sustainability

Article
Bridging the Gaps for a ‘Circular ’ Bioeconomy:
Selection Criteria, Bio-Based V alue Chain and
Stakeholder Mapping
Kadambari Lokesh 1 , *, Luana Ladu 2 and Louise Summerton 1
1 Green Chemistry Centr e of Excellence, University of Y ork, Y ork YO10 5DD, UK;
[email protected]
2 Faculty of Economics and Management, T echnische Universität Berlin, Sekr . MAR 2-5, Marchstr aße 23,
10587 Berlin, Germany; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]
Received: 20 April 2018; Accepted: 14 May 2018; Published: 23 May 2018
     
  

Abstract:
Bio-pr oducts and bio-based value chains have been identified as one of the most promising
pathways to attaining a resour ce-ef ficient circular economy . Such a “valorization and value-addition”
appr oach incorporates an intricate network of processes and actors, contributing to socio-economic
gr owth, environmental benefits and technological advances. In the present age of limited time and
funding models to achieve ambitious sustainable development tar gets, whilst mitigating climate
change, a systematic appr oach employing two-tier multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) can be
useful in supporting the identification of pr omising bio-based value chains, that are significant to the
EU plans for the bio-economy . Their identification is followed by an elaborate mapping of their value
chains to visualize/for esee the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and challenges attributable to
those bio-based value chains. T o demonstrate this methodology , a systematic review of 12 bio-based
value chains, pr evalent in the EU, sourcing their starting material fr om biomass and bio-waste, has
been undertaken. The selected value chains are mapped to visualize the linkages and interactions
between the dif ferent stages, chain actors, employed conversion routes, product application and
existing/potential end-of-life options. This approach will help chain-actors, particularly investors and
policy-makers, understand the complexities of such multi-actor systems and make informed decisions.
Keywords:
value chain; multi-criteria decision analysis; cir cular economy; value
chain-mapping; bioeconomy
1. Introduction
Escalating envir onmental and economic pressur e to use our resour ces responsibly and add value
to the used material/pr oducts in the commercial spher e has helped the development of technology
r outes and material circularity in nearly every global sector . Accor ding to the EU Circular Economy
Strategy , the aim of such systems thinking is to “close the loop by becoming resour ce ef ficient through
development and establishment of industrial symbiosis, to r educe the pressur e on EU’s natural
capital” [ 1 ].
The appr oach to attaining/creating a cir cular economy is cascading of material, which may
be vir gin raw materials, by-products or wastes r esulting fr om any given sector . The concept of
cascading and its significance to the establishment and gr owth of a resour ce/energy ef ficient, green and
low-carbon economy has been a r ecurring theme in EU policies since 2012, particularly in the EU Forest
Strategy , EU Bioeconomy Strategy and EU Circular Economy package [
2
]. T o understand the state of
our transition, transparency on the EU-level biomass potential is essential. Bioeconomy , according
to the Eur opean Commission, is a part of the economy that utilises bio-based renewable r esources
Sustainability 2018 , 10 , 1695; doi:10.3390/su10061695 www .mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2018 , 10 , 1695 2 of 24
sour ced both from land and sea, pr ocessed to produce materials and ener gy for consumption [
3
].
A fully-functional bioeconomy is one of the many pathways that have been identified to attaining
a cir cular economy , both at micr o-level (local rural development) and macr o-level (nation-wide) [
4
].
The principles of both cir cular economy and bioeconomy are in syner gy , in terms of the ultimate goal
of attaining a sustainable technological and socio-economic development by decoupling economic
gr owth from r esource exhaustion and subsequent envir onmental degradation [
5
]. The two economies
shar e a growing overlap, however , there is curr ently a need to push cir cularity down to the consumer
level, which is where the lar gest share of waste is found with no end-of-life valorisation. This has
been stated as one of the biggest challenges of the bioeconomy . However it is acknowledged that
some sectors of the bioeconomy cannot satisfy the principles of cir cular economy (e.g., bioenergy and
biofuel) because they ar e considered a dead end r oute for biomass [
6
]. In terms of current tar gets for
sustainable gr owth, bioeconomy , in combination with circular economy , has the potential to dir ectly
contribute to 11 out of the 17 UN’s Sustainability Development Goals (SDGs) (Figure 1 ). The direct
contribution of cir cular and bio-based economy to sustainable consumption and production (SDG 12),
r educing our pressur e on the environment, air , water and land (SDG 13, 14, 15) is the ultimate aim of
the concept. By working in partnership with rural communities and local bio-based infrastr ucture [
7
,
8
]
(SDG17), utilising the rural knowledge pool, alleviation of poverty (SDG 1 and 2), for ging skills among
communities (SDG 4) to take an interest in guar ding the local ecosystem services encourages the
development of sustainable communities (SDG11), in addition to creating jobs and socio-economic
opportunities (SDG 8). Use of bioenergy , devising smart strategies and value-chain pathways to lock
the chain’s GHG emissions, either via carbon capture or soil incorporation of high quality biochar ,
have been identified as potential means of achieving the ambitious Paris climate tar get [ 9 ].
S u s ta i n a b i l i ty 2018 , 1 0 , x F O R P E E R R E V I E W 2 of 2 4
t h e E u r o p e a n C o m m i s s i o n , i s a p a r t o f t h e e c o n o m y t h at u t i l i s e s b i o - b as e d r e n e w ab l e r e s o u r c e s
s o u r c e d b o t h fr o m l a n d a n d s e a , p r o c e s s e d t o p r o d u c e m a t e r i al s a n d e n e r g y fo r c o n s u m p t i o n [3] . A
fu l l y - fu n c t i o n al b i o e c o n o m y i s o n e o f t h e m a n y p at h w a y s t h a t h a v e b e e n i d e n t i fi e d t o a t t ai n i n g a
c i r c u l a r e c o n o m y , b o t h at m i c r o - l e v e l (l o c al r u r al d e v e l o p m e n t ) a n d m a c r o - l e v e l ( n a t i o n - w i d e ) [4] .
T h e p r i n c i p l e s o f b o t h c i r c u l a r e c o n o m y an d b i o e c o n o m y ar e i n s y n e r g y , i n t e r m s o f t h e u l t i m a t e g o al
o f a t t ai n i n g a s u s t ai n a b l e t e c h n o l o g i c al an d s o c i o - e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t b y d e c o u p l i n g e c o n o m i c
g r o w t h f r o m r e s o u r c e e x h au s t i o n a n d s u b s e q u e n t e n v i r o n m e n t al d e g r ad a t i o n [5] . T h e t w o e c o n o m i e s
s h a r e a g r o w i n g o v e r l a p , h o w e v e r , t h e r e i s c u r r e n t l y a n e e d t o p u s h c i r c u l ar i t y d o w n t o t h e c o n s u m e r
l e v e l , w h i c h i s w h e r e t h e l a r g e s t s h a r e o f w as t e i s fo u n d w i t h n o e n d - o f - l i fe v al o r i s a t i o n . T h i s h a s
b e e n s t a t e d as o n e o f t h e b i g g e s t c h al l e n g e s o f t h e b i o e c o n o m y . H o w e v e r i t i s a c k n o w l e d g e d t h a t
s o m e s e c t o r s o f t h e b i o e c o n o m y c an n o t s a t i s fy t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f c i r c u l ar e c o n o m y (e . g . , b i o e n e r g y an d
b i o fu e l ) b e c au s e t h e y ar e c o n s i d e r e d a d e a d e n d r o u t e f o r b i o m as s [6] . I n t e r m s o f c u r r e n t t a r g e t s fo r
s u s t ai n a b l e g r o w t h , b i o e c o n o m y , i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h c i r c u l ar e c o n o m y , h as t h e p o t e n t i a l t o d i r e c t l y
c o n t r i b u t e t o 11 o u t o f t h e 17 U N ’ s S u s t ai n a b i l i t y D e v e l o p m e n t G o al s (S D Gs ) (F i g u r e 1 ). T h e d i r e c t
c o n t r i b u t i o n o f c i r c u l ar a n d b i o - b a s e d e c o n o m y t o s u s t ai n a b l e c o n s u m p t i o n a n d p r o d u c t i o n (S D G
12), r e d u c i n g o u r p r e s s u r e o n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , ai r , w at e r an d l a n d (S D G 13, 14 , 15) i s t h e u l t i m a t e
ai m o f t h e c o n c e p t . B y w o r k i n g i n p ar t n e r s h i p w i t h r u r al c o m m u n i t i e s an d l o c al b i o - b a s e d
i n fr a s t r u c t u r e [7 , 8] (S D G17) , u t i l i s i n g t h e r u r al k n o w l e d g e p o o l , al l e v i at i o n o f p o v e r t y (S D G 1 a n d 2 ),
fo r g i n g s k i l l s a m o n g c o m m u n i t i e s ( S D G 4) t o t ak e a n i n t e r e s t i n g u a r d i n g t h e l o c al e c o s y s t e m s e r v i c e s
e n c o u r ag e s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f s u s t ai n a b l e c o m m u n i t i e s (S D G11 ), i n a d d i t i o n t o c r e a t i n g j o b s a n d
s o c i o - e c o n o m i c o p p o r t u n i t i e s (S D G 8) . U s e o f b i o e n e r g y , d e v i s i n g s m ar t s t r at e g i e s a n d v al u e - c h ai n
p a t h w ay s t o l o c k t h e c h ai n ’ s GH G e m i s s i o n s , e i t h e r v i a c a r b o n c a p t u r e o r s o i l i n c o r p o r at i o n o f h i g h
q u al i t y b i o c h ar , h av e b e e n i d e n t i fi e d as p o t e n t i al m e a n s o f a c h i e v i n g t h e a m b i t i o u s P ar i s c l i m a t e
t ar g e t [9] .

F i g u r e 1 . P o t e n t i al f o r c i rc u l ar b i o - b as e d v al u e c h ai n t o c o n t ri bu t e t o ac h i e v i n g U N ’ s S D G s an d t h e
p o t e n t i al o f v al u e c h ai n m ap p i n g an d an al y s i s i n q u a n t i f y i n g t h e s e g o al s .
H av i n g c o m p r e h e n d e d t h e s y n e r g i e s b e t w e e n a c i r c u l ar e c o n o m y an d a b i o e c o n o m y a n d i t s
p o t e n t i al f o r c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e g l o b al s u s t ai n a b i l i t y t ar g e t s fr o m a n u m b e r o f e a r l i e r s t u d i e s [ 5, 1 0] ,
i t i s c r u c i al t o u n d e r s t a n d w h e r e w e s t a n d t o t ak e a p p r o p r i a t e an d s m ar t e r “ n e x t s t e p s ”. P r i o r t o
e x p l o r i n g t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s t h at b i o e c o n o m y c o u l d o ffe r , t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f i t b e i n g s u c c e s s fu l l y
e s t a b l i s h e d m u s t al s o b e s y s t e m at i c al l y i n v e s t i g at e d .
A m e t h o d i c al a p p r o a c h fo r t h e s e l e c t i o n an d m a p p i n g o f t h e m o s t p r o m i s i n g c i r c u l ar b i o - b as e d
v al u e c h ai n i s p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s p a p e r . T h e p u r p o s e o f t h e m e t h o d o l o g y e x p r e s s e d i n t h i s p a p e r i s t o

Figure 1.
Potential for circular bio-based value chain to contribute to achieving UN’s SDGs and the
potential of value chain mapping and analysis in quantifying these goals.
Having compr ehended the synergies between a cir cular economy and a bioeconomy and its
potential for contributing to the global sustainability tar gets from a number of earlier studies [
5
,
10
], it is
crucial to understand wher e we stand to take appropriate and smarter “next steps”. Prior to exploring
the opportunities that bioeconomy could offer , the probability of it being successfully established must
also be systematically investigated.

Sustainability 2018 , 10 , 1695 3 of 24
A methodical appr oach for the selection and mapping of the most promising cir cular bio-based
value chain is pr esented in this paper . The purpose of the methodology expressed in this paper is
to encourage innovative thought pr ocesses, within the chain-actors and other external stakeholders,
on how to identify and focus precious r esour ces and efforts in the development of multi-functional
value chains and business models using a set of selection criteria, and to be able to foresee the
complexities and performance needs of the value chain, ther eby minimising risks and shocks to the
conceptual pr ocess system. This approach is clearly missing, not only within the bio-based sector but
also within industrial sectors that are gearing-up towar ds a transition to circularising their supply
chains. The suggested methodology can, ther efore, be adopted for application within non-bio-based
value/supply chains as well. T o demonstrate this methodology , some exemplary bio-based value
chains have been selected fr om a pool of bio-based value chains that are pr evalent in the EU. This study
employs a two-tier multi-criteria decision analysis to identify these most pr omising value chains.
1.1. Backgr ound
A value-chain is defined as a set of interlinked activities that deliver products/services by adding
value to bulk material (feedstock). In a bio-based value chain, the feedstocks tend to be biomass drawn
fr om an existing primary production r oute (e.g., agriculture, for estry and livestock), or of a novel (e.g.,
micr oalgae) or secondary origin (e.g., sludge, industrial wastewater and household organic waste).
A generalised schematic for an ideally cir cular bio-based value chain has been presented in Figur e 2 .
S u s ta i n a b i l i ty 2018 , 1 0 , x F O R P E E R R E V I E W 3 of 2 4
e n c o u r ag e i n n o v a t i v e t h o u g h t p r o c e s s e s , w i t h i n t h e c h ai n - a c t o r s a n d o t h e r e x t e r n al s t ak e h o l d e r s , o n
h o w t o i d e n t i fy a n d fo c u s p r e c i o u s r e s o u r c e s a n d e ffo r t s i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f m u l t i - fu n c t i o n al v al u e
c h ai n s a n d b u s i n e s s m o d e l s u s i n g a s e t o f s e l e c t i o n c r i t e r i a, an d t o b e a b l e t o fo r e s e e t h e c o m p l e x i t i e s
an d p e r fo r m a n c e n e e d s o f t h e v al u e c h ai n , t h e r e b y m i n i m i s i n g r i s k s a n d s h o c k s t o t h e c o n c e p t u al
p r o c e s s s y s t e m . T h i s a p p r o a c h i s c l e a r l y m i s s i n g , n o t o n l y w i t h i n t h e b i o - b a s e d s e c t o r b u t al s o w i t h i n
i n d u s t r i al s e c t o r s t h a t a r e g e ar i n g - u p t o w ar d s a t r a n s i t i o n t o c i r c u l a r i s i n g t h e i r s u p p l y c h ai n s . T h e
s u g g e s t e d m e t h o d o l o g y c a n , t h e r e fo r e , b e a d o p t e d fo r a p p l i c at i o n w i t h i n n o n - b i o - b as e d
v al u e / s u p p l y c h ai n s a s w e l l . T o d e m o n s t r a t e t h i s m e t h o d o l o g y , s o m e e x e m p l ar y b i o - b as e d v al u e
c h ai n s h av e b e e n s e l e c t e d f r o m a p o o l o f b i o - b a s e d v a l u e c h ai n s t h at a r e p r e v al e n t i n t h e E U . T h i s
s t u d y e m p l o y s a t w o - t i e r m u l t i - c r i t e r i a d e c i s i o n a n al y s i s t o i d e n t i fy t h e s e m o s t p r o m i s i n g v al u e
c h ai n s .
1 . 1 . B a c k gr o u n d
A v al u e - c h ai n i s d e fi n e d as a s e t o f i n t e r l i n k e d a c t i v i t i e s t h a t d e l i v e r p r o d u c t s / s e r v i c e s b y ad d i n g
v al u e t o b u l k m at e r i al (fe e d s t o c k ). I n a b i o - b a s e d v al u e c h ai n , t h e fe e d s t o c k s t e n d t o b e b i o m a s s
d r aw n f r o m a n e x i s t i n g p r i m ar y p r o d u c t i o n r o u t e (e . g . , ag r i c u l t u r e , fo r e s t r y a n d l i v e s t o c k ), o r o f a
n o v e l (e . g . , m i c r o al g ae ) o r s e c o n d ar y o r i g i n (e . g . , s l u d g e , i n d u s t r i al w as t e w at e r a n d h o u s e h o l d
o r g a n i c w as t e ). A g e n e r al i s e d s c h e m at i c f o r a n i d e al l y c i r c u l ar b i o - b as e d v al u e c h ai n h a s b e e n
p r e s e n t e d i n F i g u r e 2 .

F i g u r e 2 . A g e n e ral i s e d m a p o f a b i o - b as e d v al u e c h ai n .
V al u e c h ai n s , i n p a r t i c u l a r t h o s e t h at v al o r i s e s e c o n d ar y r e s o u r c e s a r e d e s i g n e d t o t u r n av ai l ab l e
o r g a n i c m at e r i al i n t o d i ffe r e n t v al u a b l e p r o d u c t , r a n g i n g f r o m h i g h - v al u e c h e m i c al s t o s e c o n d a r y -
u s e b y - p r o d u c t s a n d r e n e w ab l e e n e r g y [11] . P at h w ay s t h a t a r e c a p a b l e o f t r an s fo r m i n g
w as t e / s e c o n d ar y fe e d s t o c k i n t o a n ar r ay o f h i g h v al u e p r o d u c t s a r e c al l e d i n t e g r a t e d b i o r e fi n e r i e s
[12]. I n t e g r a t e d b i o r e fi n e r i e s c o n t ai n a “ p r e - t r e a t m e n t p l a n t ” t h a t p r e p ar e s t h e fe e d s t o c k fo r
u p c o m i n g t r an s fo r m a t i o n a n d r e fi n i n g t e c h n o l o g i e s w i t h i n t h e s u p p l y c h ai n s , b e fo r e p a c k ag i n g an d
d i s t r i b u t i o n .
T h e fi r s t s t ag e o f a c o m p l e x b i o - b as e d v al u e c h ai n i s b i o m a s s a v ai l a b i l i t y . B r o s o w s k i e t al . , (2 016 )
d e fi n e t h e q u an t i t y o f b i o m as s , g e n e r at e d b y a c o n fi n e d ar e a o f l a n d ( c o u n t r y ) t h a t i s c u r r e n t l y u s e d
o r h as t h e p o t e n t i al t o b e u s e d as t h e “ b i o m as s p o t e n t i al ” [1 3] . B i o m a s s p o t e n t i al m ay b e m e as u r e d
fr o m a n u m b e r o f r e l e v an t s u s t ai n a b i l i t y - b as e d a n g l e s : t h e o r e t i c al , e n v i r o n m e n t al , e c o n o m i c a n d
s u s t ai n a b l e . T h e o r e t i c al p o t e n t i al p r o v i d e s a n e s t i m at i o n o f p o t e n t i al b i o m as s p r o d u c t i v i t y b a s e d o n
t h e p h y s i c al c h ar a c t e r i s t i c s o f al l av ai l a b l e a r a b l e l a n d . E n v i r o n m e n t al an d e c o n o m i c b i o m as s

Figure 2. Figure 2. A generalised map of a bio-based value chain.
V alue chains, in particular those that valorise secondary resour ces are designed to turn available
or ganic material into differ ent valuable product, ranging fr om high-value chemicals to secondary-use
by-pr oducts and renewable ener gy [
11
]. Pathways that ar e capable of transforming waste/secondary
feedstock into an array of high value pr oducts are called integrated bior efineries [
12
]. Integrated
bior efineries contain a “pre-tr eatment plant” that prepar es the feedstock for upcoming transformation
and r efining technologies within the supply chains, before packaging and distribution.
The first stage of a complex bio-based value chain is biomass availability . Br osowski et al. (2016)
define the quantity of biomass, generated by a confined ar ea of land (country) that is currently used
or has the potential to be used as the “biomass potential” [
13
]. Biomass potential may be measured
fr om a number of relevant sustainability-based angles: theor etical, envir onmental, economic and
sustainable. Theoretical potential pr ovides an estimation of potential biomass productivity based on

Sustainability 2018 , 10 , 1695 4 of 24
the physical characteristics of all available arable land. Environmental and economic biomass potential,
based on the fraction of the theor etical biomass potential, gradually adds land exclusions such as
legally pr otected area, slopes, biodiversity richness and take into account the technical capability
of the pr e-existing biomass processing framework. Sustainability potential is the final filter that
takes the technical, economic and environmental r estrictions (and associated biomass capacities)
into account pr oviding the net estimated biomass production capacity for a given geographical
location [
14
]. Focusing on EU biomass supply , the agricultural and forestry feedstock within the EU
constitutes 1.13 billion tonnes of dry biomass [
15
]. Fr om a stakeholder perspective, which draws
data via engagement (interviews and survey questionnair e) with EU-based value chain actors, more
than 40% of renewable material is invested in non-conventional industrial applications in EU-28.
In such successful bio-based industries there ar e in-house developed frameworks for value-chain
actors to communicate and synchr onise their operations [
15
]. From the perspectives of bio-based
industries, according to a 2016 study undertaken by the Joint Resear ch Centre (JRC), Eur opean
Commission, EU-28 has been determined to be home to 133 bio-based industries, excluding the relevant
industrial r esearch and development (R&D) institutions [
16
]. Nevertheless, a survey undertaken by
the Bio-based Industries Consortium (BIC) and Nova Institute [
17
], r evealed 224 bio-based industries
with bior efineries processing dif ferent types of feedstock, mapped acr oss EU demonstrating a sharp
gr owth, as presented in Figur e 3 .
S u s t a i n a b i l i t y 2 0 1 8 , 1 0 , x F O R P E E R R E V I E W 4 o f 2 3
p o t e n t i a l , b a s e d o n t h e f r a c t i o n o f t h e t h e o r e t i c a l b i o m a s s p o t e n t i a l , g r ad u a l l y a d d s l a n d e x c l u s i o n s
s u c h a s l e g al l y p r o t e c t e d a r e a, s l o p e s , b i o d i v e r s i t y r i c h n e s s a n d t ak e i n t o ac c o u n t t h e t e c h n i c a l
c a p a b i l i t y o f t h e p r e - e x i s t i n g b i o m as s p r o c e s s i n g f r a m e w o r k . S u s t a i n a b i l i t y p o t e n t i a l i s t h e f i n a l f i l t e r
t h at t ak e s t h e t e c h n i c a l , e c o n o m i c a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l r e s t r i c t i o n s ( an d a s s o c i at e d b i o m as s c a p a c i t i e s )
i n t o ac c o u n t p r o v i d i n g t h e n e t e s t i m a t e d b i o m a s s p r o d u c t i o n c a p ac i t y f o r a g i v e n g e o g r ap h i c a l
l o c a t i o n [ 14 ] . F o c u s i n g o n E U b i o m a s s s u p p l y , t h e a g r i c u l t u r al a n d f o r e s t r y f e e d s t o c k w i t h i n t h e E U
c o n s t i t u t e s 1.1 3 b i l l i o n t o n n e s o f d r y b i o m a s s [ 1 5] . F r o m a s t a k e h o l d e r p e r s p e c t i v e , w h i c h d r aw s d a t a
v i a e n g a g e m e n t ( i n t e r v i e w s a n d s u r v e y q u e s t i o n n a i r e ) w i t h E U - b a s e d v a l u e c h a i n ac t o r s , m o r e t h a n
4 0% o f r e n e w a b l e m at e r i a l i s i n v e s t e d i n n o n - c o n v e n t i o n a l i n d u s t r i al a p p l i c a t i o n s i n E U - 2 8 . I n s u c h
s u c c e s s f u l b i o - b a s e d i n d u s t r i e s t h e r e a r e i n - h o u s e d e v e l o p e d f r am e w o r k s f o r v a l u e - c h a i n ac t o r s t o
c o m m u n i c a t e a n d s y n c h r o n i s e t h e i r o p e r at i o n s [ 1 5] . F r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e s o f b i o - b as e d i n d u s t r i e s ,
a c c o r d i n g t o a 2 01 6 s t u d y u n d e r t ak e n b y t h e J o i n t R e s e ar c h C e n t r e ( J R C ) , E u r o p e a n C o m m i s s i o n , E U -
2 8 h a s b e e n d e t e r m i n e d t o b e h o m e t o 13 3 b i o - b as e d i n d u s t r i e s , e x c l u d i n g t h e r e l e v an t i n d u s t r i al
r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t ( R & D ) i n s t i t u t i o n s [ 16] . N e v e r t h e l e s s , a s u r v e y u n d e r t ak e n b y t h e B i o -
b a s e d I n d u s t r i e s C o n s o r t i u m ( B I C ) an d N o v a I n s t i t u t e [ 1 7] , r e v e a l e d 2 24 b i o - b a s e d i n d u s t r i e s w i t h
b i o r e f i n e r i e s p r o c e s s i n g d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f f e e d s t o c k , m ap p e d a c r o s s E U d e m o n s t r at i n g a s h a r p
g r o w t h , as p r e s e n t e d i n F i g u r e 3.

F i g u r e 3. B i o r e f i n e r y m a p i n E u r o p e ( S o u r c e : [ 17 ] ) .
L o n g - t e r m , i n n o v a t i v e s y s t e m s t h i n k i n g w h i c h e n c o u r ag e s t h e e x p l o i t at i o n o f o r g an i c
w a s t e / r e s i d u e s f r o m a g r i c u l t u r e , an i m al h u s b a n d r y , d o m e s t i c , i n d u s t r i al an d c o m m e r c i al i n d u s t r i e s
a r e e x p l o i t e d , i s e s s e n t i al . S u c h s o l u t i o n s n o t o n l y h e l p g ai n ac c e s s t o an d e x p an d t h e i n n o v a t i o n
b o u n d a r i e s b u t a l s o e n a b l e a s y s t e m a t i c an d f e as i b l e t r an s i t i o n t o a b i o e c o n o m y . S u c h a t r a n s i t i o n h a s
b e e n i d e n t i f i e d t o b e n e f i t t h e e c o n o m y t h r o u g h t h e c r e a t i o n o f S M E s a n d s k i l l e d e m p l o y m e n t
o p p o r t u n i t i e s , i n a d d i t i o n t o r e a c h i n g E U ’ s c l i m a t e c h an g e m i t i g a t i o n t a r g e t s an d t o r e d u c e

Figure 3. Biorefinery map in Europe (Sour ce: [ 17 ]).
Long-term, innovative systems thinking which encourages the exploitation of or ganic
waste/r esidues from agricultur e, animal husbandry , domestic, industrial and commercial industries
ar e exploited, is essential. Such solutions not only help gain access to and expand the innovation
boundaries but also enable a systematic and feasible transition to a bioeconomy . Such a transition
has been identified to benefit the economy thr ough the creation of SMEs and skilled employment
opportunities, in addition to reaching EU’s climate change mitigation tar gets and to r educe dependence

Sustainability 2018 , 10 , 1695 5 of 24
on fossil-derived r esources [
18
]. W ith mounting pr essure fr om a number of factors including limited
time, finance, r esources and impending envir onmental targets, the suggested method helps envisage
the potential performance of any bio-based value chains. This is crucial to not only policy-makers,
but also to any decision-making stakeholder in the value chain, in terms of material, financial,
human r esource allocation and operation [
19
,
20
]. Fr om the socio-economic perspective, creation
of a multi-r egional/local value chain, networks, growth of SME’s and other employment opportunities,
development of waste-management infrastructur e (where lacking), local skill-for ging and knowledge
dissemination ar e some of the practical benefits of a fully-functional bio-based value chain [ 21 ].
Fr om a sectoral perspective, the EU biorefinery map (Figur e 3 ) repr esents the prevalence
of high numbers of oil and fat based biorefineries dedicated to the pr oduction of biofuel and
oleochemical pr oducts.
1.2. Bioeconomy Strategies Initiatives
The primary policy framework of the European bioeconomy is r epresented by the Eur opean
Bioeconomy Strategy and Action plan adopted by the EU in 2012 [
22
]. It provides policy framework
conditions for developing new technologies and pr ocesses for the production and commer cialization
of r enewable biological resour ces and their conversion into bio-based products. An ongoing
r evision of the bioeconomy strategy aims at establishing a more coher ent and holistic policy and
financial framework for the Eur opean bio-based economy , supporting access to sustainably pr oduced
biomass, fostering investments and further developing the commer cialization of bio-based products.
One important recommendation is to further develop the syner gies and complementarities between EU
policies and funding instruments with inter connected objectives with the bioeconomy . Among these
policies, an important r ole is played by the circular economy strategy and by other sectorial policies
that govern traditional sectors of the bioeconomy (e.g., the Common Agricultural Policy [CAP]).
However , from a value chain and bio-pr oduct perspective, a majority of current bioeconomy
strategies ar e dedicated to bioenergy and biofuel-based value chains, followed by food and beverage
chains. Prevalence of many such value chains may be attributed to the EU’s race towar ds renewable
ener gy consumption targets set in the Ener gy Strategy for 2030 [
23
]. However , a sur ge in integrated
bior efineries that synthesise bio-based products other than biofuels is evident fr om the most recent
r eport compiled and analysed from a stakeholder engagement appr oach undertaken by the Bio-based
Industrial Consortium (BIC) and Nova Institute [
17
]. The gr owth of biomass-cascading biorefineries is
also supplemented by the keenness of European bio-based industries to valorise or ganic-rich bio-waste
(mainly agricultural r esidue and sludge). Besides, seizing an opportunity to synthesise value-added
pr oducts from low-cost feedstock, an unhinder ed supply of starting material (one of the key barriers
to bio-pr oduct synthesis), is a promising start for a bio-based business model. According to a study
undertaken by Meyer -Kohlstock et al., (2015), the supply of biomass and waste for consumption
within other value chains was pr edominantly sourced fr om the agri-food and livestock sector [
24
].
Though bio-based value chains cr eate opportunities to circularise, some chain-level dynamics
influence the envir onmental, commercial and social practicability of the same by varying degr ees.
These dynamic factors include biomass supply logistics, feedstock costs (influenced by whether
the feedstock is primary or secondary), feedstock treatment r equir ements and ethical compliance
r equirements. Firstly , it is essential to identify a bio-based value chain with techno-economic potential,
and that is envir onmentally and socio-economically sensible. Secondly , when developing a bio-based
business model ar ound the identified value chain, it is imperative to anticipate the various interactions
among pr ocesses, stakeholders and related pr ocess-dynamics on the overall performance of the chain.
The aim of this paper is to pr ovide a two-fold methodology that helps identification of promising
bio-based value chains and to demonstrate how value chain mapping can help stakeholders visualise
the various interactions embedded in a value chain. Escalating environmental and economic pr essure
to use our r esources r esponsibly and add value to the used material/products in the commer cial spher e
has helped the development of technology r outes and material circularity , in nearly every global sector .

Sustainability 2018 , 10 , 1695 6 of 24
Accor ding to the EU Circular Economy Strategy , the aim of such systems thinking is to “close the loop
by becoming r esource ef ficient through development and establishment of industrial symbiosis, to
r educe the pressur e on EU’s natural capital” [ 1 ].
2. Methodology
2.1. V alue Chain Selection Criteria
Multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) is a valuable tool for decision making in complex process
systems using multiple parameters that influence the embedded processes within a value chain.
These parameters can be differ ently weighed as “significant factors” by the various chain-actors. Also,
incorporating this flexibility into the scope of this assessment, MCDA in decision making enables
a systematic investigation and transparency in analysis [
20
]. The goal of MCDA, in general, is to
pr ovide an opportunity to explore the knowledge and concerns put forwar d by the chain-actors,
weigh them fr om an unbiased viewpoint, systematically analyse, identify the most important criteria,
and subsequently , make decisions within a complex multi-actor process systems. This study employs
two-tier MCDA to rank bio-based value chains based on a set of selection criteria, highlighting
the significance of their adherence to the principles of cir cular economy . The outcomes of this
analysis highlight the importance of these selection criteria dedicated to highlighting the circularity
characteristics of any bio-based value-chain/business model. An elaborated mapping methodology to
understand the str engths, weaknesses, opportunities and challenges embedded in a bio-based value
chain, attributable to the synthesis of a variety of bio-products, also demonstrating the significance
of upstr eam processes and material use on the downstr eam activities (mainly post-consumption and
end-of-life management) has been pr esented as a part of this paper . Please see Figure 4 for a flow
diagram that elaborates the MCDA methodology employed in this study for value chain selection
and mapping.
A variety of bio-based value chains have been identified to be pr evalent in the EU and are
pr esented in T able 1 . This list of preliminary value chains was drawn fr om the literature r eview
earlier , focusing on bio-based value chains/pr oducts covered by EU certification schemes and
market demand [
25
]. The list comprises bio-based value chains with (but not limited to) diverse
characteristics covering:
• Fr om virgin food-based feedstock to bio-waste cascading;
• 100% bio-based to partially bio-based, value chains;
• Those with a fully-functional waste management infrastructur e to those that lack one;
• Diverse pr oduct functionality .
T able 1. List of EU-based value chains considered for selection, analysis and mapping exercise.
Sector V alue Chain
Chemicals Cellulose to bio solvents
Disposable food packaging Starch to bioplastic food packaging
Agriculture Starch to bio-based mulch films
Fabrication Starch to bioplastics for fabrication
Automotive V egetable fats to bio lubricants
Agriculture/waste management Solid biomass to fine chemicals
T extiles Cellulose to fabric
Food packaging Cellulose to plastic paper cups
Construction W aste biomass to insulation material
Construction
W aste biomass to wood-plastic composites
Agriculture Polysaccharides to crop health inducers
Animal husbandry Plant-based chemicals to fine chemicals

Sustainability 2018 , 10 , 1695 7 of 24
S u s ta i n a b i l i ty 2018 , 1 0 , x F O R P E E R R E V I E W 7 of 2 4

F i g u r e 4 . F l o w d i ag ram o f t h e m e t h o d o l o g y i n v o l v e d i n t h e t w o - t i e r m u l t i - c ri t e ri a d e c i s i o n an al y s i s an d m a p p i n g e x e rc i s e ad o p t e d f o r t h e s e l e c t i o n o f t h e m o s t
p ro m i s i n g b i o - b as e d v al u e c h ai n s , i n t h e c o n t e x t o f a c i r c u l ar e c o n o m y .

F ir s t ro u n d
a s s e s s m e n t
F e e d s toc k
v a ri a b i l ity
Ma t ri x d e ve lo p e d
( f o r
re co mme nda t i on
f or s e l e c t io n o f
v al u e ch a i n s )
S e l e ctio n o f
p r e l i m i n a ry list o f
v a l u e ch ai n s ( 1 2 )
I d e n t i fica t i o n o f
se l e c t i on c rit e ri a
R ev i e w o f l i t e ra t u re ,
cu rre n t s u s t .
a ss e s sme nt sc he me s
a n d ce rt ific a t i o n
in it i ati ve s
Mu l t i- re g i o n a l
su p p ly c h a in
V ar i ety of e n d-
o f - l i f e o pti o n s
N a t i o nal
f e e ds t o c k
p r e fe renc e
M ult i- se c t o r
a ppli c a tio n D a t a p ro c u re d
f r o m e x p er t
co n s o r t i u m
me mb e r s
S el ec ti on c r i t e r ia c ho s en w i t h e x pe r t c o ns or t i um me m be r s
V al ue ch ai n -
cri t e ri a
co mb i natio n s
sc o re d a n d
ra nke d
W e i g ht ag e pr o v i de d ba s e d on
thei r pote nt i al t o c rea t e a
f un c ti o n al b io e c o no m y w h il e
em bed di ng c i r c u l a r i t y
C om bin at i o n o f V al ue c hai ns w it h thes e c r i t er i a as s e s s ed
F i r s t ro u n d
se le c t i o n - 8/ 1 2
v a l u e ch ai n s
se l e c t e d
D a t a re view e d
a nd a n a l y s e d
a l o n g wi t h
in f o r ma t i o n f r o m
li te ra t ure re vi e w
R e v i e w o f n a tio n a l
b i o e c o n o my s t ra te g i e s
a n d ini t i a t iv e s a n d o t h e r
re l e va n t p u bl i s h e d
l it e ra t ure
S ta k eho l d er foc us
S e c o n d r o u n d
a s s es s m e n t
P re - se l e c t e d ( 8)
b i o- b as e d v a l ue
ch a i n s
I den t i fi ca t i on o f
p r ef er r e d ro u te o f
b i oec o n o mi c
d e v e lopme n t
( F eed s t oc k - C onv e r s i o n
r o ute - P ro duc t
c om bi n atio n s )
V al u e c h a i n
p r e fe renc e
sc o res a l l o t t e d
t o s p e ci f i c
co mb i n a t i ons
V al ue c h a i n - c ri t e ri a
co m bin a t ions
sc o red a n d ranke d
S e c o n d ro u n d
se le c t i o n – 5 / 8
v al u e ch a i n s
se lec t e d
V a lu e c h a in m a p p i n g
S e l e cted v al ue c h a i n
a s s es sme n t ( p ubli s h e d
li te ratur e a n d indus t r i a l
p r a c t ic e)
Ma p p i n g p ro c e s s
Ma t e ri a l
f l o w
C h a in
a ct o r s
T e ch nolo g y
ro ut e s
M ap p e d b i o- b a s e d
v al u e ch a i ns ( o n l y
p re l i mi n ar y
in f o r ma t io n )

Figure 4.
Flow diagram of the methodology involved in the two-tier multi-criteria decision analysis and mapping exercise adopted for the selection of the most
promising bio-based value chains, in the context of a cir cular economy .

Sustainability 2018 , 10 , 1695 8 of 24
For systematic identification of pr omising value chains, a multi-criteria selection appr oach
was used. A set of selection criteria were chosen based on the gaps that wer e identified from
r eview of published literature and policy . Ther e ar e a number of differ ent bio-based value chains
pr evalent in the EU. T o identify those multi-functional value chains (perhaps under -repr esented), for
example, those that integrate material cir cularity , utilising agricultural by-products/waste, capability
to cr eate better and wider socio-economic growth/employment opportunities and needing less or no
further investment in the form of a dedicated infrastructur e, it is essential to use a few key criteria.
The performance of candidate value chains from the viewpoint of these selected criteria must be
assessed in detail. This approach will help this study weigh the potential and r esilience of these
candidates in the commer cial market, against the backdrop of the EU’s bioeconomy policies and in
our journey towar ds “closing the loop”. The selection criteria chosen for the first-round assessment of
bio-based value chains ar e presented in Figur e 5 . The rationale for choosing these selection criteria
may be found under the r espective descriptions in the upcoming segments.
S u s ta i n a b i l i ty 2018 , 1 0 , x F O R P E E R R E V I E W 8 of 2 4
F o r s y s t e m at i c i d e n t i fi c at i o n o f p r o m i s i n g v al u e c h ai n s , a m u l t i - c r i t e r i a s e l e c t i o n a p p r o a c h w as
u s e d . A s e t o f s e l e c t i o n c r i t e r i a w e r e c h o s e n b a s e d o n t h e g a p s t h at w e r e i d e n t i fi e d fr o m r e v i e w o f
p u b l i s h e d l i t e r at u r e a n d p o l i c y . T h e r e a r e a n u m b e r o f d i ffe r e n t b i o - b as e d v al u e c h ai n s p r e v al e n t i n
t h e E U . T o i d e n t i fy t h o s e m u l t i - fu n c t i o n al v al u e c h ai n s ( p e r h a p s u n d e r - r e p r e s e n t e d ), fo r e x a m p l e ,
t h o s e t h at i n t e g r a t e m at e r i al c i r c u l a r i t y , u t i l i s i n g ag r i c u l t u r al b y - p r o d u c t s / w as t e , c a p a b i l i t y t o c r e a t e
b e t t e r a n d w i d e r s o c i o - e c o n o m i c g r o w t h / e m p l o y m e n t o p p o r t u n i t i e s a n d n e e d i n g l e s s o r n o fu r t h e r
i n v e s t m e n t i n t h e f o r m o f a d e d i c at e d i n fr as t r u c t u r e , i t i s e s s e n t i al t o u s e a fe w k e y c r i t e r i a . T h e
p e r fo r m a n c e o f c a n d i d a t e v al u e c h ai n s f r o m t h e v i e w p o i n t o f t h e s e s e l e c t e d c r i t e r i a m u s t b e as s e s s e d
i n d e t ai l . T h i s a p p r o a c h w i l l h e l p t h i s s t u d y w e i g h t h e p o t e n t i al an d r e s i l i e n c e o f t h e s e c a n d i d at e s i n
t h e c o m m e r c i al m ar k e t , ag ai n s t t h e b a c k d r o p o f t h e E U ’ s b i o e c o n o m y p o l i c i e s a n d i n o u r j o u r n e y
t o w ar d s “ c l o s i n g t h e l o o p ” . T h e s e l e c t i o n c r i t e r i a c h o s e n fo r t h e fi r s t - r o u n d as s e s s m e n t o f b i o - b as e d
v al u e c h ai n s ar e p r e s e n t e d i n F i g u r e 5 . T h e r a t i o n al e fo r c h o o s i n g t h e s e s e l e c t i o n c r i t e r i a m ay b e
fo u n d u n d e r t h e r e s p e c t i v e d e s c r i p t i o n s i n t h e u p c o m i n g s e g m e n t s .

F i g u r e 5 . S e l e c t i o n c ri t e ri a f o r t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e m o s t p r o m i s i n g b i o - b as e d v al u e c h ai n s .
F eed s to c k v ar ia b ili ty : T h e fl e x i b i l i t y o f b i o - b as e d v al u e c h ai n s t o p r o d u c e p r o d u c t s a n d b y -
p r o d u c t s f r o m a v ar i e t y o f fe e d s t o c k s i s c r u c i al . B i o m as s , t h e s t ar t i n g m a t e r i al o f an y b i o - b as e d v al u e
c h ai n , i s c o s t - s u s c e p t i b l e t o b o t h m a r k e t v o l a t i l i t y an d al s o s e as o n al i n n at u r e . D e p e n d e n c e o n a
s e as o n al f e e d s t o c k w i l l l e ad t o a s e a s o n al v al u e c h ai n , t h e r e b y r e s u l t i n g i n s e as o n al p r o d u c t s (a n d
b y p r o d u c t s ) w h i c h g i v e s b i o - b a s e d p r o d u c t s a l e s s at t r a c t i v e p e r s p e c t i v e a m o n g c o n s u m e r s [2 6].
Mu lti - r eg io n al s u p p ly c h ain : A m u l t i - r e g i o n al v al u e c h ai n , b e s i d e s ad d i n g v al u e t o a l o w - v al u e
fe e d s t o c k , al s o c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e e c o n o m i c g r o w t h o f d e p e n d e n t c o m m u n i t i e s v i a c r e a t i o n o f j o b s ,
d e v e l o p m e n t o f s k i l l s a n d t h e k n o w l e d g e p o o l o f t h e l o c al c o m m u n i t i e s , l e ad i n g t o i m p r o v e d
c o m m u n i t y w e l l b e i n g a n d s o c i al e q u i t y . S u c h a p p r o a c h e s r e q u i r e a h ar m o n i s e d a p p r o a c h t o
r e p o r t i n g a n d c o m m u n i c at i o n o f i n fo r m a t i o n a m o n g t h e e m b e d d e d c h ai n a c t o r s fo r t r a n s p a r e n c y o n
p r a c t i c e s a n d t r a c e a b i l i t y o f m a t e r i al s . H o w e v e r , s u c h an a p p r o a c h c o u l d fa c i l i t a t e E U s t at e s w i t h
t r a n s i t i o n e c o n o m i e s t o e s t a b l i s h b i o e c o n o m y m o d e l s , w i t h t h e n e e d e d i n v e s t m e n t f r o m n a t i o n al
fu n d i n g i n i t i a t i v e s [2 7].
V ar iety o f e n d - o f - lif e : E n d - o f – l i fe c h ar a c t e r i s t i c s p l ay a p r o m i n e n t r o l e a t a n y g i v e n s t ag e o f a
v al u e c h ai n . F r o m a t o p - d o w n a p p r o a c h , a p r o c e s s t h at i s c ap a b l e o f u t i l i s i n g w as t e b i o m as s fo r r aw
fe e d s t o c k , al s o c al l e d “ c a s c a d i n g u s e ” i s a v al u a b l e , s u s t ai n a b l e b u s i n e s s m o d e l as t h e r e w i l l a r e g u l ar
i n fl u x o f l o w - c o s t fe e d s t o c k , p r o m i s i n g a c o n t i n u o u s p r o d u c t s u p p l y t o t h e m ar k e t . F r o m a “ b o t t o m -
u p ” a p p r o a c h , s t r a t e g i c m a n ag e m e n t an d u t i l i s a t i o n o f w as t e ( p o s t - p r o d u c t c o n s u m p t i o n ) i s c a p a b l e
o f d e l i v e r i n g t h r e e - fo l d b e n e fi t s : e n v i r o n m e n t al l y t h r o u g h r e d u c t i o n o f w as t e fo r t r e at m e n t a n d

Figure 5. Selection criteria for the identification of the most promising bio-based value chains.
Feedstock variability:
The flexibility of bio-based value chains to produce pr oducts and
by-pr oducts from a variety of feedstocks is crucial. Biomass, the starting material of any bio-based
value chain, is cost-susceptible to both market volatility and also seasonal in natur e. Dependence on
a seasonal feedstock will lead to a seasonal value chain, thereby r esulting in seasonal pr oducts (and
bypr oducts) which gives bio-based products a less attractive perspective among consumers [ 26 ].
Multi-regional supply chain:
A multi-r egional value chain, besides adding value to a low-value
feedstock, also contributes to the economic growth of dependent communities via cr eation of jobs,
development of skills and the knowledge pool of the local communities, leading to improved
community wellbeing and social equity . Such approaches r equir e a harmonised approach to r eporting
and communication of information among the embedded chain actors for transparency on practices
and traceability of materials. However , such an approach could facilitate EU states with transition
economies to establish bioeconomy models, with the needed investment from national funding
initiatives [ 27 ].
V ariety of end-of-life:
End-of–life characteristics play a prominent r ole at any given stage of
a value chain. From a top-down appr oach, a process that is capable of utilising waste biomass for
raw feedstock, also called “cascading use” is a valuable, sustainable business model as there will a
r egular influx of low-cost feedstock, promising a continuous pr oduct supply to the market. From a

Sustainability 2018 , 10 , 1695 9 of 24
“bottom-up” appr oach, strategic management and utilisation of waste (post-product consumption) is
capable of delivering thr ee-fold benefits: environmentally thr ough reduction of waste for tr eatment
and disposal; economically by enabling r esource ef ficiency and through transformation of waste (as
low-cost raw material for a secondary industry); and socially through cr eation of jobs, new value
chains and social equity [
28
]. T o be able to “catch up” with the 2014 EU Landfill Directive (which
aims to phase out landfilling r ecyclable waste, e.g., bioplastics, paper , glass and bio-waste), we need to
identify candidate value chains that generate pr oducts that can potentially circularise the value chain.
Selection of value chains based on the capabilities of the pr oducts to demonstrate a variety of end-of
life characteristics would be valuable to r eport via this study .
Gaps in sustainability schemes:
Fr om assessing the outcomes of the literature r eview , it is
evident that sustainability schemes for bio-based pr oducts (e.g., bioplastics, bio-solvents, bio-based
adhesives and binders, enzymes and cosmetics, etc. but not bioenergy) ar e either still in their infancy or
have variable levels of maturity with major sustainability r elated gaps to cover . Some major gaps and
limitations include a lack of clear criteria for sustainability/circularity assessment of bio-based pr oducts
on one hand and on the other hand, an overlap in the existing certification schemes. For example,
for the CEN standar ds for bioplastics (CEN/TC/249), some of the sustainability criteria such as the
determination, declaration and r eporting of the bio-based carbon content [
29
–
32
] ar e requir ed via the
following standar ds:
• CEN/TS 16137:2011: Plastics—Determination of bio-based carbon content
• CEN/TS 16295:2012: Plastics—Declaration of the bio-based carbon content
•
CEN/TS 16398:2012: Plastics—T emplate for reporting and communication of bio-based carbon
content and r ecovery options of biopolymers and bioplastics—Data sheet
However , these standards do not explicitly dir ect the economic operator to take further
r esponsibility to address/quantify the sustainability criteria associated with bioplastics including
pr oduction derived emissions to air , water and soil or economic and social impacts. A discrete set of
standar ds is under development by the technical committee (CEN/TC/411) for bio-based products
to r eport the sustainability aspects of bio-based products [
33
]. These standar ds are r esponsible for
the determination, declaration and reporting of envir onmental impact assessment (e.g., EN16751:
Bio-based pr oducts: sustainability criteria). The scope of EN16751 in particular , despite providing
guidance on undertaking impact assessment and r eporting on bio-based products, covers the stages
fr om feedstock acquisition up to the feedstock “pre-pr ocessing” phase. Lack of guidance on assessment
and r eporting of environmental bur den resulting fr om “manufacturing” to “end-of-life” phases, and
lack of assessment methodologies and thr esholds are some of the major gaps and limitations in
these standar ds.
Country-based feedstock preference:
Consistency in raw material supply and chain-pr oductivity
is essential for the successful uptake of bio-based pr oducts and their associated value chains.
The guarantee of a pr omising flow of feedstock to the facilities can only be ensured thr ough the choice
of “locally sour ced” feedstock. “Locally-sourced” feedstocks generally have established logistics and
r eporting procedur es, which can communicate their point of origin to the economic operator . Moreover ,
utilisation of such “locally generated feedstock” can be associated with positive social impacts from
employing decades of skilled cultivation related knowledge fr om the local rural community and its
established infrastructur e, catalysing its development with an innovative biorefinery , subsequently
r educing the overall cost of value-chain establishment [ 34 , 35 ].
Multi-sector application:
The ability of a bio-based pr oduct and its value chain to cover a range
of applications (in dif ferent industrial sectors) was identified as an important criterion for value
chain selection. Undertaking this task for value chains with products that serve a rather smaller
demand/specialised demand could make this study highly specific, deviating fr om the aim of creating
a harmonised sustainability framework for horizontal sector application. Therefor e, focus is placed
on value chains and bio-based pr oducts that have the potential to be applied in a variety of sectors

Sustainability 2018 , 10 , 1695 10 of 24
(e.g., bio-based mulch film catering to agricultural/horticultur e industries and other industries like the
landscaping industry; versatile fine chemicals that find application as solvents in paints and coating,
adhesives and binders, fuel additives and agr ochemicals).
Application of These V alue Chain Selection Factors with Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis
First round assessment and selection:
A dedicated matrix composed of a combination of the
pr eliminary value chains which are to be assessed fr om the viewpoints of each of these selection criteria
was developed as a part of this first-tier analysis. Since this study is a part of a pr oject with a wider
vision, the expertise of the consortium members in bioeconomy was invited. Their r ecommendations
in terms of the performance of the set of preliminary value chains, in combination with the set of
selection criteria, pr esented in Figure 5 , was obtained and r eviewed. Scores, in the form of rating (scale
of 1–10), wer e allocated to the recommendations (yes/maybe/no) with justification pr ovided by the
consortium members.
Secondly , each of the selection criteria were allotted weighting factors based on their r elevance
and significance to the principles of material circularity and bioeconomy transition. The weighting
factors ar e presented in T able 2 . The criteria that have been allocated a weighting of 0.2 are those
that dir ectly contribute to innovative or under -repr esented but resour ce efficient value chains which
subsequently have the potential to encourage the establishment of a cir cular economy . Criteria with
a weighting of 0.1 (prefer ence within EU member states) has been cover ed further with an elaborate
evaluation under second r ound assessment. Relevant characteristics of each of the bio-based value
chains wer e assessed and reviewed against the weighted selection criteria to finally assign ranks fr om
the first r ound. The outcomes of the first round of assessment and further discussion on this appr oach
to the identification of pr omising bio-based value chains have been presented in Section 3.1 .
T able 2. Distribution of weighting to the “value-chain selection” criteria.
Selection Criteria W eighting
Feedstock variability 0.2
Gaps in certification/sustainability schemes
0.2
Multi-sector application 0.15
V ariety in End-of-life options 0.2
Multi-regional supply chain 0.15
Prefer ence within EU member states 0.1
Second round assessment and selection:
The second r ound of assessment was initiated with the
collation of information and analysis of national policies, bioeconomy initiatives and growth plans
established by individual EU member states. This review pr ovides an insight into the bioeconomy
strategy adopted by individual states based on their str engths such as natural bio-resour ces, prefer ence
for bioeconomy development, access and development of technological innovations and maturity
level. A summarised list of initiatives and action plans associated with each of the EU member states
is pr esented as a part of the supplementary information.
Upon collation, analysis and categorisation of these initiatives, the pr eference of these member
states over the choice of feedstock, bio-r efining technology , current and desir ed products/sector
development and techno-economic or social optimisation r oute were identified and ranked.
This information was used to calculate weighted scor es called “prefer ence scores” to specific
(feedstock-conversion r oute-bio-product combinations, based on the prefer ence demonstrated by
the EU-collective bioeconomy strategies. These scor es, (as a % of total number of strategies), have been
pr esented in T able 3 . Information on most of the EU-relevant bioeconomy strategies and initiatives
collated and analysed as a part of the second round of assessment, is pr esented in the supplementary
section in T able S1. The outcomes of this second round of assessment have also been discussed further
under Section 3.1 .

Sustainability 2018 , 10 , 1695 11 of 24
T able 3.
EU value chain prefer ence scores as a function of strategy type and natur e (as a % of total
number of EU bioeconomy strategies).
V alue Chains T argeted by the Strategies Strategy T ype EU Chain Preference Scores
Bio energy and fuel production Renewable energy 0.74
Food and beverage production Primary food production 0.6
Crop based primary production Using waste and residue 0.37
Animal based primary products Using waste and residue 0.32
Forest based primary production Using waste and residue 0.26
Bio-based material and plastics Products/T echnology and resear ch 0.26
Marine based primary production Primary food production 0.2
Bio-based chemicals Pr oducts/T echnology and resear ch 0.21
Bio-based construction and furniture Common conversion 0.2
Biorefinery Products/T echnology and resear ch 0.2
Cosmetics and health Biomass conversion 0.17
2.2. V alue Chain Mapping
W ithin the H2020 programme, an industrial value chain is defined as stages of value cr eation
by enterprises and other or ganisations as part of the process of designing and delivering goods
and services for their users [
22
]. Nevertheless, new and innovative value chains ar e not requir ed
to be novel value chains but can be seen as new combinations across value chains, an innovative
technology/pr oduct brought fr om one sector or context into another resulting in a disruptive ef fect.
V alue chain maps are a valuable, flexible and convenient tool to develop and analyse the scope and
performance potential of a bio-based business model by br eaking down the various process dynamics
into logistics, sectors of application and embedded stakeholders. The strengths, weaknesses, costs and
competition fr om other value chains in the production of specific commodities can be visualised via
value chain maps. The next step in identifying such pr omising value chains is to understand the chain
complexities via such a “mapping exer cise”.
In this study , the initial “cradle-to-grave” value chain mapping provides a generalised yet
visual schematic of the dynamics including the resour ce flow and actors integrated within bio-based
value-chains that have been chosen via the assessments above. For the selected and finalised list of
bio-based value chains, the following chain characteristics ar e crucial and relevant to visualising their
significance to a cir cular economy . The characteristics ar e as follows:
•
Material/ener gy inputs and outputs, including potential pr oducts, co-pr oducts, waste
and emissions;
• Sector -level contributions;
• T echnology/conversion routes;
• Chain-actors or stakeholders linkages
•
End-of life (variable) characteristics emphasising the fate of the outputs fr om each of the life
cycle stages.
3. Results and Discussions
3.1. V alue Chain Selection
A two-tier multi-criteria decision analysis was undertaken to identify and select the most
pr omising value chains and the outcomes of this assessment have been presented in T able 4 .
Bio-plastics, bio-based solvents, bio-lubricants, fabrics and fine chemicals followed by bio-based
insulation material wer e chosen to progr ess to a second round of assessment. W ithin the second
r ound of assessment, they were subjected to a similar weighted scoring, set against a background
of EU-wide bioeconomy initiative. This “bioeconomy pr eference scor e” is primarily based on
the tar get-feedstock and technology prefer ences of the bioeconomy initiatives and other relevant
sustainability schemes established/planned with an active inter est to transform from a linear economy
to cir cular bio-based economy .

Sustainability 2018 , 10 , 1695 12 of 24
T able 4. Selection of bio-based value chains from first-round “multi-criteria” assessment.
Sector V alue Chain Score Rank Status
Chemical Cellulose to bio-based solvents 7.44 1 Selected
Food Packaging Starch to bio-plastics 7.25 2 Selected
Agriculture Starch to bio-based mulch films 6.62 3 Selected
Fabrication Starch to bioplastic framing material 6.09 4 Selected
Multiple sectors V egetable fats/plant lipids to bio-based lubricants 5.50 5 Selected
T extile Cellulose to fabric 5.50 6 Selected
Chemical Solid biomass to fine chemicals 5.20 7 Selected
Construction W aste agri. biomass to insulation material 4.78 8 Selected
Food packaging W ood/cellulose to plastic paper cups 4.37 9 -
Food packaging Straw to food packaging 4.31 10 -
Construction Solid biomass to wood-plastic composite 4.00 11 -
Agriculture Algal polysaccharides to phytoprotectives 3.91 12 -
In terms of feedstock pr eference, EU member states seemed to possess a clear strategy on utilising
feedstock generated locally or nationally with minimal logistics and not demanding an additional
str eam (land-conversion)/infrastructure for feedstock generation (in other wor ds, use excess and
r esidual biomass). As a result, a majority of the initiatives highlight a feedstock prefer ence in the
following or der: agricultural (63%), forestry (35%), waste stream (or ganic waste from domestic
and commer cial waste) (25%). In terms of initiatives, there ar e those that either focus on pursuing
innovative technology r outes or prefer a combined appr oach to utilising biomass with innovative
biomass transformation technologies. Pr eference for bio-based value chains based on the natur e and
goal of the initiatives assessed as a part of this study was identified and ranked in T able 5 .
T able 5. Selection of value chains from a second round of “initiatives-based pr eference” assessment.
Sector V alue Chain
EU Chain
Preference
Scores
Final
Score Rank Status
Food Packaging Starch to bio-plastics 0.63 4.57 1 Selected
Agriculture Starch to bio mulch films 0.63 4.17 2 Selected
Fabrication Starch to frame material 0.63 3.84 3 Selected
Chemicals Cellulose to bio-based solvents 0.47 3.50 4 Selected
Multiple sectors V egetable fats/plant lipids to bio-based lubricants 0.58 3.19 5 Selected
Chemical Solid biomass to fine chemicals 0.58 3.02 6 -
Construction W aste agri. biomass to insulation material 0.57 2.72 7 -
T extile Cellulose to fabric 0.31 1.71 8 -
It is evident that ther e is a greater emphasis on development and exploitation of bio-based
chemicals and bio-plastics in the conceived bioeconomy agenda and the existing bio-based
infrastructur e. Ther e is a huge array of bioplastics, classified under roughly 10 categories, that
ar e prevalent worldwide [
36
]. Currently , there is a focus on bioplastics that can be synthesised fr om
one important feedstock, starch. This is due to the curr ent availability of a mature and commer cial
conversion r oute that provides a feasible solution to existing “plastic waste management issues”.
In addition to this, the multi-functionality of bioplastic under study (PLA synthesised fr om starch),
which (in combination with other polymers) may be utilised to cr eate mulch films, disposable
cutleries, framing materials and fibr es defines its suitability to address the curr ent challenges facing
our transition to a fully-functional bioeconomy . Similarly , bio-based chemicals such as solvents,
lubricants, dyes and pigments of fer a greener and r elatively low-environmental impact alternatives
to their conventional counterparts facing r estrictions of use from r egulatory bodies such as REACH
(Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals) and ECHA (European Chemicals
Agency) [
37
]. In addition to their lessened impact in terms of eco and human toxicity , their promising
potential to cr eate opportunities for socio-economic growth and r educe dependence on non-renewable
r esources cr eates a sustainable pathway for development. The construction sector is one of the biggest

Sustainability 2018 , 10 , 1695 13 of 24
contributors of landfill waste in the EU owing to the design flaws in the product. Constr uction materials
(particularly contemporary insulation material) ar e seldom created for any kind of r esponsible
end-of-life management [ 38 ].
In view of the commer cial, environmental and socio-economic potential identified fr om the value
chains selected fr om the second round of assessment, they wer e adopted for an elaborate value-chain
mapping in the Section 3.2 .
3.2. V alue Chain Mapping—Case Studies
The five bio-based value chains chosen fr om the second round of assessment have been adopted to
be mapped for full (general) coverage of the r esource flows, technology/conversion r outes employed,
the various stakeholders and the fate of the pr oducts or the other waste streams that may r esult from
the value chain. These schematics have been presented in Figur es 6 – 9 .

Sustainability 2018 , 10 , 1695 14 of 24
S u s ta i n a b i l i ty 2 0 1 8 , 1 0 , x F O R P E E R R E V I E W 1 4 of 2 4

F i g u r e 6 . V al u e c h ai n s f o r s o l i d b i o m as s t o b i o - b as e d c h e m i c a l s , m ap p e d f o r m a t e ri al f l o w , t e c h n o l o g y ro u t e s an d s t ak e h o l d e rs .

Figure 6. V alue chains for solid biomass to bio-based chemicals, mapped for material flow , technology routes and stakeholders.

Sustainability 2018 , 10 , 1695 15 of 24
S u s ta i n a b i l i ty 2 0 1 8 , 1 0 , x F O R P E E R R E V I E W 1 5 of 2 4

F i g u r e 7 . V al u e c h ai n s f o r s t arc h t o b i o - b as e d p l a s t i c s , m a p p e d f o r m a t e ri al f l o w , t e c h n o l o g y ro u t e s an d s t a k e h o l d e rs .

Figure 7. V alue chains for starch to bio-based plastics, mapped for material flow , technology routes and stakeholders .

Sustainability 2018 , 10 , 1695 16 of 24
S u s ta i n a b i l i ty 2018 , 1 0 , x F O R P E E R R E V I E W 1 7 of 2 4

F i g u r e 8 . V al u e c h ai n s f o r s o l i d b i o m as s t o i n s u l at i o n m at e r i a l , m a p p e d f o r m a t e ri al f l o w , t e c h n o l o g y ro u t e s a n d s t ak e h o l d e rs .

Figure 8. V alue chains for solid biomass to insulation material, mapped for material flow , technology routes and stakeholders.

Sustainability 2018 , 10 , 1695 17 of 24
S u s ta i n a b i l i ty 2018 , 1 0 , x F O R P E E R R E V I E W 1 8 of 2 4

F i g u r e 9 . V al u e c h ai n s f o r s o l i d b i o m as s t o b i o - b as e d l u b ri c an t s , m a p p e d f o r m a t e ri al f l o w , t e c h n o l o g y ro u t e s an d s t ak e h o l d e rs .

Figure 9. V alue chains for solid biomass to bio-based lubricants, mapped for material flow , technology routes and stakeholders.

Sustainability 2018 , 10 , 1695 18 of 24
3.2.1. Bio-Based Chemicals
The market for bio-based chemicals in general is worth $6 billion and at a projected annual
gr owth rate of 16.16%, the market is expected to reach $27 billion by 2025 [
39
]. Bio-based chemicals
include a br oad spectrum of products, which may be classified as commodity chemicals, intermediate
chemicals and specialty chemicals, based on their application. Commodity chemicals refer to the “high
volume-low value” pr oducts, sourced fr om biomass (but not restricted to), such as fatty acids, methyl
esters and alcohols. Intermediate products r efer to the refined sugar complexes, basic polymers,
pigments/dyes, plant oils and other types of starches. Specialty chemicals, synthesised either
independently fr om plant or prepar ed from intermediate chemicals includes bio-based chemicals such
as advanced polymer solvents and other preparations for final formulation in personal car e pr oducts,
pharmaceuticals, paint coatings, additives, domestic/industrial deter gents and other applications.
In particular , bio-based solvents are br oadly classified into plant-based alcohols, diols, organic
acids, glycols and many more. From an economic perspective, accor ding to the above mentioned
r eport [
39
] the global bio-based solvent market was worth r oughly 6 billion USD in December 2016
and it is curr ently projected to gr ow at a CAGR of 7.8%, reaching 9 billion by 2024. The versatility
of bio-based chemicals, particularly bio-based solvents (for example, in pharmaceutical, cosmetics,
agricultur e, cleaning, printing inks and adhesive applications), and demand/room for innovation and
pr oduct development, coupled with stringent regulations on hazar dous pollutants released fr om the
use of conventional chemicals have foster ed increased r esearch inter est and financial investment via
national pr ogrammes and government support. Moreover , the feedstock variety that can be used to
generate a myriad of bio-based chemicals makes these value chains innovative and techno-economically
viable, in addition to their impr oved environmental performance.
3.2.2. Bioplastics
The EU pr eference to develop a manageable and multifunctional bioplastic category for the
commer cial market stems from the rapid and unsustainable consumption of conventional plastics
for a variety of purposes, at a global level [
40
]. In addition, the discovery of alarming levels of micro
plastics in our food sour ced from soil, water and sea, has led to the awareness of the interactions
between plastic degradation and the envir onment (bioaccumulation) [
41
]. This is evident in a number
of initiatives, listed in the supplementary information, that all target withdrawal fr om fossil-based
r esources over the next decade with particular focus on ener gy and plastic consumption. Unlike a
decade ago, modern bioplastics are catching up with bio-based solvents in terms of multi-sectoral
application (including packaging, agriculture, cosmetics, electronics, construction and automotive) [
36
].
Evidence of encouragement of bio-based product development and gr owth can be seen fr om a plenary
meeting of the Eur opean parliament that voted in favour of “biodegradable mulch films” during the
r evision of EU Fertiliser Regulation [
42
] and a r ecent increase in “big brands” adopting bio-plastics
to appeal to their pr ominent (high spending power coupled with relatively high envir onmental
awar eness) consumer base [ 43 ].
3.2.3. Other Bio-Based Products
Bio-lubricants, predominantly synthesised fr om oil cr ops, find application in the domestic,
industrial, automotive and aviation industry . Among the 220 EU-28 biorefineries assessed as a part
of the study undertaken by the Bio-based Industries Consortium and Nova Institute (Figure 3 ), 20%
ar e dedicated to the manufacture of oleochemical fr om plant-derived fats. Environmental concerns
and strict standar ds for management of leakage, maintenance and disposal of unused fossil-derived
lubricants pr ovide evidence for the growth and development of this sector . A EU-H2020 funded project
entitled FIRST2RUN [
44
] is dedicated to the identification and development of integrated bio refineries
that utilise low-input, under -utilised oil crops, gr own in marginal lands to synthesise bio-lubricants
and bioplastics fr om vegetable oil. Besides valorisation of mar ginal lands and low-input biomass,

Sustainability 2018 , 10 , 1695 19 of 24
this pr oject envisages the capability of such a value chain to cr eate a skilled labour pool, generate
other bio-based pr oducts and energy (composting unused parts of the plants), ther eby revitalising the
local economy .
Agricultural waste transformed into green, low-envir onmental impact insulation material was
the conventional technology until the discovery of fossil r esources, which gave rise to r elatively
inexpensive polymers and materials (e.g., polyurethane, mineral wool). However , some environmental
and human health concerns ar e associated with these insulation materials (from long-term r elease
of aer osols and vapour) such as respiratory issues and eye and skin irritation, particularly in the
case of foam insulations. Natural fibr e insulation such as cotton wool and wood fibre boar ds
have been identified to perform similarly to their petr o-derived counterparts and are particularly
advantageous with r egards to complying with any envir onmental building certification schemes [
45
].
Bio-based binders and other additives, such as polylactic acids (PLA) and polyhydroxyalkanoates
(PHA) generated fr om other starch-based value chains, may be utilised in the preparation of these
insulation materials. Dry lignocellulosic biomass can also be pr ocessed into compressed fibr es for
dashboar d panels, geotextiles and animal bedding [ 46 ].
Limitations:
MCDA can be a valuable tool, however , there ar e a few concerns when it is applied
to immensely complex systems. When a pr ocess system involves social interactions such as producers,
r egulatory authorities and consumers, it becomes challenging to call one perspective as more important
than the other . MCDA is also capable of overlooking or under-r epr esenting some key factors within a
complex value chain. An essential and independently functional element within a bio-based value
chain, eco-system services, is one such example. It is essential to be able to apply MCDA for smaller
scale analysis to be able to predict all possible determinants of a particular chain-stage prior to its
br oader application. However , this can be time-consuming. Input/output (IO) analyses, which is a
methodology that involves monitoring the sectoral trade data to quantify the complex interactions
between the dif ferent nodes of a given value chain may also be utilised to study the dynamics of
a value chains in r eal-time. However , its data needs depend on statistical information drawn from
datasets published by government and international authorities (UN-F AOST A T , EUROST A T) [
47
] and
the data may not always be available. Besides being data intensive, it may not always be possible to
derive data for bio-based value chains based in rural communities, with IO methodology .
V alue chain maps can be laborious and time-consuming to develop, depending on the complexity
of the value chain under analysis. The map is only an informative tool for the visualisation of bio-based
business models, identification of market opportunities and the scope of the value chain. It may not be
able to highlight any changes in the dynamics associated with the factors (chain actors, inputs/outputs
and technology r outes) presented in the chain.
For this study , the mapping has been carried out to highlight, in general, pr obable material,
wastes/emissions, conversion/r efining routes associated with a given feedstock and end bio-pr oduct
synthesised fr om it. These maps do not provide explicit information on coverage of these value
chains by specific sustainability schemes/certification pr ogrammes as there ar e diverse products and
co-pr oducts that could be produced as a part of the value chain. T o establish this level of detail,
the goal, scope and the pr oduct of analysis would have to be established beforehand.
3.3. Gaps and Challenges That Can Be Addressed
Fr om having undertaken the multi-criteria decision analysis, a number of key aspects associated
with the bio-based business models wer e brought into consideration, out of which, only a few general
criteria wer e chosen as the selection criteria. Some of the key gaps and challenges that are addr essed
in this section wer e drawn based on our analysis and the mapping exercise on the overall. These are
some key hur dles faced by existing and new bio-based business models in the current context of our
transition to a bio-based economy . These points have been highlighted to encourage holistic systems
thinking, starting fr om the feedstock procur ement stage, through pr oduct design, which influences
the final pr oduct cost up to the need for a dedicated end-of life management infrastructure which

Sustainability 2018 , 10 , 1695 20 of 24
has an influence on public per ception of bio-based products. Such systems thinking will encourage
str eamlining the innovation, processes and delivery of an incr edibly complex bio-based value chains.
Application of systems thinking can be customised to the practices in other non-bio-based sectors
ther eby facilitating our transition to a fully-functional circular economy .
“Food vs. non-food bio products” conflict:
W e live in an era of a global lack of food security ,
the supply chain of which alone is highly complex and fraught with unforeseeable risks such as cr op
failur e from climate change or geo-political instability . T o add to this, use of agro-food based biomass
as the starting feedstock not only puts the bio-based business model at risk but also invites “food vs.
bio-based pr oducts” conflict, undermining the sustainability characteristics of a bio-based value chain.
However , substituting primarily food-based feedstock with waste-based feedstock or by-products
would incorporate material cir cularity e.g., starch rich feedstock can be drawn fr om food retailers and
food pr ocessing industries by using vegetable peels instead of starch rich cr ops. This strategy not
only encourages waste valorisation but also r educes both the risks involved and the dependence of
bio-based industries on the primary food supply chains.
Feedstock costs:
Biomass may seem economically unfeasible compar ed to cheap petroleum
feedstocks and their intermediates. The cost of feedstock which in turn is influenced by its
supply/demand ratio in the commer cial market makes it even more dif ficult for bio-based business
models to incr ease profit mar gins and sometimes to breakeven. However , encouragement and
development of innovative multi-functional bio r efineries that are capable of utilising low-value,
low-cost and waste biomass can prove to be an ideal alternative; such bior efineries must also be able to
transform such waste feedstock into pr oduct designs that can be disassembled during their end-of-life
with the pr oduct components being re-cir cularised back into the manufacturing loop. Re-incorporation
of material can have long-term economic benefits to such business models, in addition maintaining the
value of all the first-chain pr ocess inputs.
Supply risks
: The seasonal natur e of the biomass supply stemming from the cultivation
time-span of biomass is an issue. However , further challenges posed to cr oss-border biomass supply
fr om climate change, diminishing ecosystem services due to human intervention (e.g., intensive
farming), variable food/biomass demand, geopolitical instabilities and social ethical concerns also
undermine the “sustainable” characteristics of a bio-based value chains. It is ther efore essential to
encourage bior efinery and business models that are built on pr e-established climate change resilient
but low-demand biomass (e.g., millet and sorghum in Africa). Fr om a cost perspective, their low
demand r educes biomass costs, from a socio-economic perspective, accessing the knowledge pool of
the local rural communities can be mutually beneficial via opportunities for rural development and
encourages their inter est in maintaining the local ecosystem services.
Interconnectedness of value chains:
Uneven distribution or complete lack of technological
r eadiness for a multi-regional/local value chain to be established is a key hur dle in transformation
to a bio-based economy . This r equires cr eation of awareness and a str ong social connection between
inter -chain stakeholders to encourage technological and operational coherence. The thought-process
among the dif ferent chain actors (particularly among those involved between the feedstock
pr ocurement to packaging stage) has to be parallel with each other . Family businesses embed such
wider thoughtful thinking and ar e mostly successful in staying established on a long-term, despite
various external shocks, particularly from low-demand, inflation, etc. The key aspect to note is
the trust developed with fellow stakeholders and customers with the consistency and quality of
pr oduct. Occasional lack of co-operation due to pr ocess-level disparities between the embedded
stakeholders of the value chains could be over come via the establishment of national standards,
covering stakeholders embedded in a value chain, with standardised templates for r ecor ding, reporting
and communicating information.
Penetration of non-bio-based value chains:
A r ecent shift in consumer behaviour , challenges
to penetrating non-bio-based value chains (existing fossil-based supply chains) owing to consumer
per ception of “brand-value” and relatively cheaper pr oducts need to be considered. However , the trend

Sustainability 2018 , 10 , 1695 21 of 24
is changing as ther e is a growing demand among consumers in small businesses owing to the “trust”
factor that they ar e mainly passion driven rather than profit-driven [ 48 ].
Public perception of bio-based products
: According to a r eview of various reports by Spatial
For esight, (2017), the general public’s per ception of bio-based products ar e highly variable [
3
].
As much as ther e is keenness to switch to bio-based products owing to their overall envir onmental
benefits, the sporadic market supply , the expensive nature of such pr oducts and sometimes, limited
functionality and durability of the bio-based pr oducts seem to hinder their acceptance. For members of
the public who choose to opt for a more sustainable life, the existing pr oduct end-of-life management
infrastructur e is partially to fully unsuitable to pursue a circular waste management practice, leading
to an overall skepticism. Therefor e, a holistic approach is needed in our transformation to not only a
bio-based economy but also to a cir cular economy .
“T op-down” and “bottom-up” initiatives
: Stronger policy-level impr ovisation via “top-down”
appr oaches drive chain-actors to encourage good practice such as producer r esponsibility (e.g.,
packaging industry) and deploy “r e-direct used material” strategies. Similarly , “bottom-up”
appr oaches, such as altering consumer behaviour via r esponsible and innovative retail design and
practices, must also be devised. This may also include incentives/loyalty schemes for consumers
who opt for bio-based pr oducts that upon consumption can be recover ed and re-intr oduced into
another pr oduct.
4. Conclusions
The purpose of this paper is to pr ovide a methodology to assess existing or novel bio-based
value chains fr om key angles that are of significance to our journey to attaining a fully functional
bio-based cir cular economy . Due to the limited time and resour ces, it is essential to distinguish the
most pr omising bio-based business model from the r est, and that is precisely what this paper , with
its methodology suggests. EU-based bioeconomy and bio-based value chains are diverse in natur e
and ar e not restricted to those value chains that have been consider ed in this study . The preliminary
list of 12 value chains was selected based on their r elevance and significance to the bioeconomy , their
curr ent activity level/contribution and coverage by various sustainability and certification schemes.
These bio-based value chains have been selected to ensur e the repr esentation of EU’s diverse bio-based
value chains in addition to their potential to addr ess the key environmental, techno-economic and
socio-economic thr eats and challenges faced globally . The value chains wer e selected in two-steps
via multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA), wher ein the first step, the preliminary value chains
wer e ranked by placing them against a back drop of five key selection criteria in the curr ent context:
feedstock variability; EU feedstock pr eference; variety of end-of-life options; multisector application
and multi-r egional supply chains. This step led to the identification of eight bio-based value chains
which wer e subjected to a second round of assessment wher e five out of the eight value chains showed
a pr omising interest/inclination for bioeconomic development. For the selected five bio-based value
chains which included star ch to bio-plastics, star ch to bio mulch films, star ch to frame material,
cellulose to bio-based solvents, vegetable fats/plant lipids to bio-based lubricants, elaborate value
chain maps wer e developed to demonstrate the highly informative nature of this tool and its crucial
r ole in understanding the complex interactions among the various process stages, associated pr ocesses
and stakeholders within a mor e complex value chain.
V alue chain maps provide valuable insight into the integrated activities, actors and technology , in
addition to the material flow , and have provided a for esight of the scope and qualitative performance
potential (in socio-economic and envir onmental terms) within each of the life cycle stages. Inability to
acquir e real-time information fr om any changes to the process dynamics may be a limitation. However ,
for a pr eliminary assessment, value-chain mapping pr ovides an overall breakdown of the various
elements pr esented above. The methodology pr escribed in this paper not only helps understand
the embedded complexities and over come them within bio-based value chains but are also equally
applicable to complex non-bio-based supply chains that foresee a transformation by closing their loop

Sustainability 2018 , 10 , 1695 22 of 24
to encourage pr oduct and process cir cularity . Overall, the suggested method could be used by policy
makers, investors, business groups and economists to understand the inter dependencies among the
various embedded chain-actors, dependence of the chain on material consumption and the various
technology r outes available for innovative and sustainable production of bio-based pr oducts that can
potentially r eplace high-impact fossil-derived products.
Supplementary Materials:
The following are available online at http://www .mdpi.com/2071- 1050/10/6/1695/
s1 , T able S1: Bioeconomy initiatives and strategies analysed for the second round of the value chain assessment
and selection.
Author Contributions:
The concept of analysis, methodology , data acquisition and interpr etation and
development of the manuscript were all jointly undertaken by K.L., L.L. and L.S.
Funding:
The contents of the paper are a part of the findings of the pr oject ST AR-Pr oBio. ST AR-ProBio has
received funding fr om the European Union’s Horizon 2020 pr ogram and innovation programme under grant
agreement No. 727740, W ork Programme BB-01-2016: Sustainability schemes for the bio-based economy .
Acknowledgments:
W e would like to convey a special thanks to our partners from the Agricultural University
of Athens, Greece, Deutsches Biomasseforschungszentr um, Germany , SQ Consult, Spain and the University of
Bologna, Italy who contributed to the resear ch undertaken in this paper .
Conflicts of Interest:
The authors declare no conflict of inter est. Re-use of information contained in this
document for commer cial and/or non-commercial purposes is authorised and fr ee of charge, on the conditions of
acknowledgement by the r e-user of the source of the document, not distorting the original meaning or message of
the document and the non-liability of the ST AR-ProBio consortium and/or partners for any consequence stemming
from the r e-use. The ST AR-Pr oBio consortium does not accept responsibility for the consequences, errors or
omissions herein enclosed. This document is subject to updates, revisions and extensions by the ST AR-Pr oBio
consortium. Questions and comments should be addressed to: http://www .star- pr obio.eu/contact- us/ .
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