Healthy, Inclusive and Sustainable Catering in Secondary Schools—An Analysis of a Transformation Process with Multiple Tensions [original]

Citation: Hennchen, B.; Schäfer, M.

Healthy, Inclusive and Sustainable

Catering in Secondary Schools—An

Analysis of a Transformation Process

with Multiple Tensions. Int. J. Environ.

Res. Public Health 2024,21, 370.

https://doi.org/10.3390/

ijerph21030370

Academic Editors: Paul B. Tchounwou

and Martin David Rose

Received: 17 December 2023

Revised: 12 February 2024

Accepted: 13 March 2024

Published: 20 March 2024

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.

This article is an open access article

distributed under the terms and

conditions of the Creative Commons

Attribution (CC BY) license (https://

creativecommons.org/licenses/by/

4.0/).

International Journal of

Environmental Research

and Public Health

Article

Healthy, Inclusive and Sustainable Catering in Secondary

Schools—An Analysis of a Transformation Process with

Multiple Tensions

Benjamin Hennchen * and Martina Schäfer

Center for Technology and Society (ZTG), Technische Universität Berlin, 10553 Berlin, Germany;

[email protected]

*Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Interest in catering for public sector schools is increasing due to its potential role in

addressing the prevailing problems of malnutrition, food insecurity and non-sustainable food habits.

Based on the case of secondary schools in Berlin, this study aims to explore this potential by focusing

on the process of transformation towards healthy, inclusive and sustainable school catering. It

employs a multi-perspective analysis based on the two concepts of food environment and social

cohesion. Results are based on quantitative and qualitative data collected via an online survey of

pupils from 25 secondary schools in Berlin as well as field notes from six stakeholder events. The

survey findings were analyzed by descriptive means and provide explanations for the fact that most

of the pupils (66.7%) never eat lunch at school. Based on the qualitative analysis of the stakeholder

events, key tensions between actors from the federal state, municipal, school and private levels

could be identified. Major areas of conflict arise due to (1) a lack of public funding and catering

standards, (2) incompatible demands and preferences, (3) a lack of resources and opportunities for

complementary education and participation, and (4) peer and parental influence. Transforming

school food environments requires integrative strategies with interventions introduced by multiple

actors operating on different levels.

Keywords: school catering; public health; sustainability; inclusion; school food environments;

social cohesion

1. Introduction

The current state of food production and consumption continues to threaten socio-

ecological systems and raises concern about rising malnutrition and obesity rates among

adults and children [

–

]. The community catering sector is widely regarded by scholars

as having the potential to foster necessary large-scale transformation processes towards

healthy, inclusive and sustainable food [

–

]. In recent years, more attention has been

paid to the significant role catering in public sector schools can play in these processes.

For instance, studies found evidence that the provision of healthy meals is linked to an

improvement in children’s nutritional intake and long-term dietary changes [

–

]. There is

also evidence of the positive impact of free school meal programs that provide children

from different social and economic backgrounds, and especially vulnerable groups, with

reliable access to food [

–

]. On the supply side, there are analyses of the contribution

school catering can make to the development of sustainable value chains by facilitating the

consumption of organic and regional food [13,14].

School catering in German public sector schools is criticized for its lack of dietary

standards and poor financing [

]. Equally problematic is the high number of pupils who

are not willing to eat school lunches on a regular basis [

]. Studies have identified several

reasons for the low interest in school meals, such as poor flavors, limited choice of dishes,

high prices, and a lack of quality in terms of the food and the physical environment [

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2024,21, 370. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph21030370 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2024,21, 370 2 of 19

In several other EU countries, school meal programs are in place that aim to improve

food access and increase dietary standards as well as the proportion of organic and regional

produce [

]. Although studies show no clear results on the effects of these particular

programs, there is broad consent among food scholars that providing healthier, sustainable

and more inclusive school meals requires less focus on cost efficiency and more on services

which promote the well-being of children [

]. To reach this objective, particular emphasis

is placed on systemic approaches targeting different economic, social, regulative, and

cultural factors that influence the daily food choices of children in school. This not only

calls for effective food interventions but also for a stronger involvement of all those who

play a role in school catering [

]. Although there is growing recognition of these processes

and their relevance in the transformation of school food environments, only very few

studies so far have presented findings on this topic with particular focus on the German

context. Moreover, there has been little investigation of the meal situation in secondary

schools, despite the fact that pupils participate even less frequently in school meals in this

age group [15].

This study aims to contribute to an understanding of the transformation of school

food environments in secondary schools and to identify tensions that might slow down this

process. These tensions might arise from the multifaceted process of school meal catering

and the complex social relations between the actors involved. These actors include munici-

pal school authorities, caterers, principals, teachers, and pupils, who all have specific roles

and responsibilities. This study followed a transdisciplinary research strategy, examining

school catering in secondary schools in Berlin. Focusing on Berlin allowed us to cooperate

more intensively with practitioners on site and monitor interventions that were initiated

during the research. The findings are derived from quantitative and qualitative data and

were obtained via an online survey of pupils from 25 secondary schools (amounting to

3015 valid responses) and by analysis of networking events, workshops, and continual

consultation with key practitioners. Together, these data provide a comprehensive view of

the institutional setting of school catering, including the perspectives of different actors.

2. Conceptual Background

The concept of food environments allows us to capture but also differentiate be-

tween the manifold aspects underlining the provision of school meals. In general, the

concept of food environments describes the setting in which daily food consumption takes

place [20,21]

. It is usually defined as “the collective physical, economic, policy and socio-

cultural surroundings” [

] (p. 112). These are the external factors that directly or indirectly

determine the food options of people [

]. On the individual level, these factors shape

individual consumption patterns by determining what food people have access to, can

afford and desire [21].

Based on this concept, a considerable number of studies have presented findings that

reveal the impact of school food environments on individual meal consumption. They

show that promoting dietary standards and the availability of healthy and sustainable food

options is associated with improved eating habits of children [

], a positive change in body

weight [

] and increased sales of sustainable dishes in schools [

]. Food environments

can also have a negative effect on health by providing children with access to unhealthy

food options from kiosks or competing fast food restaurants [26].

Furthermore, researchers have identified various factors that discourage or even

exclude pupils from eating at school. Examples are limited menu choice, poor food quality,

but also short lunch breaks and inconveniences in the lunchroom [15,27,28].

The vast majority of recent studies on the effectiveness of free meal programs confirm

that these lead to higher participation rates among pupils and to less social exclusion [

Other studies highlight the influence of socio-cultural aspects within and outside schools

on meal acceptance. These include the supervisory but also supportive role of teachers [

the role of eating and relaxing in peer interactions [

], differences in the cultural heritage

of pupils [31] and their tastes [32], as well as the influence of meal routines at home [17].

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2024,21, 370 3 of 19

There is a growing interest in approaches that emphasize the importance of engaging

school communities in the promotion of healthy [

] but also more sustainable food

environments [

]. The focus is on actors who are directly involved in the operation of

school catering. In addition, several authors point out the importance of involving pupils

in the process of changing school food environments; for instance, by taking their opinions

more seriously and providing them with opportunities to participate in school decision

making [

–

]. As part of the extended school community, parents have a strong influence

on their children’s food consumption at home and in most cases, they also pay for the meals

in school [

]. Moreover, studies have pointed out that integrating school food into

teaching and learning concepts helps children acquire knowledge that can be applied in

their daily lives. Aside from traditional school education, school meal services are analyzed

in terms of their potential to promote informal learning that provides pupils with positive

experiences and stimulates their interest in the topic [40].

Table 1summarizes the dimensions of school food environments and school commu-

nities that have guided the empirical analyses. Firstly, the physical dimension encompasses

the availability of food options, kitchen infrastructures and lunchrooms; secondly, the eco-

nomic dimension encompasses meal prices and the cost of catering and food preparation;

thirdly, the regulative dimension encompasses the impact of the legal framework, regula-

tions and dietary standards, as well as the overall organization of food service; fourthly,

the socio-cultural dimension encompasses eating habits and pupils’ tastes, as well as the

role of teachers and social norms among peer groups.

Table 1. Conceptual background for analyzing school food environments and school communities.

Dimensions Sub-Dimensions

Physical food options, kitchen infrastructures, lunchrooms,

competing food services

Economic meal prices, catering and food preparation costs

Regulative legal framework, meal regulations, dietary standards, food

service organization

Socio-cultural

food habits and tastes, role of teachers, social norms of peers

Social cohesion

quality of interactions between different actors within

school catering

opportunities for participation (e.g., attending school meals,

participating in working groups, committees)

inequalities (income, socio-cultural background) and

inclusiveness

In order to capture the role of school communities, we refer to the concept of social

cohesion. In social sciences, this term has been widely used to describe how individuals

are connected to others in society. More generally, it can be characterized by the number

and quality of social relations existing within and between individuals, social groups

and societies [

–

]. In our conceptualization, the analytical focus shifts towards the

quality of interactions between the relevant actors on different levels within school catering.

Social cohesion also encompasses participation, referring to peoples’ involvement in public

discussions or (political) decision making processes that address a common interest [

In our analysis, we focus on opportunities for members of the school community to

influence school food environments, for instance, by giving feedback or taking part in

working groups, programs or committees. Social cohesion also consists of a distributive

dimension, which touches on the access to and distribution of resources among community

members [

]. The analysis therefore takes into account the inequalities of pupils and

parents in terms of their socio-cultural background and available income. At the same

time, it captures efforts made to promote inclusiveness in school catering, for instance

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2024,21, 370 4 of 19

by providing meals that are both affordable and consider the special dietary needs and

restrictions of pupils.

3. Materials and Methods

This study followed a transdisciplinary research strategy and was conducted in co-

operation with the Networking Center for School Catering (NCSC) (“Vernetzungsstelle

Kita- und Schulverpflegung Berlin e.V.”) as well as with the Berlin Senate Department for

Education, Youth and Family (SenBJF). The research design makes use of a combination of

qualitative and quantitative data.

In consultation with our practice partners, we decided to conduct an online survey of

pupils in order to gain insights into the pupils’ perspective on school food environments in

Berlin secondary schools. The aim was to address pupils at higher secondary level (8th, 9th

and 10th grade), i.e., 14 years old or older.

In the first step, the questionnaire was designed by developing our own research

questions but also drawing from categories belonging to a Germany-wide survey on school

meals conducted in 2015 [

]. In the second step, the NCSC was involved in the develop-

ment by giving input on the overall structure and the wording of the questionnaire as well

as by proposing their own questions. We mutually agreed with the NCSC on a selection of

important questions that were subsequently included in the survey.

Three pretests

of the

questionnaire were conducted to determine whether the pupils understood the questions

correctly and that the survey was an appropriate length. In the third step, the pupils’

feedback was incorporated into a final version.

The majority of the questions aimed to analyze different elements of school food

environments. These included the pupils’ assessment of the quality and organization of

school food services, menu offers and prices, and the perceived quality of the lunchrooms, as

well as their general take-up rates, preferences and eating habits (

Supplementary Table S1

The survey and the questions were ethically approved by the SenBJF, who also contacted

the schools.

All Berlin secondary schools were officially invited to take part in the survey by the

SenBJF. Of these, 23 public sector and 2 private schools reported back and agreed to take

part in the survey. As shown in Supplementary Table S2, schools were characterized by

different sizes, with numbers of pupils ranging from 150 to 1200. The targeted schools

were distributed across eleven of the twelve Berlin districts. In total, 22 of the schools

had mandatory afternoon classes, whereas in three cases, attending afternoon classes

was optional.

The survey was conducted in cooperation with teachers, who guided the pupils

in filling out the questionnaire during or after class and made sure all the questions

were understood. Teachers were provided with detailed instructions on the procedure

beforehand. Because the survey took place during the COVID-19 pandemic, we needed the

assurance that the school canteens were open and operating regularly. Via exchanges with

teachers, we obtained additional contextual information on the school food environments,

such as meal prices, the canteen situation or the type of food service on offer at the time.

All pupils provided informed written consent before they started the survey.

The data were collected from December 2021 to May 2022. Supplementary Table S3

shows that 3015 valid responses from 1353 female and 1532 male pupils were taken into

account in the analysis (108 diverse, 22 not specified). The sample included 577 pupils

from the 8th grade, and 1227 and 1193 from the 9th and 10th grades, respectively (18 not

specified). The response rates varied widely between schools, ranging from 6% to 69%;

however, there were only a few schools where more than half of the pupils participated.

The data were analyzed by means of descriptive statistics using SPSS Version 29. After

the analysis, we documented the findings in individual school reports that were sent to

the respective schools. These reports addressed the most critical issues regarding the meal

situation and provided recommendations for improvement.

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2024,21, 370 5 of 19

In accordance with the transdisciplinary strategy, we obtained qualitative data by

organizing different events that facilitated further reflection on the findings and provided

opportunities to discuss solutions with schools and other relevant actors (Supplementary

Table S4). The events were also used to collect more qualitative data on political and legal

conditions, the relationships between the individual actors and their roles in the field of

Berlin school catering.

The overall results of the survey were presented to the NCSC and the SenBJF in two

online meetings. Subsequently, two networking events were held together with the NCSC

in September and October 2022. The first event took place at the Center for Technology

and Society. An invitation via email was sent to those schools in our survey which had a

fully equipped kitchen. The second event was held online; all of the other schools were

officially invited. In both events, we presented our findings to representatives from a total

of 23 schools including principals, teachers, caterers, representatives from the municipal

school authorities and parents. Based on their expertise on Berlin school catering as well

as on nutrition, the NCSC led and moderated the workshops. Participants were asked to

describe the lunch situation at their schools and to share their experiences. Due to the open

format of this event, they could also address different subjects on their own such as lunch

room and organization, the food quality or the pupils’ preferences and dietary patterns.

Additionally, three coaching sessions were held at individual schools during December

2022. We invited schools that participated in the previous networking events and expressed

interest in improving the lunch situation at their school. The NCSC was mainly responsible

for the organization and the moderation of the sessions. Between six and nine people

attended each session including principals, teachers, pupils and parents. At the beginning

of these sessions, we reported the survey results of the individual schools to the participants.

These results pointed out key areas for improving the school lunch from the pupils’ point

of view. With the expert input from the NCSC, different strategies were then developed

and discussed with the respective schools for improving the situation.

Finally, the NCSC organized a workshop on vegetarian food in school catering. This

workshop took place in a professional kitchen and a seminar room owned by the project

“Kantine Zukunft”. Under the guidance of a chef, three Berlin caterers from schools in our

survey were trained in cooking vegetarian dishes. The principal investigator was an active

participant in this workshop and collected data via observations and informal talks with

the attendants.

All of the aforementioned discussions and events were documented and transcribed

in anonymized minutes and observation records by the researchers. Informed consent state-

ments were obtained in advance. In addition, notes from several evaluation meetings with

the NCSC in which we co-interpreted the findings were also considered in the qualitative

analysis. Furthermore, documents, press releases and newspaper articles were reviewed in

order to gather additional information on the catering situation in Berlin regarding recent

meal programs, regulations and policies.

The qualitative analysis was guided by the key dimensions of the conceptual back-

ground (see Table 1). This was followed by an inductive coding approach through which

we identified four tensions in the transformation of school catering. These findings were

organized around the main aspects of the German catering system and, later on, also

discussed in meetings with the NCSC.

The following section provides an overview on the formal roles and responsibilities in

German school catering which will provide important context information and serve as a

structure for the presentation of our results.

4. Roles and Responsibilities in School Catering: Overview of the Situation in Germany

The German system of school catering involves a significant number of actors, each

of them with their own roles and responsibilities. Based on Jansen et al. (2020) [

], this

section focuses on six key actor groups: (1) the legal authorities on federal and municipal

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2024,21, 370 6 of 19

level, (2) the caterers, (3) the schools (principals and teachers), (4) the pupils and their

parents, and (5) intermediaries such as the NCSC.

Federal state authorities provide the legislation around school catering and are also

responsible for the development of school meal programs and new regulations. The

municipalities that operate under the broader legal framework determined by the federal

school laws are responsible for the provision of school meals [45].

The task of providing school meals is usually outsourced to private caterers who

participate in a tendering process to compete for a contract. The process is managed by the

municipal school authorities, who also determine the tender specifications. These include,

for instance, the technical and organizational requirements, the feedback procedures, the

expected menu compositions and the prices of each meal. Compulsory dietary standards

for serving healthy, sustainable and inclusive school meals do not exist in Germany [

Before making a decision, municipal school authorities enter into continuous exchange

with the respective school counsels, ensuring that sufficient consideration is given to their

specific needs. In accordance with EU public procurement regulations, caterers meeting

the tender specifications with the “best price-quality ratio” [

] (p. 23) will be awarded

a contract. Besides functional requirements, these specifications may also include social,

health and environmental standards. The school authorities are also responsible for funding

the construction and maintenance of (new) buildings for lunchrooms and kitchen facilities.

For the duration of the contract, the caterer is fully responsible for managing the meal

service, including food preparation, menu planning, hygiene and serving food. In some

schools, the caterer also operates the school kiosk or cafeteria where snacks and beverages

can be purchased. The landscape of school caterers is quite heterogeneous in terms of the

size of companies, cooking methods used, and the catering systems employed. If proper

school kitchen facilities exist, some caterers offer fresh cooking, while others specialize in

delivering food from an outlet kitchen [47].

Although they have no direct control over the organization of the meal service, schools

can indirectly exert influence through school counsels or food committees. For instance,

schools are often involved in the selection of caterers [

]. Moreover, schools have a certain

degree of autonomy when it comes to deciding on the content and focus of teaching and

learning concepts. This allows them to integrate topics related to school meals and healthy

nutrition not only into school policies and practices but also into the curriculum.

Pupils are not obliged to participate in school lunch and are therefore free to choose

whether, how and when they wish to eat. However, their decision making can be influenced

by teachers and their parents [

]. Both can contribute to a food education that shapes the

children’s eating behavior and general attitude towards food. In most cases, parents are

responsible for paying for the meals unless they receive state assistance.

The NCSCs exist in all 16 German federal states and are usually funded by the na-

tional or federal state government [

]. As an intermediate actor, they operate under the

umbrella of the National Quality Center for Nutrition in Daycare Centers and Schools.

Their work encompasses the organization of educational programs that target the school

community, but also counseling services aimed at improving the quality of school meals.

In order to address systemic deficits, the NCSC network combines forces in formulating

recommendations for political action on various issues such as the incorporation of dietary

standards into the tendering processes [47].

Figure 1summarizes the multifaceted system of German school catering including

actors, responsibilities and fields of activities. The next sections present the main tensions

from the analysis of our empirical data for Berlin secondary schools. The results will be

presented along the relevant aspects in school catering that are marked by the orange boxes.

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2024,21, 370 7 of 19

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2024, 21, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 19

from the analysis of our empirical data for Berlin secondary schools. The results will be

presented along the relevant aspects in school catering that are marked by the orange

boxes.

Figure 1. The German system of school catering.

5. Results

5.1. School Law, Meal Programs and Tenders for School Catering: Lack of Public Funding and

Catering Standards (Tension 1)

The document analysis and the exchange with the NCSC and the Berlin Senate

showed that the city state of Berlin has made several attempts to improve the quality and

dietary standards of school meals in the last two decades. This began back in 2003 with a

quality improvement campaign that was launched in cooperation with the Berlin NCSC,

the SenBJF and the AOK Berlin, a health insurance provider [48]. In 2013 this was followed

up by the parliament’s adoption of a new school law on improving the quality of school

lunches [49]. The aim was not only to introduce better standards in catering procurement

but also to involve schools more closely in this process. Additional eﬀorts were made in

subsequent years, but most of them focused on improving the catering situation for ele-

mentary schools. For instance, in 2019, the Berlin parliament passed a law that guaranteed

all elementary school pupils a free school lunch. Later on, the decision was taken to incor-

porate mandatory sustainability criteria into tender documents. This required caterers to

cook with 50% organic food by 2021 [50].

The documents show that secondary schools do not receive any subsidies for catering

from the city government, so budgeting issues make adequate quality improvements of

school food environments more diﬃcult. Unlike in the case of elementary schools, the city

government does not plan to either provide additional funding or to implement compul-

sory standards that aim, for instance, at increasing the share of organic food. According

to the NCSC, “any eﬀorts to subsidize sustainable (and cost-eﬀective) school meals have

been put on hold by the Berlin Senate [in 2022]” (meeting, May 2022). The state-funded

“berlinpass BuT”, provides the only possibility for children from vulnerable households

to get a free meal, but parents can only apply for it if they receive social welfare payments.

Figure 1. The German system of school catering.

5. Results

5.1. School Law, Meal Programs and Tenders for School Catering: Lack of Public Funding and

Catering Standards (Tension 1)

The document analysis and the exchange with the NCSC and the Berlin Senate showed

that the city state of Berlin has made several attempts to improve the quality and dietary

standards of school meals in the last two decades. This began back in 2003 with a quality

improvement campaign that was launched in cooperation with the Berlin NCSC, the SenBJF

and the AOK Berlin, a health insurance provider [

]. In 2013 this was followed up by the

parliament’s adoption of a new school law on improving the quality of school lunches [

The aim was not only to introduce better standards in catering procurement but also to

involve schools more closely in this process. Additional efforts were made in subsequent

years, but most of them focused on improving the catering situation for elementary schools.

For instance, in 2019, the Berlin parliament passed a law that guaranteed all elementary

school pupils a free school lunch. Later on, the decision was taken to incorporate mandatory

sustainability criteria into tender documents. This required caterers to cook with 50%

organic food by 2021 [50].

The documents show that secondary schools do not receive any subsidies for catering

from the city government, so budgeting issues make adequate quality improvements of

school food environments more difficult. Unlike in the case of elementary schools, the city

government does not plan to either provide additional funding or to implement compulsory

standards that aim, for instance, at increasing the share of organic food. According to the

NCSC, “any efforts to subsidize sustainable (and cost-effective) school meals have been put

on hold by the Berlin Senate [in 2022]” (meeting, May 2022). The state-funded “berlinpass

BuT”, provides the only possibility for children from vulnerable households to get a free

meal, but parents can only apply for it if they receive social welfare payments.

Due to a lack of compulsory standards, municipal school authorities are responsi-

ble for including catering specifications in the tender documents. These specifications

predetermine the provision of school food environments for the entire duration of the

contract. According to the NCSC, the Berlin authorities normally use templates that are

based on dietary recommendations from the German Nutrition Society. These templates

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2024,21, 370 8 of 19

were originally drafted and updated by the SenBJF in coordination with the NCSC, the

Berlin districts and the federal parents’ committee [51].

The school law recommends the involvement of schools in the process of formulating

catering specifications, ensuring that they match the individual needs and conditions of

the school. Our empirical data showed, however, that this is not always the case. In fact,

two of the schools that were supported with coaching had neither access to the contract nor

knowledge about its key components and duration.

In the coaching sessions, some school principals also reported having considerable

difficulty finding appropriate caterers due to the limited number of companies that offer

these services in Berlin (networking event 1). It was argued that this lack of competition

results from low profit margins and limited public subsidies, making public sector school

catering a rather unattractive business model.

Despite the lack of public funding and catering standards, some political and in-

termediary actors are making efforts to improve the lunch situation within secondary

education. For instance, the Berlin Senate Department for Justice and Consumer Protection

(SenJV) was officially in charge of the development of the Berlin municipal food strategy in

2020. One goal of this strategy is to increase the amount of organic, regional, healthy and

fair-trade food in all public catering facilities in the city [

]. The SenJV also finances the

project “Kantine Zukunft” [

], which offers caterers training courses and seminars that

deal with the different aspects of providing a more healthy and sustainable food service.

With support from the SenBJF, the NCSC is another important actor that leads a number

of programs such as the “IN FORM Projekt 2021–22” [

], which provides better food

education to children and teachers. Another state actor is the “Serviceagentur Ganztag”

(SAG), an agency that provides support and coaching to all-day schools, including coaching

on catering. In a recent publication, they included school catering as an important pillar in

the concept of all-day schooling [55].

5.2. Catering Service and Lunchrooms: Incompatible Demands and Preferences (Tensions 2)

According to the NCSC, providing healthy, inclusive and sustainable school meals is

a difficult undertaking for caterers. Dishes must meet contract specifications while also

matching pupils’ preferences.

The empirical findings of the quantitative survey indicate that caterers rarely manage

to provide a food offer that achieves a high level of acceptance. As presented in Figure 2,

the data show very low participation of pupils in school meals in Berlin secondary schools.

Two thirds of the pupils (67%) reported that they never eat lunch at their school even

though a warm meal is on offer. Only 21% eat a school meal at least 1–2 times per week

(Supplementary Table S5).

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2024, 21, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 19

Figure 2. Frequency of participation in warm school lunch (n = 2610).

On average, pupils tend to be dissatisfied with the menu, the presentation or the taste

of the food (see Figure 3 or Supplementary Table S6). When pupils were asked in the sur-

vey about their preferences, many requested a greater variety of food, e.g., food that is

more popular among their peers, such as fast food, but also food that encompasses the

culinary traditions they grew up and identify with. For 22% of the pupils, the main reason

for not attending school lunch was the taste of food.

Figure 3. Reasons for never or rarely eating a warm lunch at school (multiple answers).

In total, 12% of the children stated that they do not attend school lunch because it is

too expensive for them or their parents (see Figure 3). Discussions with the schools indi-

cated that the average meal price was between EUR 3.50 and EUR 4. While these prices

were too high for some parents, they are too low for some caterers. One of them argued

that they would barely suﬃce to keep their business afloat (Caterer 2, cooking workshop).

A total of 15% of the pupils stated that they would rather eat smaller snacks from the

kiosk than having a full meal at lunch (see Figure 3). In all three coaching sessions, pupils

and teachers also mentioned the popularity of snacks among pupils, but they also pointed

Figure 2. Frequency of participation in warm school lunch (n= 2610).

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2024,21, 370 9 of 19

On average, pupils tend to be dissatisfied with the menu, the presentation or the taste

of the food (see Figure 3or Supplementary Table S6). When pupils were asked in the survey

about their preferences, many requested a greater variety of food, e.g., food that is more

popular among their peers, such as fast food, but also food that encompasses the culinary

traditions they grew up and identify with. For 22% of the pupils, the main reason for not

attending school lunch was the taste of food.