC han he MPs o o he pa ies. Mo e han a qua e o he PSC and CVP
o e s who cas a p e e ence o e on a speci ic candida e ( o he legisla i e
elec ions), say o do his as a way o g a i ying he, candida e o he indi idual
se ices he has payed o he o e . A he local go e nmen le el, whe e he CVP is
e en mo e s ongly ep esen ed in he execu i e, clien elism as a de e minan o he
CVP o e is e en mo e s onge . Thus, an opposi ion cu e could cu bo h ways, i
could imp o e he pa y's ideological p o ile, bu also damage he elec o ally
bene icial clien elis ne wo ks.
Anyway, an opposi ion cu e would imply ha he Socialis and he Libe als
would o m a coali ion, which is e y unlikely in e ms o policy icini y. On he
socio-economic con lic dimension, i would mean a coali ion o he Le and he
Righ , agains he Cen e. Such a coali ion is e y unlikely as long as he
socio-economic con lic dimension emains salien . Thus, he CVP-PSC is mo e o
less doomed o emain he pi o al pa y o e e , wi h all i s elec o ally nega i e

consequences.
5. The monopoly o he poli ical ep esen a ion o he Ca holic pilla o ganisa ions by
he CVP and he PSC
The dec easing elec o al a ac ion o CVP-PSC owa ds o e s o he
Ca holic pilla in spi e o he s eng h o Ca holic pilla o ganisa ions poses he
p oblem o he monopoly o he poli ical ep esen a ion o hese Ca holic in e es
g oups by he CVP-PSC. In spi e o he dec easing chu ch p ac ice and a gene al
secula isa ion o socie y a e Va icanum II, he Ca holic pilla o ganisa ions ha e los
li le s eng h, in e ms o membe ship and iabili y.
On he con a y. As a as ade unionism is conce ned, Belgium has one o
he highes deg ees o syndicalisa ion in he wo ld. Abou 80% o he wo ke s and
employees a e membe o a ade union. The s onges ade union o ganisa ion in
e ms o membe ship and o es in social elec ions is he Ch is ian Democ a ic ade
union (ACVCSC), wi h 51% o all ade union membe s (agains 41% o he Socialis
ade union). A he social elec ions, hey sco e abou he same pe cen ages.
Second, he Ch is ian heal h mu ual insu ance o ganisa ions ("mu uali és")
ep esen nea ly hal (44% in 1977) o all ci izens which all unde his sys em
(agains only a li le o e a qua e o he Socialis "mu uali és").
Thi d, in he socio-medical sec o , mo e han hal (52%) o he gene al
hospi als (and 74% o he psychia ic hospi als) a e associa ed wi h Ca i as
Ca holica, he Ca holic associa ion o socio-medical o ganisa ions.
Ca holic o ganisa ions also ha e a p edominan (and usually majo i a ian),
posi ion in he sec o s o e ea houses o he aged, he disabled, homes o ju enile
eadap a ion, amily consul ancy cen es, home medical ca e, amily and aged ca e,
sociocul u al o ganisa ions (like adul educa ion), you h o ganisa ions, e c.
In he poli ically sensi i e sec o o educa ion, we ind ha in Flande s, 70%
o he school and uni e si y going popula ion goes o Ca holic ins i u ions. In Wallonia
i is 50%.
Mos Ca holic pilla o ganisa ion managed o keep up hei o ganisa ional
s eng h and membe ship in spi e o he dec easing chu ch pa icipa ion and
decon essionalisa ion o he public a la ge, by s engh ening he se ice cha ac e o
hei o ganisa ions and by somewha decon essionalising hei ac i i ies a he g ass
oo s le el. On he o he hand, he pe sonal li e s yle o hose wo king in hese
o ganisa ions ( eache s, medical pe sonnel, socio-cul u al wo ke s, e c.) s ill ha e o
con o m o Ca holic mo al alues. Thus unma ied mo he s, di o ced, unma ied
couples, and in many cases pe sons openly ac i e in o he poli ical pa ies a e no
ole a ed as pe sonnel.
In addi ion, mos Flemish newspape s sympa hise wi h he CVP. They co e
abou 70% o he newspape ma ke ( he Libe al newspape co e abou a qua e o
he ma ke , and he Socialis only 4% (1987)), in Wallonia only 30% o he
newspape s a e o Ca holic endency (bu abou 40% p oclaim hemsel es o be
neu al in pa y poli ical e ms). Thus on he na ional le el, Ca holic pape s co e
54% o he eade s ma ke , while he CVP-PSC elec o al s eng h only amoun s o
hal o ha p opo ion (27.5%).
Finally, e en when by now only a i h o he popula ion a ends weekly
chu ch se ices, he Belgian popula ion emains qui e eligious. Mo e han ou ou o
i e say ha hey eel mos closely a ac ed by he Ca holic (o Ch is ian) eligion,
mo e han hal ind ha eligion akes an impo an place in hei li e (1987), 79% o
he child en a e bap ised, 69% o he ma iages a e also concluded in chu ch, and
82% o he deceased a e bu ied a e a eligious ce emony.
Thus, in compa ison o he s eng h and iabili y o he Ca holic pilla , he
CVP-PSC pe o m badly and a e conside ed as he "weakes " sec o o he Ca holic
pilla . In he long un, his migh ques ion he ole o he CVP and he PSC as he sole
poli ical ep esen a i e o hese o ganisa ions. As al eady men ioned, he
F ancophone wo ke s o ganisa ion MOC has al eady adop ed a sys em o plu alism
in e ms o poli ical ep esen a ion, ecognizing also some poli icians o he Walloon
and B ussels egionalis s as de ende s o hei in e es . Wi hin he Flemish Libe als,
some leade s would like o wi hd aw he pa y's exclusi e suppo o public schools
and de end he in e es s o he Ca holic schools as well. The Flemish Na ionalis s,
who la gely d aw hei o e om he Ca holic popula ion, a e no hos ile owa ds he
in e es s o (some) Ca holic pilla o ganisa ion. Thus in he long un, i he CVP-PSC
o e and poli ical powe con inues o decline, some Ca holic o ganisa ions migh s a
o adop ed a sys em o plu alis ic poli ical ep esen a ion. This plu alism would o
cou se lowe he elec o al suppo o he Ca holic popula ion o he CVP-PSC e en
mo e.
6. The u u e o he PSC-CVP in e ga y ela ions
The pe manen go e nmen al pa icipa ion o he PSC is mo e a esul o he
pi o al powe o he CVP as he s onges pa y in Flande s, han o i s own s eng h.
In Wallonia, he PSC is only he second o e en hi d pa y (wi h only 22% o he
o e). This a he com o able link wi h he CVP has also many disad an ages. In
Wallonia, he e is an inc easing eeling ha he na ional s a e is being colonised by
he Flemish especially by he CVP. One speaks o "l'é a Belgo-Flamand" and he
"CVP-s a e". The link wi h he CVP makes he PSC a complice o his "é a
Belgo-Flamand" in he eyes o many F ancophone o e s. Thus, he PSC has ied o
p o ile i sel as a pa y ha de ends he in e es s o he F ancophone popula ion as
much as he o he F ancophone pa ies, which o cou se inc ease he ensions
be ween he PSC and he CVP. In addi ion, as al eady men ioned, he coali ion
p e e ences o he CVP and he PSC do no always coincide. In 1987, he PSC pa y
p esiden o ced he b eakdown o he Ma ens VII go e nmen and made he CVP
"swallow" a coali ion wi h he Socialis s, agains he will o he CVP pa y leade ship
and ank-and- ile (who s ongly opposed a coali ion wi h he Flemish Socialis s). Thus
wi hin he CVP, he possibili y o an "asyme ical" coali ion ( o ins ance CVP +
Flemish and F ancophone Libe als + Walloon Socialis s, and hus wi hou he PSC),
s a s o ind mo e and mo e suppo e s. This would se iously damage he PSC, who
p o i ed s ongly om i s pe manen go e nmen pa icipa ion in e ms o cabine
sea s and policy in luence in he na ional and egional go e nmen s, pa onage, e c.
Thus he PSC has o balance be ween a speci ic ideological iden i y which would
op imalise he pa y's elec o al a ac ion, and becoming unaccep able as a coali ion
pa ne in he eyes o he CVP.