Investorenarchitektur
The Planning, Organisation and Control of Architectural Quality
in Commercial Real Estate
vorgelegt von
ir. Paulus Alphonsus van der Kuil MSc
an der Fakultät VI – Planen Bauen Umwelt –
der Technischen Universität Berlin
zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades
Doktor der Ingenieurwissenschaften
– Dr.-Ing. –
genehmigte Dissertation
UPromotionsausschuss:
Vorsitzender: Prof. Ralf Pasel
Gutachterin: Prof. Dr. Kristin Wellner
Gutachter: Prof. Dr. Björn-Martin Kurzrock
Tag der wissenschaftlichen Aussprache: 26. Oktober 2023
Berlin 2023
I
1BAcknowledgements
When I left the University of Technology in Delft with a degree in Architecture in 2001, I had
been very successful in avoiding any classes that related to the management or economic
aspects of architecture. Nevertheless, I expected to be ready to embark on a sparkling career in
architecture, joining the illustrious names of Dutch architects of the 1990-ies. It only took a few
weeks to realise that my bank account would not support that route, forcing me to accept the
next best job that crossed my path. Fate brought me to a residential real estate developer in my
hometown Rotterdam, where my first assignment was to organise the files of a residential
development nearing completion. Subsequently, my career embarked on a muddy construction
site in the rural town of Middelharnis surrounded by crying foremen, canny real estate agents
and sometimes furious customers. Although I was very far away from the architecture I used to
admire in magazines, it was the best introduction to what architectural reality is about. The
many colleagues, architects, and other business partners who taught and supported me in
mastering real estate development and investment projects – as well as the car and the decent
salary that my employers provided – motivated me to stay and become that real estate
professional I never could have imagined becoming. In 2016, my average day at work had
changed from solving problems at muddy construction sites to rushing in and out of European
airports, hoping to arrive in time at the offices of local property managers, banks, lawyers, and
administration offices. I had meanwhile arrived in the world of real estate investment
management and felt somewhat lost between business, finance, and architecture. I decided that
it was time to take a step back towards my origins. It was this step that marked the beginning
of my research into the functioning of architectural quality in commercial real estate, and
eventually led me to the research and teaching position that I will assume at the Department of
Planning and Building Economics/ Real Estate at the Institute of Architecture of the University
of Technology in Berlin (TU Berlin) after the acceptance of this dissertation.
I could not have completed this research without the support of my supervisors Prof. Dr. Kristin
Wellner and Prof. Dr. Björn-Martin Kurzrock. It was Prof. Dr. Wellner who pitched to me the
word Investorenarchitektur as a term encompassing all that is right and/ or wrong with
commercial real estate, I thank her for that. A special thanks go to Prof. Dr. Kurzrock for his
last-minute commitment to supervise and support me in the completion of this complex research
topic. I will be looking forward to further researching and publishing with them on the various
topics and issues that have resulted from this dissertation.
During my work on the research for this dissertation, I supervised 20 students in their master's
and bachelor theses with topics in urban development, real estate, and architecture. This
experience was of invaluable importance for my research. My countless explanations,
instructions, and guidance in the setup of argumentations and research methods were also very
productive for the reflections on my work. Therefore, a special thanks goes to all students who
have crossed my path since 2016, you have been and hopefully will further be one of the most
inspiring sources for my academic thinking and practice.
Also, I would like to express my endless thanks to all the current and past colleagues of the
Master Programme of Real Estate Management, the Department of Planning and Construction
Economics/ Real Estate of TU Berlin and finally the team of colleagues of Campus El Gouna,
TU Berlin in Egypt and Berlin, especially my colleagues at the administration of the Campus
as well as my colleagues in the Master Program in Urban Development that was led by Prof.
II
Dr. Rudolf Schäfer. I very much hope that the Egyptian experiences will in some form or
another return to my academic teaching or research activities.
Finally, a very special thanks go to my friends and family, who during the last months, weeks,
and days of writing this dissertation supported me with cooked meals, drinks, or expressions of
hope and encouragement in moments of despair. But above all, I would like to give special
thanks to my parents Berna van der Kuil-Scheffers and Roeland van der Kuil. You have been a
tremendous support in all my professional and private activities, thank you! Thank you all!
Paulus van der Kuil
Berlin, September 2023
III
2BOverview
1BAcknowledgements ..................................................................................................................... I
2BOverview .................................................................................................................................. III
3BTable of Contents ...................................................................................................................... V
4BList of Tables ......................................................................................................................... VIII
5BList of Figures .......................................................................................................................... IX
6BAbbreviations ............................................................................................................................ X
7BAbstract ................................................................................................................................... XII
8BZusammenfassung ................................................................................................................. XIV
1. 10B Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1
1.1. 15BInvestorenarchitektur .............................................................................................. 1
1.2. 16BResearch Scope and Relevance .............................................................................. 2
1.3. 17BResearch Problem ................................................................................................... 5
1.4. 18BResearch Objective ............................................................................................... 11
1.5. 19BResearch Question ................................................................................................ 12
1.6. 20BConclusion ............................................................................................................ 13
2. 11B Research Approach ..................................................................................................... 14
2.1. 21BStrategic Approach ............................................................................................... 14
2.2. 22BTactic Approach ................................................................................................... 15
2.3. 23BResearch Design ................................................................................................... 17
2.4. 24BData ...................................................................................................................... 18
2.5. 25BConclusion ............................................................................................................ 24
3. 12B Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................... 25
3.1. 26BReal Estate System ............................................................................................... 25
3.2. 27BStrategic Quality Management ............................................................................. 28
3.3. 28BTransaction Costs Economics .............................................................................. 36
3.4. 29BComplex Systems ................................................................................................. 39
3.5. 30BConclusion ............................................................................................................ 48
4. 13B Phenomenology of Investorenarchitektur and General Debate .................................. 51
4.1. 31BInvestorenarchitektur in Architectural Publications ............................................ 51
4.2. 32BInvestorenarchitektur in Real Estate Publications ............................................... 79
4.3. 33BDebate on Architecture and Real Estate ............................................................... 84
4.4. 34BConclusion .......................................................................................................... 114
5. 14B Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 120
IV
5.1. 35BSimplicity in Complexity ................................................................................... 120
5.2. 36BPOC cycle in classic commercial real estate ...................................................... 121
5.3. 37BPOC cycle for architectural quality commercial real estate ............................... 123
5.4. 38BConclusion and Recommendations .................................................................... 129
9BAppendix ................................................................................................................................... X
References ............................................................................................................................ XVII
V
3BTable of Contents
1BAcknowledgements ..................................................................................................................... I
2BOverview .................................................................................................................................. III
3BTable of Contents ...................................................................................................................... V
4BList of Tables ......................................................................................................................... VIII
5BList of Figures .......................................................................................................................... IX
6BAbbreviations ............................................................................................................................ X
7BAbstract ................................................................................................................................... XII
8BZusammenfassung ................................................................................................................. XIV
1. 10B Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1
1.1. 15BInvestorenarchitektur .............................................................................................. 1
1.1.1 39BThe German Debate on Investorenarchitektur ................................................... 1
1.1.2 40BThe term Investorenarchitektur in German language ........................................ 2
1.2. 16BResearch Scope and Relevance .............................................................................. 2
1.2.1 41BResearch Scope Commercial Real Estate ........................................................... 2
1.2.2 42BCommercial Real Estate in Germany and Europe .............................................. 3
1.3. 17BResearch Problem ................................................................................................... 5
1.3.1 43BArchitecture as Complex System ....................................................................... 5
1.3.2 44BObjective of Architecture ................................................................................... 6
1.3.3 45BDimensions of Architectural Quality ................................................................. 7
1.3.4 46BEvaluation of Architectural Quality ................................................................... 8
1.3.5 47BImperative of Commercial Real Estate .............................................................. 9
1.4. 18BResearch Objective ............................................................................................... 11
1.4.1 48BManagement Strategy for Architectural Quality. ............................................. 11
1.4.2 49BEuropean Green Deal ....................................................................................... 12
1.5. 19BResearch Question ................................................................................................ 12
1.6. 20BConclusion ............................................................................................................ 13
2. 11B Research Approach ..................................................................................................... 14
2.1. 21BStrategic Approach ............................................................................................... 14
2.2. 22BTactic Approach ................................................................................................... 15
2.2.1 50BTheoretical Sampling within Grounded Theory ............................................... 15
2.2.2 51BPhenomenological Analysis ............................................................................. 16
2.3. 23BResearch Design ................................................................................................... 17
2.4. 24BData ...................................................................................................................... 18
2.4.1 52BGeneral Approach to Data Sourcing ................................................................ 18
VI
2.4.2 53BData on Investorenarchitektur in German Architectural Press ........................ 19
2.4.3 54BData on Investorenarchitektur in German Real Estate Press ........................... 20
2.4.4 55BData on General Debate Between Architecture and Real Estate ..................... 21
2.4.5 56BInternational Publications Concerning the Debate ........................................... 22
2.4.6 57BVisual Presentations of Investorenarchitektur ................................................. 22
2.4.7 58BWikipedia ......................................................................................................... 22
2.4.8 59BInvestorenarchitektur.de ................................................................................... 23
2.4.9 60BOther information sources used in the study. ................................................... 23
2.5. 25BConclusion ............................................................................................................ 24
3. 12B Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................... 25
3.1. 26BReal Estate System ............................................................................................... 25
3.1.1 61BDescription ....................................................................................................... 25
3.1.2 62BDiscussion ........................................................................................................ 27
3.1.3 63BConclusion ........................................................................................................ 28
3.2. 27BStrategic Quality Management ............................................................................. 28
3.2.1 64BDescription ....................................................................................................... 28
3.2.2 65BDiscussion ........................................................................................................ 32
3.2.3 66BConclusion ........................................................................................................ 35
3.3. 28BTransaction Costs Economics .............................................................................. 36
3.3.1 67BDescription ....................................................................................................... 36
3.3.2 68BDiscussion ........................................................................................................ 37
3.3.3 69BConclusion ........................................................................................................ 39
3.4. 29BComplex Systems ................................................................................................. 39
3.4.1 70BDescription ....................................................................................................... 39
3.4.2 71BDiscussion ........................................................................................................ 44
3.4.3 72BConclusion ........................................................................................................ 47
3.5. 30BConclusion ............................................................................................................ 48
4. 13B Phenomenology of Investorenarchitektur and General Debate .................................. 51
4.1. 31BInvestorenarchitektur in Architectural Publications ............................................ 51
4.1.1 73BMeaning of the term Investorenarchitektur in architectural press ................... 53
4.1.2 74BSummary of the meaning of Investorenarchitektur in the architectural press. 75
4.2. 32BInvestorenarchitektur in Real Estate Publications ............................................... 79
4.2.1 75BMeaning of the term Investorenarchitektur in real estate press ....................... 80
4.2.2 76BSummary of meaning of Investorenarchitektur in real estate press ................. 83
4.3. 33BDebate on Architecture and Real Estate ............................................................... 84
VII
4.3.1 77BIssues in publications that cover the debate on the relationship between
architecture and real estate. .......................................................................................... 86
4.3.2 78BSummary of Issues in the Debate on the Relationship of Architecture and Real
Estate. 109
4.4. 34BConclusion .......................................................................................................... 114
4.4.1 79BAesthetics, Missing Aspiration, Idiosyncrasy, and Quality Collateral .......... 115
4.4.2 80BAgency, Competency, Planning Process and Theory Crisis .......................... 116
4.4.3 81BDiscussion of Tactic Implications per Theme ................................................ 117
5. 14B Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 120
5.1. 35BSimplicity in Complexity ................................................................................... 120
5.2. 36BPOC cycle in classic commercial real estate ...................................................... 121
5.3. 37BPOC cycle for architectural quality commercial real estate ............................... 123
5.3.1 82BPlanning for Architectural Quality in CRE .................................................... 123
5.3.2 83BOrganisation of Architectural Quality in CRE ............................................... 125
5.3.3 84BControl of Architectural Quality in Real Estate ............................................. 127
5.3.4 85BPOC cycle in 5-Phase model .......................................................................... 128
5.4. 38BConclusion and Recommendations .................................................................... 129
5.4.1 86BConclusion ...................................................................................................... 129
5.4.2 87BRecommendations .......................................................................................... 130
9BAppendix ................................................................................................................................... X
References ............................................................................................................................ XVII
VIII
4BList of Tables
Table 1 NACE section L Real Estate Activities, division 68. The statistical
classification of Real Estate in the European Union.
4
Table 2 Instrument – Objective swap in the commercial dimension of commercial
real estate.
10
Table 3 Primary sources for the study of the theoretical framework of architectural
quality in commercial real estate.
16
Table 4 Steps in Phenomenological Research. 17
Table 5 List of preparatory activities for study on Investorenarchitektur – The
Planning Control and Organisation of Architectural Quality in Commercial
Real Estate.
19
Table 6 Search as of February 2023 on the keyword Investorenarchitektur in
architecture magazines listed on akbw.de.
20
Table 7 Search as of February 2023 on the keyword Investorenarchitektur in real
estate magazines.
21
Table 8 Four major quality areas, emphasis on Strategic Quality Management. 30
Table 9 Allocation of Garvin’s quality dimensions to the quality dimensions of
architectural quality.
35
Table 10 Project types and management approaches. 42
Table 11 Overview of 69 publications in the architectural press concerning
Investorenarchitektur.
53
Table 12 Theme clusters in the architectural press using the term
Investorenarchitektur.
75
Table 13 Summary of 80 units of meaning with their theme allocation of the term
Investorenarchitektur in the architectural press.
79
Table 14 Overview of 10 publications in real estate press concerning
Investorenarchitektur.
80
Table 15 Theme clusters in real estate press using the term Investorenarchitektur. 83
Table 16 Summary of 12 units of meaning with their theme allocation of the term
Investorenarchitektur in real estate press.
84
Table 17 Overview of 31 publications covering the polemic relationship between
architecture and real estate.
86
Table 18 Selection of contributions in the online debate Brauchen wir mehr
Investorenarchitektur? reduced to the main issue of the contribution.
100
Table 19 Theme clusters in the debate on the relationship between architecture and
real estate.
110
Table 20 Summary of 66 issues in publications covering the polemic relationship
between architecture and real estate.
114
Table 21 Synthesis of themes, units of meaning of Investorenarchitektur, and issues
in the publications covering the polemic relationship between architecture
and real estate.
115
IX
5BList of Figures
Figure 1 Architecture as complex system of interacting dimensions. All aspects are
perfectly interacting, and the quality of architecture is at its optimum.
6
Figure 2 Architecture as complex system of interacting dimensions. Only some
aspects are interacting, and the quality of architecture is suboptimal.
6
Figure 3 The distinction between hard and soft qualities. 9
Figure 4 Methodological practices of strategies and tactics are framed by broader
systems of inquiry and schools of thought.
14
Figure 5 Research design. 18
Figure 6 Real estate system. 26
Figure 7 Different classes of systems. 40
Figure 8 Cynefin Domains developed by Dave Snowden. 41
Figure 9 Dynamic Safety Model by Jens Rasmussen. 43
Figure 10 Theoretical framework for architectural quality in commercial real estate. 49
Figure 11 Average additional height in New York City due to spatial competition,
1895-2004.
88
Figure 12 The cover page of the issue 3.2017 of the German architecture journal
Bauwelt.
95
Figure 13 The article Eintönige Neubauten with a picture of the Europa-Allee in
Frankfurt am Main.
102
Figure 14 Gewerbeimmobilien, Baukultur und Instagram. 106
Figure 15 ‘Routine office towers’ by developer Kaufman as mentioned by
Goldberger. 747 Third Avenue, 127 John Street, and 77 Water Street in
Manhattan New York City.
107
Figure 16 5-phase model for commercial real estate development with a projection of
POC Cycle.
127
Figure 17 Quality definition approaches for architectural quality in commercial real
estate.
124
Figure 18 Work packages to be included in the 5-phase model. 127
Figure 19 Suggestion for a management model for architectural quality in
commercial real estate based on the 5-phase model.
128
X
6BAbbreviations
AD Anno Domini
AT Austria
BBSR Bundesinstitut für Bau- Stadt- und Raumforschung
BC Before Christ
BDA Bund Deutscher Architektinnen und Architekten
BU Bulgaria
BIM Building Information Modelling
CF California
CH Confoederatio Helvetica (Switzerland)
CNAPPC Consiglio Nazionale Degli Architetti Pianificatori Paesaggisti e Conservatori
CRE Commercial Real Estate
DE Deutschland (Germany)
ESG Environment Social Governance
EU European Union
FOC Swiss Federal Office of Culture
DT Swiss Department of Territorial Development
GDR German Democratic Republic
GiF e.V. Gesellschaft für immobilienwirtschaftliche Forschung e.V.
IBA Internationale Bauausstellung [International Building Exhibition]
IT Italia
ICCROM International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural
Property
ICOMOS International Council on Monuments and Sites
KH Cambodia
SIA Swiss Society of Engineers and Architects
SIEV Società Italiana di Estimo e Valutazione
TH Thailand
TU Technische Universität (University of Technology)
MIPIM Marché International des Professionnels de l’Immobilier
MM Myanmar
XI
NACE Nomenclature statistique des activités économiques dans la Communauté
européenne.
NY New York
POC Planning Organization Control
UAL University of the Arts London
UCLA University of California Los Angeles
UIA International Union of Architects
UK United Kingdom
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
USA United States of America
US United States
ZIA Zentraler Immobilien Ausschuss
XII
7BAbstract
Ever since the definition of private property rights, the use of that property and the buildings
that were built upon provided vehicles for return on capital invested. This ongoing process has
led to a growing discrepancy between buildings as cultural, social, and aesthetic artefacts and
the building as a financial objective of real estate investment. In German-speaking countries,
this phenomenon is often scolded with the vague and unprecise term Investorenarchitektur.
This dissertation aims to understand what problems the term expresses and argues how a
management strategy for architectural quality in commercial real estate would have to look like
to avoid those problems. For this dissertation, architectural quality is understood as a complex
interacting system of aesthetic, cultural, social, technical, and economic dimensions. To
formulate a management strategy for architectural quality in commercial real estate, theories in
the field of business administration, strategic quality management, general economic
organizational theory as well as management of complex systems have been studied to
formulate a theoretical framework for a management strategy. To this end, the method of
theoretical sampling within the methodology of Grounded Theory was applied. Secondly, 79
articles in German architectural and real estate press using the term Investorenarchitektur, as
well as an additional 31 international articles that cover the problematic relationship between
architecture and real estate have been subjected to phenomenological analysis. The research
resulted in the adaptation of three quality definitions that are to be applied in various stages of
the management strategy of architectural quality in commercial real estate. In the value-based
definition of architecture, the value of property rights that results out of the dynamics of real
estate space markets, asset markets, capital markets and local and national economies frames
the price of architecture at acceptable costs. As such, it defines the economic dimension of
architectural quality. The manufacturing-based definition is the second definition that applies
to architectural quality and defines the technical dimension of architectural quality. Finally, to
integrate the tangible economic and technical dimensions of architectural quality into a complex
holistic sum that is more than the sum of its parts, the transcendent definition of architectural
quality needs to be defined. In this definition, the cultural, social, and aesthetic dimensions of
architectural quality are united and combined with the economic and technical dimensions. The
study of management approaches for complex systems led to the adaptation of a Dynamic Safety
Model in which a complex system operates between the boundary of unacceptable performance,
unacceptable workload, and economic failure. Adapted into the management strategy for
architectural quality in commercial real estate, the value-based definition of architectural
quality defines the boundary of economic failure, the manufacturing-based definition defines
the boundary of unacceptable workload and finally the transcendent definition defines the
boundary of unacceptable performance. The phenomenological analysis of the term
Investorenarchitektur and the general debate on the relationship between architecture and real
estate resulted in 158 problem statements that were allocated to 8 themes. The themes of
aesthetics, missing aspiration, idiosyncrasy, and quality collateral refer to the product of
architectural quality, whereas the themes of agency, competency, planning process and theory
crisis refer to the process of architectural quality. The product-related themes all relate to the
neglect or avoidance of integrating the aesthetic, cultural and social dimensions into a quality
strategy for commercial real estate, whereas the process-related themes uncover problems in
the relationship between commercial real estate clients and design agents. The main issue in
both product and process-related problems is that a mutual understanding of a definition of
architectural quality seems to be missing. The dissertation concludes with the formulation of a
XIII
management strategy for architectural quality in the form of a Planning, Organisation and
Control cycle. This cycle is projected on a 5-phase management model for commercial real
estate development. This model includes an architectural mission statement in the planning
phase in which the value-based definition and manufacturing-based definition of architectural
quality are framed by the transcendent definition of architectural quality. To subsequently
organise the process of architectural quality and align the interests of clients and multiple design
agents, a profit-based fee structure must replace a cost-based fee structure. Finally, the use of
Building Information Modelling (BIM) techniques shall enable the control of architectural
quality in both its product as well as process dimensions.
XIV
8BZusammenfassung
Die seit Jahrhunderten entwickelte Praxis, Eigentumsrechte an Gebäuden für eine
Kapitalinvestition mit Renditeerwartung anzuwenden, hat zu einer Diskrepanz im Verständnis
vom Gebäude als Immobilie und dem Gebäude als kulturelles, soziales und ästhetisches
Produkt geführt. Im deutschsprachigen Raum wird für dieses Phänomen häufig der vage und
ungenaue Begriff der Investorenarchitektur verwendet. Diese Dissertation hat das Ziel zu
verstehen, welche Probleme der Begriff thematisiert, und zeigt auf, wie eine
Managementstrategie für Architekturqualität in Immobilieninvestitionen mit einer
Renditeerwartung aussehen müsste, um diese Probleme zu vermeiden. Im Rahmen dieser
Dissertation wird Architekturqualität als ein komplexes, interagierendes System ästhetischer,
kultureller, sozialer, technischer und wirtschaftlicher Dimensionen verstanden. Um einen
theoretischen Rahmen für eine Managementstrategie für Architekturqualität in
Immobilieninvestitionen zu formulieren, wurden in einem ersten Schritt Theorien aus den
Bereichen Betriebswirtschaftslehre, strategisches Qualitätsmanagement, allgemeine
wirtschaftliche Organisationstheorie sowie Management komplexer Systeme untersucht. Die
Auswertung erfolgte mithilfe eines theoretischen Samplings nach der Methodik der Grounded
Theory. Im nächsten Schritt wurden 79 Artikel in der deutschen Architektur- und
Immobilienpresse zum Begriff „Investorenarchitektur“ sowie weitere 31 internationale
Publikationen, die sich mit dem problematischen Verhältnis von Architektur und Immobilien
befassen, einer phänomenologischen Analyse unterzogen. Ergebnis des theoretischen
Samplings war zunächst die Definition von drei Begriffen von Architekturqualität, die in
verschiedenen Phasen der Managementstrategie angewendet werden sollen. In der value-based
quality Definition bestimmt der Wert von Eigentumsrechten, der sich aus der Dynamik von
Immobilienflächenmärkten, Immobilienanlagenmärkten, Kapitalmärkten sowie lokalen und
nationalen Wirtschaftssystemen ergibt, den Preis von Architektur zu akzeptablen Kosten. Somit
definiert die value-based quality die wirtschaftliche Dimension von Architekturqualität. Als
zweite Definition bezeichnet der Begriff der manufacturing-based quality die technische
Dimension von Architekturqualität. Um schließlich die greifbaren wirtschaftlichen und
technischen Dimensionen von Architekturqualität zu einer komplexen ganzheitlichen Sicht zu
integrieren, die mehr als ihre Teile ergibt, wird der Begriff der transcendent quality
angewendet. Dieser zielt darauf ab, die kulturellen, sozialen und ästhetischen Dimensionen
architektonischer Qualität mit den wirtschaftlichen und technischen Dimensionen zu
verknüpfen. Die Untersuchung von Managementansätzen für komplexe Systeme führte zur
Übernahme eines Dynamic Safety Model in dem ein komplexes System zwischen inakzeptabler
Leistung, inakzeptabler Arbeitsbelastung und wirtschaftlichem Scheitern operiert. In diesem
Rahmen bestimmt die value-based Definition die boundary of economic failure, die
manufacturing-based Definition die boundary of unacceptable workload und schließlich die
transcendent Definition die boundary of unacceptable performance von Architekturqualität.
Die phänomenologische Analyse des Begriffs Investorenarchitektur und die allgemeine Debatte
zum Verhältnis von Architektur und Immobilien ergaben 158 Problemstellungen, die acht
Themen zugeordnet wurden. Die Themen aesthetics, missing aspiration, idiosyncrasy und
quality collateral beziehen sich auf Architekturqualität als Produkt, während sich die Themen
agency, competency, planning process und theory crisis auf den Prozess von
Architekturqualität beziehen. Die produkt- bezogenen Themen beschreiben eine
Vernachlässigung oder Vermeidung von ästhetischen, kulturellen und sozialen Dimensionen in
Immobilieninvestitionen mit einer Renditeerwartung, während die prozessbezogenen Themen,
XV
Probleme in der Beziehung zwischen gewerblichen Auftraggeber*innen und Planer*innen
aufdecken. Das Kernthema bei produkt- und prozessbezogenen Problemen besteht darin, dass
ein gemeinsames Verständnis für eine Definition der Architekturqualität zu fehlen scheint. Die
Dissertation schließt mit der Formulierung einer Managementstrategie für Architekturqualität
in Immobilieninvestitionen in Form eines Planungs-, Organisations- und Kontrollzyklus basiert
auf ein 5-Phasen-Managementmodell der Immobilienprojektentwicklung ab. Abschließend
wird argumentiert, dass eine Managementstrategie für Architekturqualität in
Immobilieninvestitionen mit einer Renditeerwartung bereits in der Planungsphase ein
architectural mission statement bedarf. In diesem mission statement sollten die value-based
und manufacturing-based Definitionen von Architekturqualität durch die transcendent
Definition von Architekturqualität umrahmt werden. Für den anschließenden Prozess der
Erreichung ganzheitlicher Architekturqualität sowie die Gleichschaltung von Interessen von
Auftraggeber*innen und Planer*innen, muss eine gewinnbasierte Gebührenstruktur eine
kostenbasierte Gebührenstruktur ersetzen. Schließlich soll der Einsatz von Building
Information Modeling (BIM)-Techniken die Kontrolle von Architekturqualität in
Immobilieninvestitionen mit einer Renditeerwartung sowohl in ihrer Produkt- als auch in ihrer
Prozessdimension ermöglichen.
1
1. 10B Introduction
Ever since the definition of private property rights, the use of that property and the buildings
that were built upon provided vehicles for returns on capital invested. This process, which
emerged in British and Dutch economies of the 16th and 17th centuries (Linklater, 2013), has
evolved into the commercial real estate industry as we acknowledge it today. Parallel to
commodification processes in industrialised free market economies, the real estate industry has
been and is constantly developing tools and processes to enhance the efficiency and liquidity
of the investment vehicle: Buildings and the built environment. This ongoing process has led
to a growing discrepancy between buildings as cultural, social, and aesthetic artefacts and the
building as a financial objective of real estate investment. The commercial real estate sector is
seemingly pushing aside less tangible cultural, social, and aesthetic considerations of building
design in favour of tangible and rational economic and technical considerations. In German-
speaking countries, this phenomenon is often scolded with the unprecise, polemic term
Investorenarchitektur. The phenomenon that this term describes has been the trigger for this
dissertation. Can the apparent gap between real estate and architectural quality be closed? Is a
management strategy for architectural quality in commercial real estate possible? And how
would it look like?
As an introduction to the research that followed these questions, the following chapter starts
with a more detailed reflection on the German term Investorenarchitektur. After that, the scope
of commercial real estate is set and a demonstration of the relevance of the research is given.
The chapter continues with the presentation of the research problem, which consists of an
understanding of architectural quality, its objective, its dimensions, and evaluation problems.
Then the apparent bias of commercial real estate towards technical and economic considerations
is formulated as imperative to real estate. Finally, the chapter concludes with a statement of the
research objective and research questions.
1.1. 15BInvestorenarchitektur
1.1.1 39BThe German Debate on Investorenarchitektur
In the German public debate on the built environment, the term Investorenarchitektur is an
often-reappearing terminology to criticize the quality of the built environment. In most cases, a
reference is made to construction projects for which real estate developers are responsible.
Normally the term Investorenarchitektur does not express a positive appreciation for the
architecture that is discussed (Friedrich and Brensing, 2017a), but is rather used to vilify the
architecture or to set up a contrast with ‘normal’ architecture. Furthermore, the discussion is
often presented in a highly polemic context. Differentiations are made between ‘good’ and
‘bad’, ‘artful’ architecture and ‘commercial’ architecture [Künstlerarchitektur,
Investorenarchitektur] (Friedrich, 2017b) or the term suggests a ‘hegemony’ (Martin et al.,
2015b, p. 20) of real estate considerations instead of architectural considerations. In many
cases, a finger is pointed at the real estate industry, which supposedly has an irresponsible
attitude towards the quality of the built environment. Often statements can be found that the
real estate sector supposedly has no interest in a high-quality built environment, or only to such
extent that it supports the financial return objective of the real estate project.
2
The discussion on Investorenarchitektur in German-speaking countries reveals a highly
confusing but very intriguing problem in architectural studies. What does the unprecise term of
Investorenarchitektur actually refer to? What problems or dimensions (Wellner, 2020) in
architecture does it describe and what can the real estate sector do to solve these problems?
And, if the term would express an aesthetic judgement, why would one not simply use words
like ugly architecture or unattractive architecture? Furthermore, the polemic context in which
the term is often used seems to refer to a larger issue that apparently distresses the relationship
between architecture and its real estate clients. What are these issues and what can be done to
solve the problems they describe? Why does a special classification of architecture for the real
estate sector at all exist? Does not every design involve an investor of some kind? Or, put
simply: How can Investorenarchitektur become Architektur?
1.1.2 40BThe term Investorenarchitektur in German language
The word Investorenarchitektur requires explication for the non-German reader. The term,
which is an idiom combining the words Investor and Architektur, does not have an entry in
German dictionaries. It literally means ‘architecture by investors’. Nevertheless, the use of the
German version of the word Investor needs some further clarification to arrive at a correct
translation and understanding of Investorenarchitektur.
The online Oxford Academic Dictionary gives the following definition of the English investor:
“A67T person or an organization that invests money in something67T” (Oxford University
Press, 2023).
The German online dictionary Duden however gives a different definition of the male Investor
and female Investorin:
“Männliche [oder] weibliche Person, Firma o.Ä. die investiert, Kapital anlegt”
(Cornelsen Verlag GmbH, 2023).
Whereas the English investor is simply investing money, the German Investor or Investorin is
investing Kapital - capital. As such the German Investor*in appears to have capitalistic
motivations; she*he is not just investing money to construct or purchase a building to use it,
but she*he is investing money in buildings to make a profit of its utility. The German Investor
therefore has a stronger meaning than the English investor and is suggesting a commercial,
hence capitalistic, motivation for the investment activity. Thus, a correct term to refer to an
investor investing capital into property in the form of land and buildings (architecture) would
be a commercial real estate investor. Therefore, a correct translation of the term
Investorenarchitektur in the English language would be ‘architecture by commercial real estate
investors’, instead of simply ‘architecture by investors’. In the following, I will continue to use
the German idiom Investorenarchitektur next to the English translation ‘architecture by
commercial real estate investors’.
1.2. 16BResearch Scope and Relevance
1.2.1 41BResearch Scope Commercial Real Estate
As set out above, the investors that are concerned with Investorenarchitektur are understood to
be those investors that have a commercial interest in investing. The purpose of their investment
3
in real estate is to obtain a financial return, or at least obtain a security hedge on the capital
invested. As such this research only considers buildings and building projects in which
developers or owners are commercially exploiting the utility of their property. That is: Leasing
the buildings’ spaces to users outside of their organisation, reselling property to other investors
after development or the investment holding period or selling units off to individual users upon
completion. In commercial real estate, the owner of the property is typically disconnected from
the users of the building or users of individual units in the building. The owner is primarily
interested in the rights that are provided with the property, its utility, rather than the thing
(McPherson, 1978) that the property presents: A building as social-cultural-aesthetic, hence
architectural, artefact. In commercial real estate, users are as tenants and buyers providing a
cash flow to the real estate investor or developers, a cash flow that in its essence forms the
financial return on the real estate investment. Commercial real estate investors and developers
can be both institutional organizations as well as private persons. Furthermore, ‘architecture by
commercial real estate investors’ as understood for this dissertation can cover buildings with
any type of utility, of any size. Residential, commercial, retail, office, mixed-use or any other
types of use are all included as long as the owner or client of the building project has commercial
intentions: investing capital into the utility that real estate provides, to make a profit and/or
secure the value of the capital invested. Finally, the dissertation looks at both real estate
developments, as well as the management of existing investments or the redevelopment and
refurbishment of existing buildings.
1.2.2 42BCommercial Real Estate in Germany and Europe
As the polemic debate on Investorenarchitektur is suggesting serious issues in the quality of
the built environment produced by the commercial real estate sector, it shall be relevant to
understand the size of the building production and building stock for which the sector is
responsible. Unfortunately, this can only be done by approximation. Although the commercial
intentions of the investors may be obvious upon construction or purchase of a building,
commercial intentions of the investment are not registered.
The German ‘Central Real Estate Committee’ ZIA defines the real estate sector with a wider
and narrower understanding. In its narrow understanding, it includes all companies that are
involved in the operation, brokerage, or management of real estate, including owner-occupiers
and small private landlords and landladies. In its wider understanding, it includes also all the
companies that are involved in the value-creation process of real estate. This means that
architects, construction companies and financiers are included in the wider understanding of
the real estate sector (Just et al., 2017, p. 20). In 2022 the German Real Estate sector in its wider
understanding represented 19% (670 billion EUR) of the national value added. Furthermore,
26% (799.000) of all companies were active in one of the activities in the wider definition of
real estate. As such it represents the second-largest economic activity of the country, right after
the manufacturing industry (Just and Maennig, 2016, p. 18). In 2021, the net asset value of all
German real estate (buildings only) amounted to 10.4 trillion EUR, of which 6,5 trillion were
residential properties. In 2021 ca. 352 billion EUR (0,352 trillion EUR, land and buildings)
were owned by institutionally managed investors such as open and closed-end funds and
insurance companies (Hellwig, 2022). Germany is a country of tenants, in 2021 less than 50%
of the households lived in owner-occupied spaces (Eurostat, 2023b). This implies that the other
half of the households live in apartments which they rent from private or institutional owners.
4
It is therefore likely that many of these owners have a commercial objective in renting out their
property.
In European statistics the real estate sector is captured in the statistical economic activity
category of NACE section L, division 68 which is applied by EUROSTAT, the statistical office
of the European Union (Table 1). It includes three main groups of economic activities: The
buying and selling of own real estate, the renting and operating of owned or leased real estate
and the real estate activities on a fee or contract basis. As the NACE sector, L describes the
non-financial servicing activities concerned with real estate, it only gives an indirect indication
of the size of the financial activity of real estate investment. How much of this is a commercial
investment activity, however, cannot be concluded from these figures and shall be assessed by
looking at the numbers of homeownership.
Division Group Class Activity
68 68.1 68.10 Bu
y
in
g
and sellin
g
of own real estate
68.2 68.20 Rentin
g
and operatin
g
of own or leased real estate
68.3 Real estate activities on a fee or contract basis:
68.31 Real Estate
Ag
encies
68.32
M
ana
g
ement o
f
real estate on a
f
ee or contract basis
Table 1 NACE section L Real Estate Activities, division 68. The statistical classification of Real
Estate in the European Union. Table adapted from Eurostat (2008, p. 80)
In 2020 the real estate sector that is described in section L employed 2.5 million people in more
than 1,3 million enterprises in the countries of the European Union, which stands for 1,9% of
its total employment (Eurostat, 2023a). Within the EU countries, Germany represented by far
the largest share in value added (26,7%), followed by France (14,8,%) and Denmark (8,6%),
the Netherlands (7,5%) and Sweden (7,4%) (Eurostat, 2023a). Concerning homeownership,
Germany had in 2021 the lowest rate of homeownership in the countries of the EU (49,1%),
followed by Austria (54,2%), Denmark (59,2%) and France (64,7%). The average of the EU
lies at 69,9%. Switzerland only had 42,2 % of homeownership in 2021 (Eurostat, 2023b).
The combination of NACE sector L activities in combination with homeownership gives some
indication about the relevance of commercial real estate investors for the built environment of
a country. A low homeownership rate indicates that a large share of households is renting,
which suggests in turn that a large portion of these properties are held by commercial real estate
investors. This is confirmed by the large share of NACE sector L activities, which describe the
servicing activities within the real estate sector.
The German-speaking countries (Germany, Austria, and Switzerland) are amongst those
countries with the lowest share in homeownership, and at least for Germany a large share of
NACE sector L activities. It, therefore, can be expected that in these countries the commercial
real estate investors (both the small private persons as well as the larger and institutional
developers) are responsible for a large share of the ownership and construction activities in the
built environment, and as such are amongst the most influential stakeholders in shaping the
built environment (Carmona, 2009, p. 2644). It is thus not surprising that a discussion on the
quality of architecture by commercial real estate investors is omnipresent in these countries.
5
1.3. 17BResearch Problem
1.3.1 43BArchitecture as Complex System
Architectural design is perhaps among the most complex fields of study. It covers aesthetic,
cultural, social, technical, and economic questions and studies the design of the built
environment both as a product as well as a process (Groth, 2018, p. 119). It does not describe
an absolute truth, but ‘draws its meaning from its context and is therefore different every time’
(Architects Council of Europe, 2019, p. 1). Or as the philosopher Roger Scruton stated in his
widely read book The Aesthetics of Architecture:
“There are many ways of studying architecture – from the point of view of the engineer,
of the historian, of the critic, of the client – and each way seems to propose its own
favoured concepts, and seems to arrive at an organisation of the subject which, if not at
variance with its rivals, at least bears no clear relation to them. According to his
preconceptions, therefore, a student of architecture may describe the nature of buildings,
our experience of them, their meaning and their value, in many unrelated ways” (Scruton,
2013, p. 34).
Although architecture falls apart in many single knowledge fields, techniques and practices, the
building as the ultimate product of architecture will always be the sum of its parts. And it is
only when the result of these complex relations becomes more than the sum of its parts, that
architectural quality emerges. Or as Vincenzo Bentivegna states:
“The quality of the work of architecture emerges from the intersection of its different
dimensions (aesthetic-symbolic, spatial, environmental, social, political-institutional,
technical, economic, etc. ), which cannot be expressed by any technical analysis”
(Bentivegna, 2019, p. 25).
Due to the complexity of architecture, the process towards architecture has become as important
as the product of architecture (Groth, 2018, p. 119). Although the economic, aesthetic, social,
environmental, and cultural value of architecture theoretically could be assessed individually in
these processes, the final product of architecture – a design process that results in a building –
unites all these individual aspects pars pro toto into one intersectional and multi-dimensional
whole. As such architecture describes a complex system that is
"[…] made up of a large number of parts that interact in a nonsimple way. In such
systems, the whole is more than the sum of the parts, not in an ultimate, metaphysical
sense, but in the important pragmatic sense that, given the properties of the parts and the
laws of their interaction, it is not a trivial matter to infer the properties of the whole. "
(Simon, 1962, p. 469)
The quality of architecture thus lies in the sum that exceeds the whole and that is driven by the
interaction of its parts, parts that nevertheless should remain recognisable for pragmatic and
managerial reasons. This intersectional and multidimensional whole of architectural quality is
graphically presented in Figure 1. In the diagram, the different dimensions of architecture – i.e.,
aesthetic, cultural, social, economic, and technical – are perfectly interacting. The subject of
architecture – a building that can host a function – lies in the intersection of all aspects, it depicts
the highest quality possible that is ‘more than the sum of the parts’ (Simon, 1962, p. 469).
Nevertheless, an understanding of architecture in its individual parts (i.e. economic, aesthetic,
cultural, etc.) remains possible regardless of the holistic, perfectly interacting understanding of
6
its quality. Concerning the process of architecture, the quality of an architectural design
similarly results from ‘the interaction of the set of decisions taken during the entire formation
process’ (Fattinnanzi and Micelli, 2019, pp. 10–11), in which ‘intellectual tension and
operational interaction […] should always be established’ (Fattinnanzi and Micelli, 2019,
p. 10). In Figure 2 a second diagram is presented where certain aspects of architecture prevail
above others. Consequently, fewer interactions are covered. In this situation, the complexity of
the whole is threatened to lose quality and presents a sub-optimal situation of architectural
quality.
Figure 1 Architecture as a complex system of interacting dimensions. All aspects are perfectly
interacting, and the quality of architecture is at its optimum. Graph by author.
Figure 2 Architecture as a complex system of interacting dimensions. Only some aspects are
interacting, and the quality of architecture is suboptimal. Graph by author.
1.3.2
44B
Objective of Architecture
From a real estate perspective, the utility function of a building might be the only objective to
engage in architectural design. However, as ‘function is not the only essential feature of a
building’ (Scruton, 2013, p. 35) architecture encompasses a much wider objective. As a
cultural, social and aesthetic activity, architecture expresses ‘the sense of living of the human
being’ (Purini, 2019, p. 21), communicates meaning and sense of human existence (Brichetti,
2014, p. 281) and expresses ‘social membership’ (Scruton, 2013, p. xiv) on all scales of the
built environment. The quality of urban design and the floorplans, sections and elevations of
buildings are ‘fundamental to our physical and mental health and sense of well-being’
(Carmona, 2019, p. 1), and as such the architectural activities of planning, construction and
housing also need to appeal to social and humanitarian requirements in addition to technical,
economic and ecological requirements (BMI and BBSR, 2021, p. 28). But perhaps the most
7
encompassing objective of architecture concerning its economic, social, cultural utility and
meaning is described by the philosopher Roger Scruton:
Moreover, if we abstract from the present and future functions of a building, and ask
ourselves how it should nevertheless be constructed, then we have only one reliable guide.
It must look right. Architecture is one of the many areas of social life in which appearance
and essence coincide. We should not search behind the appearance for the hidden reality.
That which is hidden is of no interest to us. Aesthetic value is the long-term goal, utility
the short-term. Nobody wishes to conserve a building if it does not look right; but if it
does look right, someone will find a use for it. (Scruton, 2013, p. xix)
In its ultimate objective, architecture therefore may simply need to ‘look right’.
1.3.3 45BDimensions of Architectural Quality
In its process and product (Groth, 2018, p. 119) architecture entails many dimensions that
involve a wide range of professions such as ‘politicians, planners, clients, bankers, engineers,
civic groups, corporate executives – as well as architects’ (Cuff, 1992, p. 1). As already set out
in the quotation of Roger Scruton in chapter 1.3.1 all of these and other disciplines involved in
architecture tend to have their own understanding and priority in ‘the organisation’ of
architecture. A comprehensive description of architectural quality would exceed the research
scope of this dissertation. Nevertheless, the various descriptions of architectural quality that
have been reviewed for this study shall be understood and summarized into the following 5
dimensions. In light of the multi-dimensional intersectional quality concerned with architectural
complexity, these dimensions are to be acknowledged by all participants in any architectural or
urban design project of any scale.
(1) The social dimension of architectural quality
This dimension relates to the various tools of governance that any stakeholder in
planning, construction and management of the built environment formally or informally
applies to architecture. Formal tools and governance instruments can take the form of
‘laws, norms and regulations on planning and building activities’ (Swiss Confederation,
2021, p. 19), whereas informal tools and instruments have a non-regulatory character.
Examples of informal tools are ‘design competitions, peer review mechanisms and
design advisory boards, architectural centres, education initiatives’ or ‘financial
incentives’ (Swiss Confederation, 2021, p. 19). Also, aspects of physical and mental
health (Architects Council of Europe, 2019, p. 2; Carmona, 2019, p. 1; European
Commission, 2019) and environmental or social sustainability belong to this category.
(2) The cultural dimension of architectural quality
The cultural dimension refers to human aspects of identity and meaning through
architecture (Kaltenbrunner, 2014, p. 31; Mitscherlich, 1965, p. 15). It is the dimension
why buildings are declared heritage, that ‘promotes debate’ and is charged with ‘values,
ideals, and impressions of desirable characteristics’ (Rönn, 2011, pp. 238–242). Local
and regional design and construction practices also belong to the cultural dimension of
architecture, as such the cultural dimension is an important driver of the social and
technical dimensions of architecture.
(3) The aesthetic dimension of architecture
8
The aesthetic dimension is perhaps the simplest, nevertheless the most subjective
quality dimension of architecture. It is a highly philosophical concept of which a correct
description exceeds the research scope of this dissertation, but nevertheless shall be
acknowledged as a key aspect of architectural quality. For this dissertation, architectural
aesthetic quality shall be understood as a dimension that depends fully on the eye of the
beholder (Architects Council of Europe, 2019, p. 1).
(4) The technical dimension of architecture
The technical dimension refers to the technical aspects of design and construction in the
process and product of architecture. Static stability as well as physical aspects of
building design belong to this category, including knowledge of construction techniques
that relate to ecological sustainability and energy consumption. Concerning the process
of architecture, the dimension refers to the necessary skills, knowledge, expertise, and
training to initiate, draw up, develop, finance, and execute building designs. As such it
has a large relevance to necessary competencies of the professions and disciplines that
are involved in architecture (and as such also commercial real estate), i.e., architects,
real estate developers and public officers.
(5) The economic dimension of architecture
Finally, the economic dimension of architecture shall be understood as consisting of two
aspects. The first aspect relates to the economic feasibility of planning, development,
and construction costs. The second aspect relates to the situation that buildings in most
(if not all) cases will be subject to property rights. These can be state, common or private
property rights (McPherson, 1978). Whereas state property rights describe the right of
the public to exclude others from access to the built environment, common property
rights describe the rights not to be excluded from access to the same built environment
(McPherson, 1978). The third aspect of private property rights includes the property
type of commercial real estate that is described in the scope of this dissertation (see also
chapter 1.2.1). Furthermore, an important notion in the second aspect of the economic
dimension of architecture is that property forms a right and not a thing’ (McPherson,
1978). As such commercial real estate is to a large extent related to the management of
private property rights, a notion that I shall further set out in chapter 1.3.5.
1.3.4 46BEvaluation of Architectural Quality
As the German Term Investorenarchitektur seems to refer to an evaluation of the architectural
quality of commercial real estate, in the following I shall present some considerations on the
evaluation of architecture. An important issue is related to the tangibility of the various qualities
that are described in the architectural dimensions as presented in chapter 1.3.3 above. Or as
Binnenkamp stated and illustrated with the diagram presented in Figure 3:
The majority of qualities that matter in the built environment are part of the soft non-
quantifiable qualities, communicating about these is perceived to be difficult. As a result
the hard qualities which allow unambiguous communication displace the soft qualities.
The result is poor decision making as only a minority of qualitative aspects is part of the
design decision making process. (Binnenkamp, 2016, p. 240)
9
Figure 3: The distinction between hard and soft qualities. Orginal graph as published in
Binnenkamp (2016) quoting Gerritse (2008).
In the process of architecture these hard qualities, often described in formal tools as laws, norms
and regulations described in the social dimension of architecture are relatively clearly defined,
and as such manageable qualities. To a certain extent the economic feasibility aspect, described
in the first aspect of the economic dimension of architecture, and the static and physical aspects
of building design, described in the technical dimension of architecture, can be understood as
more or less tangible qualities in architecture. However, the evaluation of architectural quality
in the cultural, and aesthetic dimensions, as well as the qualities described as informal
governance tools of the social dimension of architecture and the assessment of market
conditions related to property rights as described in the second aspect of the economic
dimension of architecture provide a much more difficult task. Correct evaluation of these less
or more tangible qualities requires constant observation and evaluation of the conditions,
options and decisions that drive these qualities. It leads to a wide range of interpretations,
notions and ‘organisations’ (Scruton, 2013, p. 34) of architectural quality, that in itself can lead
to ‘endless disputes on the correct meaning of the notion’ (Rönn, 2011, pp. 237–238). The
endless difficulty of defining quality in architecture can therefore also be defined as an
‘essentially contested concept’
P0F
1
P
(Rönn, 2011, pp. 237–238) which requires a constant,
integrated, interactive and holistic debate on all dimensions by all participants in architecture.
This notion of architectural quality as an ‘essentially contested concept’ - a concept that requires
continuous debate and reflection of all participants - shall therefore also be particularly relevant
to commercial real estate investors as one of the most powerful stakeholders in the built
environment (McGlynn, 1993, p. 6).
1.3.5
47B
Imperative of Commercial Real Estate
If we consider that the ultimate decision power of a project lies with the individual or institution
that is responsible for the financing of the project (McGlynn, 1993, p. 6; Wellner, 2020, p. 120),
we can conclude that the client’s approach towards the objective of architecture as described in
chapter 1.3.2 and the complex interaction of its dimensions as described in chapter 1.3.1 and
1.3.3 is fundamental to architectural quality. Having set out the above considerations on the
complexity of architecture, its objective, dimensions, and evaluation, I will now turn to a
1 ‘The expression ‘essentially contested concepts’ has been first coined by the British social theorist, political
theorist and philosopher W.B. Gallie [Gallie (1955)].( Rönn (2011, pp. 237–238).)
10
specific situation in architecture that is imperative to commercial real estate clients. To this end,
I shall juxtapose the motivation for architecture of a conventional, non-commercial client with
that of a commercial real estate client. This juxtaposition is illustrated in Table 2.
In a conventional situation, the purpose or objective of the project would be to create an
adequate space for a desired function, a space that appeals to the client’s aspirations concerning
the aesthetic, social, cultural, technical, and economic dimensions, and fits within the client’s
budget. The architecture that is the result of this objective, is the holistic result of the interacting
dimensions described in chapter 1.3.3. This also means that the client is weighing her*his
financial possibilities and the feasibility options of the project (the first aspect of the economic
dimension) against this holistically interacting complex of architectural quality dimensions. In
other words, the invested capital is instrumental to the holistic objective of architectural quality.
The situation of the conventional non-commercial client is described in the first line of Table 2
below.
Client type Instrument Objective
Decisive Agent
of Architecture
Conventional (self-
user)
Capital (money)
Architecture
(a building)
in all its dimensions
Client
Commercial real
estate investor
Architecture
(a building)
in the technical and
economic dimensions
Financial return on
capital invested
and/or security hedge
Manager
Table 2 Instrument – Objective swap in the commercial dimension of commercial real estate.
In the situation of a commercial real estate client described in the second line in Table 2, the
situation is however significantly different. The primary motivation for the commercial real
estate client is to obtain a financial return on the capital invested, or at least seek a security
hedge for it. In her*his risk and return assessments, the real estate investor has chosen a built
structure as the subject of investment and shall have weighed the profitability and risk and
return profiles thereof against other financial investment options, such as stocks and/or bonds.
As such, the financial performance of the real estate investment is the primary motivation of a
commercial real estate client to engage in the building activity, and not a desire for a space that
is the result of a holistic architectural project.
In commercial real estate, the commercial motivation to invest always prevails over that of the
holistic architectural motivation. If the projected design is not expected to perform on its
financial characteristics the investor will have no incentive to commit her*his capital to the
architectural project. A ‘simple’ instrumental feasibility of the invested funds towards the
holistic architectural objective is not enough. Instead, the capital invested has swapped its role
from being mere instrumental to the objective, a situation that is presented in the second line in
Table 2. Architecture, as a product and process of considerations in the technical dimension of
architectural quality, has now become instrumental to the capitalist motivation of a financial
return (or security hedge) on the capital invested. As far as the cultural, social, and aesthetic
aspects of the architectural process and its product are not instrumental or comprehensibly
contributing to the overall capitalist investment objective, they will lose relevance to the client.
As a result, in commercial real estate, the interactional, multidimensional complexity of
architecture is no longer a quality feature but has become a management challenge. A challenge
11
that must be weighed and managed concerning the risks and opportunities it may provide for
the overall commercial objective of the capital investment. It is imperative to any commercial
real estate process or product, that the commercial real estate client carefully manages the
complex, interactional nature of architecture in the light of its ultimate investment objective, a
financial return on investment at a manageable and understandable risk level. As such the agent
of architecture holding the ultimate decision power on the project is no longer a client looking
for a building with which she*he identifies a user, but a manager, whose primary task is to
manage risks and opportunities involved in the process and product of architecture. Her*his
motivation is not to create an optimum of interacting dimensions as described in Figure 1, but
an optimum of risk and return on the capital that is committed to the architectural project.
If the aesthetic, cultural, and social aspects of architecture help secure this optimum, they will
certainly be instrumental in any commercial real estate management strategy. But these non-
financial aspects might as well be incomprehensible or simply unknown to the commercial real
estate manager and therefore likely to be omitted from the toolbox of strategical possibilities.
The question arises, if the German discussion on Investorenarchitektur is a representation of
these conscious or unconscious - perhaps naïve – omissions and if it would be possible to design
a management strategy that pro-actively engages all dimensions of architectural quality,
including the financial performance dimensions of real estate.
As set out above, this characteristic shall be specifically valid for commercial real estate clients
but also has relevance for any other person, institution or organization that primarily sees its
real estate property as a capital asset, rather than a pragmatic object of identity. Or as Gutman
noted already in 1988:
"The most significant characteristic of the organizational clients is their disposition to
view architectural production from a purely rational and instrumental perspective. This
means that the organization clients regard buildings as capital assets, which should be
managed like every other potential source of productivity, income, and profit. As a result,
plans for new buildings and for the renovation of old buildings are judged in terms of
their initial and maintenance costs, their resale value, their implications for corporate
income, their usability as working environments and their possible effects on
organizational efficiency and employee morale. All features of buildings come to be
judged by these criteria, including the esthetic dimension, which traditionally was
considered as outside the realm of this system of calculation." (Gutman, 1988, p. 50)
1.4. 18BResearch Objective
1.4.1 48BManagement Strategy for Architectural Quality.
The polemic exchange of arguments that can be observed in the German discussion around the
term Investorenarchitektur needs to be bent towards a qualified discussion that includes real
estate as a condition of architecture on the one hand and provides solutions for the apparent low
quality of architecture the real estate sector is scolded for on the other. Therefore, the question
arises if architectural quality, in its interactional multi-dimensional complexity, can be turned
into a management strategy in which the full and holistic complexity of architectural quality
can be achieved while supporting and perhaps even enhancing the objective of commercial real
estate investment. To this end, the research aims to arrive at the formulation of a management
strategy for commercial real estate investors that genuinely includes architectural quality in its
full complexity, guiding strategic as well as tactic levels.
12
1.4.2 49BEuropean Green Deal
In its quest for architectural quality in commercial real estate, a secondary objective for the
research shall be that it fits in the objectives of the new European Bauhaus initiative of the
European Commission. The European Bauhaus combines ‘the big vision of the European Green
Deal with tangible change on the ground’ (European Commission, 2021), whereas ‘on the
ground’ must be understood as a reference to the built environment. The European Green Deal
formulates the growth strategy of the European Union to make Europe the first climate-neutral
continent by 2050 (European Commission, 2019), which itself results from the legally binding
Paris Climate Agreement of 2015. The European Bauhaus aims to ‘steer the transformation of
our societies along three inseparable values; sustainability, aesthetics and inclusion’ (European
Union, 2023) and as such appeals to a level of complexity that should also be covered in a
management strategy for high quality architecture as it is described above. Furthermore, in a
position paper of the German Federal Republic on the start of the New European Bauhaus
initiative in Germany, it is stated:
„Insgesamt bedarf es einer neuen Systematik der Wirtschaftlichkeitsbetrachtung im
Bauwesen und einer Reform der vorhandenen Bewertungen zur Erhöhung der
Messbarkeit. Komplementär zu den drei Dimensionen der Nachhaltigkeit (Ökologie,
Ökonomie und Sozio-Kulturelles), innerhalb derer mitunter nur Formelkompromisse
gefunden wurden und werden, könnte eine Definition zu „Effizienz – Konsistenz –
Suffizienz – Resilienz“ hier neue, zukunftsfähige Ansätze bieten.“ (BMI and BBSR, 2021,
p. 43)
In the quote stated above the German Federal government calls for a new systematic of
feasibility studies in the construction sector and a reform and improvement of dissatisfying and
numerical evaluation techniques of the ecological, economic, and socio-cultural sustainability
dimensions. Furthermore, the German government calls for finding definitions that are
complementary to the evaluation of these sustainability dimensions, but above all appeal to
principles of efficiency, consistency, sufficiency, and resilience.
The formulated principles of efficiency, consistency, sufficiency, and resilience shall thus be
guiding criteria for the formulation of the management strategy.
1.5. 19BResearch Question
Out of the introduction on the term Investorenarchitektur, the description of the research
problem as well and the development of the overall research objective, the following initial
research questions are formulated:
- What is a management strategy for achieving architectural quality in real estate
projects and investments?
a. Strategic dimension: How can it be addressed in the management process of
commercial real estate?
b. Tactic dimension: What are the key aspects of architectural quality, understood
out of an analysis of the discussion on Investorenarchitektur?
The formulation of a management strategy for architectural quality in commercial real estate
shall ultimately also answer the research question already formulated in chapter 1.1.1.
13
- How can Investorenarchitektur become Architektur?
a. What problems are addressed in the discussion on Investorenarchitektur?
b. What are the themes relevant to architectural quality?
1.6. 20BConclusion
The discussion on Investorenarchitektur in German-speaking countries reveals a gap between
architectural quality and commercial real estate. What does the term actually refer to? And what
can the real estate sector do to solve these problems? How can Investorenarchitektur become
Architketur? The answer to these questions shall be found in the formulation of a management
strategy for architectural quality in commercial real estate.
Architecture describes both a process as well as a product (Groth, 2018, p. 119). It does not
describe an absolute truth but is the ‘sum of a large number of parts that interact in a nonsimple
way[and describes a complex system where] the whole is more than the sum of its parts’
(Simon, 1962, p. 469). In the objective of architecture, ‘function is not the only essential feature
of a building’ (Scruton, 2013, p. 35). Rather, Architecture communicates meaning and a sense
of human existence (Brichetti, 2014, p. 281) and expresses ‘social membership’ (Scruton, 2013,
p. xiv). In this dissertation, architectural complexity is understood in five dimensions; The
cultural, social, aesthetic, technical and economic dimensions. These dimensions correspond to
the ‘parts[in] the whole [that] is more than the sum of its parts’ (Simon, 1962, p. 469). The
interdisciplinary, dynamic intersection of these dimensions is understood as the definition of
architectural quality both in the process as well as the product of architecture. This
interdisciplinary holistic understanding of architecture causes the evaluation of architectural
quality to be extremely complex. Most qualities in the cultural, social, and aesthetic dimensions
are not quantifiable, which pushes the quantifiable qualities in the economic and technical
dimensions to the forefront of the discussion (Binnenkamp, 2016, p. 240). A correct holistic
evaluation that includes all dimensions of architectural qualities, involves ‘endless disputes’
(Rönn, 2011, pp. 237–238) between all participants in the process and product of architecture.
The commercial objective of (commercial) real estate clients leads to an instrument-objective
swap concerning the objective of architecture. For conventional clients, the objective of an
architectural project would be to create a building design that covers all dimensions of
architectural complexity, whereas the necessary capital to design and construct the building is
instrumental to the holistic architectural objective. In the situation of commercial real estate
investors, however, the objective of a financial return and/ or a security hedge on the capital
invested prevails above the holistic objective of architecture. In this situation, architecture has
become instrumental to capital investment. The rational and tangible economic and technical
dimensions of architecture move to the forefront of the perception of the commercial client.
This is defined as the real estate imperative.
In addition to the formulation of a management strategy for architectural quality in commercial
real estate, the research aims to adhere to the objectives of the New European Bauhaus initiative
of the European Commission in general and the German federal government in specific. In the
German adaptation of this initiative, the German federal government calls for a new systematic
of feasibility studies in the construction sector that appeal to the principles of efficiency,
consistency, sufficiency, and resilience.
14
2.
11B
Research Approach
2.1.
21B
Strategic Approach
In her book Architectural Research Methods, the author Linda Groat (Groat and Wang, 2013)
suggests a set of 4 nested frames to coherently guide the researcher in the selection and set up
of appropriate research methodologies for the subject of her*his study (Figure 4). In her
framework the inner frames of tactics (the availability of data or information on the topic) and
strategies (the planning of how to analyse that data and information) are framed by the broader
school of thought that frames the research as a whole and describes ‘the broad theoretical
perspective’ within which the study operates, suggesting ‘specific modes of analysis’ (Groat
and Wang, 2013, p. 10). Finally, the outermost frame describes the system of inquiry, which
anchors the research within its paradigmatical and epistemological context. Groat’s structuring
principle of 4 nested frames has been adopted as a framework for the research of this study.
Figure 4 Methodological practices of strategies and tactics are framed by broader systems of
inquiry and schools of thought. Reproduction of graph as published in Groat and Wang (2013,
p. 10).
The German discussion on Investorenarchitektur, as well as a more general and international
debate on the relationship between commercial real estate and architecture, addresses issues in
social studies, economics, aesthetics, and architecture. As such, the system of inquiry in which
the study operates is set in the interdisciplinary domain of architecture and economics (Groat
and Wang, 2013, p. 76). The understanding of architectural complexity described in chapter
1.3.1, the holistic objective of architecture described in chapter 1.3.2, the 5 dimensions of
architectural quality described in chapter 1.3.3 and the evaluation of architectural quality as an
‘essentially contested concept’ (Gallie, 1956, p. 108) described in 1.3.4 are understood as the
school of thought concerning the architectural considerations of this dissertation. The
imperative of real estate described in chapter 1.3.5, however, shall be understood within the
school of thought of (real estate) business administration and organizational theory. Therefore,
the school of thought of this dissertation is framed by architecture, business administration and
organizational theory.
The strategy to arrive at the research objective of this study – a management strategy for
architectural quality in commercial real estate – consists of a study on the theoretical framework
of such a management strategy in combination with an analysis of the gap between architecture
15
and commercial real estate, as illustrated by the German discussion on Investorenarchitektur
and the general debate between architecture and real estate. The purpose of the gap analysis
between architecture and real estate is to provide tactic knowledge to the quality strategy
formulated in the theoretical framework.
Finally, the management strategy itself shall be formulated in the conclusion of this dissertation
in the form of a classic Planning Organisation and Control (POC) cycle (Hutchinson, 1971,
p. 19). As such, the theoretical framework shall provide a roadmap for the planning and
organisation of architectural quality in commercial real estate, whereas the analysis of the gap
between architecture and real estate shall provide criteria for the organisation and control of
architectural quality in commercial real estate.
2.2. 22BTactic Approach
To formulate a framework for a management strategy for architectural quality in commercial
real estate various theories and publications are studied that relate to business administration
issues in real estate and general organizational and economic theory. The gap between
architecture and real estate shall be analysed through a phenomenological analysis of the
German discussion on Investorenarchitektur, extended with a phenomenological observation
of the general debate on the relationship between architecture and real estate. To this end
following methodologies have been adopted.
2.2.1 50BTheoretical Sampling within Grounded Theory
The formulation of a theoretical framework for a management strategy for architectural quality
in commercial real estate requires a systematic review of several theories in the field of real
estate business administration and economic organisation. However, the highly complex nature
of architectural quality combined (see also chapter 1.3.1, 1.3.2, 1.3.3, 1.3.4) with the imperative
of real estate (see also chapter 1.3.5) requires a flexible, iterative approach towards a systematic
study of various schools of thought in which the research operates. An appropriate methodology
that can guide such an iterative research journey, is the method of theoretical sampling within
the general methodology of Grounded Theory as developed by Anselm Strauss and Juliet
Corbin (Corbin and Strauss, 2015). In their book Basics of Qualitative Research, Strauss and
Corbin describe it as follows:
“Unlike conventional methods of sampling, researchers do not go out and collect all the
data before beginning the analysis. Analysis begins after the first data are collected. Data
collection is followed by analysis. Analysis leads to concepts. Concepts generate
questions. Questions lead to more data collection so that the researcher can learn more
about those concepts. This circular process continues until the research reaches the point
of saturation - that is, the point in the research when all major categories are fully
developed, show variation, and are integrated.” (Corbin and Strauss, 2015, p. 135).
Consequently, the research embarked on the study of several scholars in the field of economic
organisation, organizational theory, property theory and real estate, of which the most important
scholars and key titles are presented in Table 3 below. By application of the method of
theoretical sampling as described by Corbin and Straus, publications of the scholars and
institutions have been studied on their relevance for the management of real estate and
management of architectural quality in commercial real estate in particular. Themes addressed
by scholars were, where applicable, further reviewed in secondary literature. Key statements
16
were excerpted and collected into a software for reference management unit the ‘saturation
point’ (Corbin and Strauss, 2015, p. 135) was reached, after which themes and insights were
grouped and re-grouped until the formulation of the theoretical framework for the management
of architectural quality as presented in chapter 3 was possible.
Scholar/ Author System of Inquiry Leading Publications
Simon A. Herbert
Social Science
Complex S
y
stems
The Sciences of the Artificial (Simon, 1969)
Dave Snowden and Jens
Rasmussen as discussed by
David Moriart
y
Complex Systems Designing and Managing Complex Systems
(Moriarty, 2022)
Oliver E. Williamson Economic Theory
Theory of the Firm
Transaction Costs Economics (Williamson, 1979)
Economic Organization (Williamson, 1986)
The Nature of the Firm (Williamson, 1991)
Crawford B. McPherson Political Science The Meaning of Property (McPherson, 1978)
David M. Geltner, Norman
G. Mille
r
Business Administration
(Real Estate)
Commercial Real Estate Analysis (Geltner et al.,
2007)
David A. Garvin Business Administration
(Mana
g
ement)
Managing Quality. The Strategic and Competitive
Ed
g
e(Garvin, 1988)
Table 3 Primary sources for the study of the theoretical framework of architectural quality in
commercial real estate
2.2.2 51BPhenomenological Analysis
The tactical dimension of the research strategy shall be covered by an analysis of the discussion
on Investorenarchitektur as presented in German publications and a review of the general
debate on the relationship between architecture and real estate. As already mentioned in the
introduction of this dissertation the discussion on architecture by commercial real estate
investors is presented as a somewhat polemic debate, using the rather vague and unprecise
(Wellner, 2020) terminology of Investorenarchitektur. As such the discussion and use of the
term can be understood as a phenomenon, which methodologically leads to the adoption of the
techniques of a phenomenological analysis.
Phenomenology as a branch of philosophy was in its essence first formulated by the German
philosopher Edmund Husserl (1859 – 1938) (Beyer, 2022) and is often characterized by the
slogan “To the things themselves!”, a slogan that is attributed to Husserl himself (LeVasseur,
2003, p. 411). It is a highly qualitative methodology, in which the researcher subjectively
reflects on the experiences of the phenomenon by single respondents, and then in a second step
tries to describe what these individual experiences have in common. Or as Bell stated:
“Phenomenology is a research method that attempts to document one’s own experience
or enter into the mind of another person in order to have complete understanding and
empathy. As its name implies, its origins are in the study of phenomena occurring within
the mind of the subject. Phenomenologists focus on describing what all participants have
in common as they experience a phenomenon, and the basic purpose of phenomenology
is to reduce individual experiences to a description of the universal essence.” (Bell and
Bell, 2015, p. 312)
Although Husserl did not describe concrete steps for a methodology of phenomenological
research (Smith et al., 2009, p. 12), the following procedure has established itself in the
17
methodological adaption of Husserl’s philosophy. In the following the most essential steps are
presented as they were formulated by Groenewald in 2004:
1 Bracketin
g
and phenomenolo
g
ical reductio
n
2 Delineatin
g
units of meanin
g
3 Clusterin
g
of units of meanin
g
to form themes
Table 4 Steps in Phenomenological Research (Groenewald, 2004, p. 57)
The first step of bracketing and reduction has a twofold purpose. With bracketing, the researcher
aims to suspend prior beliefs or knowledge of the subject of study (LeVasseur, 2003, p. 409)
and avoids personal prejudices to enter into the analysis (LeVasseur, 2003, p. 411), she*he
‘brackets’ the phenomenon ‘out’ of its context and personal prejudices. The purpose of
reduction is to reduce the context of the situation within which the phenomenon is perceived,
to the context that is relevant to the phenomena only. In the step of bracketing and reduction,
each data element (i.e. interviews or texts) is transformed through the interpretation of the
researcher (Groenewald, 2004, p. 58). This process is then consistently repeated for all data,
after which in the second and third steps the units of meaning are clustered into themes. After
the consecutive treatment of the data, the themes will give an explication and understanding of
which issues and problems the phenomena of Investorenarchitektur are referring to.
2.3. 23BResearch Design
After the statement of the research problem and research objective in chapter 1, the formulation
of a strategic approach to the research (epistemology) and tactic approach to the research
(methodology) in chapter 2, the research continues in chapter 3 with the formulation of the
theoretical framework for the research objective; A management strategy for architectural
quality in commercial real estate. The research questions 2b; ‘What are the themes relevant to
architectural quality?’ and 1a; ‘How can they be addressed in the management process?’ can
now be answered. As the strategic path towards the research objective has now been formulated,
the dissertation continues in chapter 4 with the phenomenological analysis of the German
discussion on Investorenarchitektur and the general debate on the relationship between
architecture and real estate. Arrived at this point, it shall now be possible to answer research
question 1b; ‘What are the key aspects of architectural quality, understood out of the
phenomenological analysis of Investorenarchitektur?’. Finally, the dissertation concludes with
the formulation of a management strategy for architectural quality in commercial real estate in
the conclusion of the dissertation. To this end, the theoretical framework as concluded in
chapter 3 is reflected upon the findings of the phenomenological analysis in chapter 4. To
answer the final outstanding research question 1a; ‘How can it [architectural quality] be
addressed in the management process of commercial real estate’ is then provided by the ultimate
formulation of a management strategy for architectural quality in commercial real estate in a
Planning, Organisation and Control (POC) cycle (Hutchinson, 1971, p. 19). A graphic
presentation of the research design as described above is presented in Figure 5 below.
18
Figure 5 Research Design
2.4.
24B
Data
2.4.1
52B
General Approach to Data Sourcing
The study initially started in 2016 as general research on the topic of sustainable real estate
development but was soon directed towards the formulation of a management strategy for
architectural quality in commercial real estate and the discussion of Investorenarchitektur as it
appeared in the German architectural press. In its initial phase, several interviews were carried
out with representatives from the architectural and real estate sector. Additionally, several
congresses were visited that related to the topic of architectural quality. An overview of these
initial activities is presented in Table 5. It soon turned out that the interviews were due to the
availability of interview partners and data privacy issues not suited as data sources for a study
on the management and aspects of Investorenarchitektur. Instead, the study focussed on 79
publications (see Table 6, Table 7, Table 11 and Table 14) in the realm of architecture and real
estate that used the term Investorenarchitektur. After an initial review of those articles, it
became clear that in the publications the same topics were addressed as in the few initial
interviews, and hence could provide an equally representative dataset for the phenomenological
study. Consequently, the strategy of acquiring further respondents was abandoned.
Introduction
•Research Problem and Research Objective
Reseach Approach
•Epistemology
•Methodology
Theoretical
framework
•Roadmap to architectural quality in commercial real estate
Phenomenology
Investorenarchitkur
• Analysis fo Gap between architecture and Real Estate, illustrated by German
Discussion on Investorenarchitektur and general debate on relationship of
architectural quality.
• Conclusion of management criteria for architectural quality.
Conclusion
Management
Strategy
•Management strategy for architectural quality in commercial real estate in form
of Planning Organization and Control POC cylce.
•Recommendations
19
Furthermore, a visit to the conferences Konvent der Baukultur in Potsdam (DE) in 2018 and the
conference Getting the Measure of Baukultur in Geneva (CH) in 2019 gave further context and
insight into the discussion and the general quest for architectural quality.
Date Type Interview Partner & Function/ Name of
Congress
Fall 2016 Interview Jan Friedrich (Journalist, Bauwelt)
March 2017 Interview Markus La
g
er (Architect)
September 2018 Interview Rainer Kieschke (Real Estate Developer)
October 2018 Interview Markus Vo
g
el (Real Estate Consultant)
October 2018 Interview Christine Edmaier (Präsidentin Berliner
Architektenkamme
r
)
November 2018 Conference Think Desi
g
n Build TU Berli
n
November 2018 Interview Martin Aarts (Municipality Rotterdam, Urban
planner)
November 2018 Conference Konvent der Baukultur, Potsdam (DE)
December 2018 Interview Anne Schmedding (vice-president Bundesstiftung
für Baukultur)
December 2018 Interview Thomas Welter (mana
g
in
g
director BDA)
November 2019 Conference Gettin
g
the Measure of Baukultur, Geneva (CH)
September 2020 Masterclass Participating as a tutor in Masterclass Urban
Governance Workshops Urban Maestro.
www.urbanmaestro.or
g
(Urban Maestro, 2021)
Table 5 List of preparatory activities for study on Investorenarchitektur – The Planning Control
and Organisation of Architectural Quality in Commercial Real Estate.
2.4.2 53BData on Investorenarchitektur in German Architectural Press
As many publications on the often-distressed relationship between architecture and real estate
seemed to be initiated by architects or architectural press, a search was carried out on the term
Investorenarchitektur in the online archives of the architectural press published in the German
language. To this end, an overview of the architectural press was used as it is available on the
website of the architectural association [Architektenkammer] of the federal state of Baden-
Württemberg. An overview of articles with hits on Investorenarchitektur is presented in Table
6. The search was extended with a search on the online platform BauNetz and the magazine
Der*Die Architekt which is issued by the Association of German Architects [Bund Deutscher
Architekten BDA]. The oldest entry found was from 2002, the youngest from 2022. The search
was completed in February 2023.
Journal/ Magazine Web Address Country Nr. of
entries.
Architektur
Fachma
g
azin
Architektur-online.com AT 1
Architektur,
Innenarchitektur,
Technischer Ausbau
(AIT)
https://ait-xia-dialog.de/ DE 0
Architektur Aktuell https://www.architektu
r
-aktuell.at AT 2
Architektur Blatt Architekturblatt.de DE 0
20
Journal/ Magazine Web Address Country Nr. of
entries.
Architekturzeitung Architekturzeitung.com DE/
AT/CH
0
Archithese www.archithese.ch CH 2
Archplus www.archplus.net DE 10*
Artu
r
www.artu
r
-verla
g
.de/ma
g
azin.html DE --
Baumeiste
r
www.baumeister.de DE 0
Bauwelt www.bauwelt.de DE 23
BWV bauen •
wohnen •
verschöner
n
https://bwv-journal.de/ DE --
Deutsche
Bauzeitschrift
www.dbz.de DE 7
Denkmalpflege in
Baden-Württember
g
https://journals.ub.uni-
heidelber
g
.de/index.php/nbdpfbw/index
DE 1
Detail www.detail.de DE 3, 1*
Deutsche Bauzeitun
g
www.db.bauzeitun
g
.de DE 13
Garten und
Landschaft
https://www.garten-landschaft.de DE 0
Hochparterre Hochparterre.ch CH 3
Stadt und Raum Stadtundraum.de DE --
Quartie
r
Ma
g
azi
n
-quariter.de DE 0
Additional Search
Der/ Die Architekt derarchitektbda DE 9
Baunetz Meldun
g
e
n
Baunetz.de DE 10
Table 6 Search as of February 2023 on the keyword Investorenarchitektur in architecture
magazines listed on akbw.de (Knodel, 2022). Publications marked with an * were not
accessible.
2.4.3 54BData on Investorenarchitektur in German Real Estate Press
As the term Investorenarchitektur relates in many cases to accusations towards commercial real
estate investors, the search for the term Investorenarchitektur was extended to the online
archives of magazines and bulletins read by the real estate sector. The result of this search led
- not surprisingly - to a significantly lower number of publications (see Table 7). The German
Real Estate Immobilienzeitung (Heuer Dialog), Immobilienwirtschaft (Haufe),
Immobilienmanager (Immobilien Manager Verlag IMV) and Zeitschrift für
Immobilienökonomie (Gesellschaft für Immobilienforschung) were taken in consideration for a
scan on the term Investorenarchitektur. The magazine Immobilienwirtschaft which is published
by Haufe Verlag does not provide an online index and was discarded. The Zeitschrift für
Immobilienökonomie did not give any hits in their index.
The widely read weekly newspaper Immobilienzeitung is published by Heuer Dialog GmbH, a
leading real estate network organisation that is also responsible for the annual event Quo Vadis,
which was reviewed by the architecture publicist Ursula Baus mentioned before (Baus, 2013a;
Heuer Dialog, 2023). A search in the online index resulted in 8 entries of articles that contained
the term Investorenarchitektur, the eldest article was published in 1998, and the youngest in
21
2015. The magazine Immobilienmanager, which has been published since 1991 by Immobilien
Manager Verlag IMV provided three entries on the term Investorenarchitektur, of which the
eldest referred to an article published in 2016 and the youngest to an article published in 2021
(Immobilien Manager Verlag IMV GmbH, 2023).
Journal/ Magazine Web Address Country Nr. of Entries
Immobilienzeitun
g
iz.de DE 7
Immobilienmana
g
e
r
Immobilienmana
g
er.de DE 2, 1*
Table 7 Search as of February 2023 on the keyword Investorenarchitektur in real estate
magazines. Publications marked with an * were not accessible.
2.4.4 55BData on General Debate Between Architecture and Real Estate
Publications that contained the word Investorenarchitektur and publications on the general
relationship of architecture and commercial real estate were collected through a snowballing
method that was initiated through several paths. One path was started at the end of 2016 with
an internet search on the term Investorenarchitektur which led to the article ‘Noch (k)eine
Langeweile’ from the journalist Seibold-Bultmann from October 2014 in the Swiss Newspaper
Neue Zürcher Zeitung (Seibold-Bultmann, 2014). In her article Seibold-Bultmann made
reference to the special issue ‘The Empire of Real Estate, Architektur luktrativer Spekulationen’
of the Swiss architecture magazine Archithese (Himmelreich et al., 2014), both the Newspaper
article as the special issue of the magazine Archithese are used for the phenomenological study.
A second path was started through the analysis of the debate ‘Brauchen wir mehr Investoren-
Architektur’ [do we need more Investorenarchitektur] on the online forum Bkult.de on which
several discussions on Baukultur were facilitated by the editors Julia von Mende, Ilka Ruby,
and Andreas Ruby. The initiators of the debate platform Bkult.de, Ilka and Andreas Ruby, are
founders of the publishing house Ruby Press in Berlin, which has a special focus on architecture
publications (Ruby and Ruby, 2023). The forum was active between 2012 and 2014 and
attracted comments from many renowned German architects, journalists, educators,
policymakers and critics. The online debate ‘Brauchen wir mehr Investoren-Architektur’ was
held in July and August 2013, and was guest-edited by the architecture journalist Alexander
Gutzmer (Gutzmer et al., 2013). Amongst others, the architecture Journalist Ursula Baus was
invited to post a comment. A continued search of publications by Baus that involved the
relationship of architecture and real estate led to the online bulletin German-Architects.com on
which she published several articles that resulted from her attendance at the annual real estate
networking event Quo Vadis in in 2013 Berlin (Baus, 2013a, 2013b, 2013c).
Another path was opened through a meeting in the summer of 2016 with the journalist Jan
Friedrich, currently deputy editor in chief of the architecture magazine Bauwelt. At the time
Friedrich was working on the special issue ‘im Haifischbecken’ that was published in Bauwelt
on the 10th of February 2017 (Friedrich, 2017a). The issue, for which Friedrich visited the
annual real estate fair MIPIM in Cannes (FR) in March 2016, contains various contributions on
the relationship of architecture and real estate, some with a direct reference to the term
‘Investorenarchitektur’. The mentioning of the initiation of this dissertation project in the
editorial of the issue (Friedrich, 2017b), led to an interview with the journalist Nadine
Oberhuber for her article Eintönige Neubauten in April 2017 (Oberhuber, 2017) in the German
Newspaper Frankfurter Allgemeine Sonntagszeitung.
22
2.4.5 56BInternational Publications Concerning the Debate
During the preparatory activities (see Table 5) in the initial phase of the research, it became
clear that the discussion between real estate and architecture expressed in the term
Investorenarchitektur is not limited to Germany or the German-speaking countries only.
Neither can the discussion be limited to the use of the word Investorenarchitektur, even if the
country under consideration has German as its main communicating language. To capture
discussions between real estate and architecture running outside the German-speaking countries
searches on the key “architecture and real estate” and “architecture, real estate and housing”
were carried out. These searches led to the project report of the research group The Art of
Inequality: Architecture, Housing and Real Estate by the Temple Hoyne Buell Center for the
Study of American Architecture of Columbia University, New York City (USA). Although the
research focus of the group lies on inequality issues in the American housing system, the report
contains various contributions that confront the worlds of architecture and real estate (Martin
et al., 2015b). The search on the keywords ‘real estate and architecture’ also led to a newspaper
article in the New York Times from 1982, that provided an early report of developers’ attitudes
towards architecture (Goldberger, 1982). Sometimes these articles present interviews with
agents (i.e. architects and developers), sometimes they are theoretical treatments of the
imperatives, power imbalances, inequalities, and aesthetic problems that are seen to be causing
or resulting from the tension between architecture and real estate, or its agents.
The attendance at the conference Think Design Build in November 2018 at the Technische
Unvirsität Berlin (TU Berlin) led to another source of publications that cover the estranged
relationship between architecture and real estate. Present at the conference was Alessandro
Armando, a member of the editorial board of the architecture journal Ardeth, a journal that is
concerned with the architectural project rather than its outcome (buildings) or its authors
(architects) (Ardeth, 2023). Issue #3 with the title Money published in the fall of 2018, included
various articles that explored practical aspects of capitalism and the architectural project.
2.4.6 57BVisual Presentations of Investorenarchitektur
Some of the reviewed publications labelled realised projects as examples of
Investorenarchitektur. Many of these publications remain abstract and refrain from a discussion
of why these projects are experienced as examples of Investorenarchitektur. As the aesthetic or
architectural discussion of realised projects is not in the scope of this research, these articles
were discarded from the study. Nevertheless, as these projects provide in helpful illustrations
of the phenomena of Investorenarchitektur, images of the buildings discussed or announced in
the articles are included in the Appendix without further comment or discussion.
2.4.7 58BWikipedia
After the initiation of this research project in the summer of 2016, an entry appeared on the
term Investorenarchitektur in the popular online encyclopaedia Wikipedia.org. At the time of
writing this dissertation, the page only existed in German, an English language entry is not
available. The page was created on the 3rd of March 2017 by the user Fensterbereich, who
created 97,4% of the content (Wikimedia Foundation Inc., 2021). The Wikipedia entry contains
several references of which the reference to the annual report of 2005 with the title Baukultur!
of the German Federal Association for Baukultur [Bundesstiftung Baukultur] was included in
this research (Bundesministerium für Verkehr, Bau- und Wohnungswesen, 2005). The
23
Wikipedia entry also contains a reference to issue 4 of 2014 of the Swiss architecture magazine
Archithese with the title ‘Empire of Real Estate, Architektur lukrativer Spekulationen’, which
was already included as a title for this research. Furthermore, the entry in the online
encyclopaedia refers to the editorial of issue number 03 of the year 2017 of the German
architecture magazine Bauwelt (Friedrich, 2017b). Also, this reference was already included in
the research project of this dissertation. As already mentioned in chapter 0 the publication in
Bauwelt refers to the initiation of this dissertation.
2.4.8 59BInvestorenarchitektur.de
Finally mention needs to be made of the internet-page www.investorenarchitektur.de, for which
responsibility is claimed by Christopher Stark. The page has the subtitle “against architecture
that arises from purely economic principles” [Gegen Architektur, die nach rein ökonomischen
Prinzipien entsteht] and contains a list of 32 buildings, of which 25 are in Berlin (DE), 4 in
Hamburg (DE), one in Venice (IT), one in Myrtle Beach, South Carolina (USA) and one in
Varna (BU). With the site, Stark aims to document buildings of ‘architectural monstrosity’
[architektonische Ungeheuerlichkeit] which, according to Stark, have been designed from
‘purely economic standpoints’ [rein ökonomische Gesichtspunkte]. The buildings published on
the site are both examples of everyday architecture assigned by German developers such as the
project Mittenmang in Lehrter Straße 23 in Berlin-Moabit, as well as some architectural icons
from the IBA ’84-87 in Berlin, the dome of the German Parliament Building [Bundestag im
Reichstag] and the buildings of the Federal Chancellery [Bundeskanzleramt] in Berlin to name
a few. All entries have been placed on the page between June 2016 and August 2020. The site
has a comment section, which included 5 comments at the time of writing of this dissertation.
None of the comments refers to the listed buildings. The site allows visitors to make proposals
for buildings to be added to the list, all entries are edited by Stark. The entries on the list do not
contain any information on the author of the entry (Stark, 2020). As the list is edited by Stark,
reference to individual authors of building entries is failing and none of the comments are
referring to the list of buildings presented on the site, the list seems to be based on the personal
preference of Stark only. Furthermore, none of the sources presented above made cross-
references to the website of Christopher Stark. As such the projects or discussions presented on
the website Investorenarchitektur do not seem be to representative of wider phenomena
captured in the term Investorenarchitektur, and neither does the website seem to have a large
audience. The site therefore has not been included in the dataset for the phenomenological
analysis of Investorenarchitektur.
2.4.9 60BOther information sources used in the study.
General encyclopaedia references such as biographical information on quoted or studied
scholars were obtained through the online encyclopaedia www.britannica.com. The
encyclopaedia is under constant review by a team of researchers with headquarters in Chicago
(USA). In some rare cases, the studied scholar did not have an entry in the online encyclopaedia
of Britannica, for these cases, the online encyclopaedia of Wikipedia was used. Philosophic
encyclopaedia references were obtained through the online Stanford Encyclopaedia of
Philosophy, www.plato.stanford.edu. Which entries are kept up to date by a team of researchers
affiliated with the Department of Philosophy of Stanford University in Stanford California
(USA). The online dictionary Oxford Academic
www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/academic/ was used for English language
24
lookups. The online dictionary www.Duden.de for German language lookups. The online
translation site www.leo.org was used for English-to-German and German-to-English
translations.
2.5. 25BConclusion
For the formulation of the research approach, the set of 4 nested frames as defined by Linda
Groat (Groat and Wang, 2013) has been adopted. According to this approach, the outer frame
of the system of inquiry is defined as the interdisciplinary field of architecture and economics.
Within this interdisciplinary system of inquiry, the complex system of architecture (see chapter
1.3.1), real estate business administration and organisational theory have been adopted as
schools of thought. The research strategy for the formulation of a management strategy for
architectural quality in commercial real estate consists of the construction of a theoretical
framework for such a strategy, concluded with an analysis of the current experienced gap
between architecture and real estate. To this end, the German discussion on
Investorenarchitektur as well as the general debate on the relationship of architecture and real
estate will be studied. Finally, the management strategy shall be drawn up in a classic POC
(Planning, Organisation and Control) cycle. In this POC cycle, the concluded theoretical
framework shall provide the roadmap for the planning and organisation of architectural quality.
The results of the gap analysis between architecture and real estate shall provide criteria for the
organisation and control of architectural quality in commercial real estate. Finally, the tactics
of the research approach consist of the application and adoption of the research method of
theoretical sampling within grounded theory (Corbin and Strauss, 2015) for the formulation of
the theoretical framework, and the application and adoption of a phenomenological analysis on
the German discussion on Investorenarchitektur and the general debate on the relationship of
architecture and real estate.
25
3. 12B Theoretical Framework
To construct the theoretical framework for architectural quality in commercial real estate the
following concepts within the school of thought of business administration, management and
organisational theory have been studied. Each concept is described and subsequently discussed
on its relevance for a management strategy on architectural quality in commercial real estate.
3.1. 26BReal Estate System
3.1.1 61BDescription
The first theoretical concept to be described is the Real Estate System as defined by Geltner and
Miller in their learning book Commercial Real Estate Investments and Analysis, first published
in 2001. The system describes three sub-systems and two peripheral systems. The three sub-
systems consist of the phenomena of the Space Market, the Asset Market and the Development
Industry. The peripheral systems are described by the local & national economies and the
general capital markets (see Figure 6). In the following, the individual subsystems and
peripheral systems are presented.
The Space Market covers the demand and supply of spaces and housing for various kinds of
economic, residential, and other activities. The supply side is covered by the building stock that
has an appropriate layout for the desired activity. On the demand side stand the tenants that, as
individuals or institutions, seek spaces to pursue their economic, residential, or other type of
activities. The rent, which can be understood as the price the tenant has to pay for the use of the
space, is set by the dynamics of supply and demand and as such the availability of the required
space. In the Space Market, the supply is provided by either owner of existing buildings as
landlords, or by the creation of new spaces (or the speculation thereof) by the Real Estate
Development Industry. On the demand side, the space market is driven by the status and
development of the Local and National Economies (Geltner et al., 2007, p. 24). In their
definition of the Space Market, Geltner and Miller only consider rental spaces. However, also
the market for owner-occupied spaces is covered by the space market, in this case, the price for
the exchange by demand and supply is set by the purchase price of the space that is subject to
the transaction.
In the Asset Market demand and supply are covered by buildings and structures that are
understood as vehicles for capital investment. An important motivation for investing capital is
that it should provide a financial return to the investor in the form of a periodical cash flow or
capital gain (or both). On the supply side, owners of buildings are seeking to sell their property
to capital investors who in their turn are expecting a financial return or at least a security hedge
on their investments. Similarly, sellers of buildings can also be capital investors who are
expecting a capital gain on their investment upon the sale of the building. The rents, generated
in the space market, flow after the deduction of operating expenses and other costs borne by the
landlord as cash flow into the Asset Market. In the Asset Market, this cash flow interacts with
the return expectations of capital investors expressed in the cap rate. As the cash flow represents
a possible financial return on capital investment, the profitability of such investment is assessed
in relation to cash flow and capital invested, expressed in the cap rate. As such, the cap rate
can also be understood as a price evaluation of the investment possibility. The higher the cap
rate, the more profitable the investment is – or – the higher the cap rate, the lower the amount
26
of capital invested in relation to the cash flow that is produced by the building, the lower the
purchase price of that building, development or projection thereof. Geltner and Miller stress
that the cap rate is also an expression of the risks and returns that investors desire or perceive
from real estate investment opportunities. Furthermore, they point out that the cap rate (or any
other return indicator) is not only used to compare alternative real estate investments but also
to compare real estate with other investment classes traded in the Capital markets (Geltner et
al., 2007, p. 24), such as stocks and bonds traded on the stock exchange.
Figure 6 Real Estate System. ‘The boxes define phenomena, the continued arrows causal flows
and the dashed arrows define gathering and use of information’. Original graph as published
in Geltner et al. (2007), Copyright Cencgage Learning.
The third phenomenon that is described by Geltner and Miller’s Real Estate System, is the
Development Industry. If the prices of the assets exchanged on the Asset Market exceed the
development costs including the developer's profit, and at the same time demand for utilisable
spaces in the Space Market is stable, an incentive to produce new buildings exists (Geltner et
al., 2007).
Furthermore, Geltner and Miller make some statements on the complexity of the assessment of
Space and Asset Markets:
Asset market participants are inherently forward-looking. Investors make or lose money
depending on how their investments do subsequent to their purchase. Even when an
27
investor sells relatively quickly to another investor, the price the second investor is willing
to pay depends on her perception of the future. Fundamentally, when you “unfold” each
subsequent sale transaction of a given asset, you realize that the present value of the asset
depends ultimately on the entire future stream of cash flow the asset can generate into
the infinite future. To forecast future income streams from the real estate assets they are
holding or considering buying, investors must forecast both the local economic base
underlying the demand side of the space market and the activity of the development
industry on the supply side of the space market. They must also attempt to forecast
capital-market and national macroeconomic factors, such as interest rates, inflation, and
investor preferences, all of which affect the opportunity cost of capital and therefore the
future values of assets (Geltner et al., 2007, p. 24).
Finally, Geltner and Miller make some remarks in the light of general belief in the efficiency
of markets and the behaviour of real estate therein. They stress that the real estate system as
shown in Figure 6 includes what they define as negative feedback loops. According to Geltner
and Miller overheated production in the Development Industry will lead via pressure on the
cash flows coming from the Space Market to a price reaction in the Asset Market. As Geltner
and Miller put it, lower cash flows will simply lead to lower prices (Geltner et al., 2007), and
therefore higher cap rates. The effect of increased supply on the Space Market, will increase
vacancy and therefore increase the risk of unstable cash flows.
3.1.2 62BDiscussion
The Real Estate System as formulated by Geltner and Miller provides a theoretical foundation
for the real estate imperative mentioned in chapter 1.3.5 and the second aspect of the economic
dimension of architecture as presented in chapter 1.3.3, where property is defined as a right and
not a thing (McPherson, 1978). It shall be clear that demand and supply in the Space Market
are based on the exchange of utility rights to a space, and that demand and supply in the Asset
Market are based on the exchange of the property rights to the building that contains the spaces
for which the utility rights are defined. These rights and the value thereof expressed in rent and
cap rates are the primary notions of any commercial real estate manager.
However, in their assessment of the value as well as risk and return profiles of rents and cap
rates, Geltner and Miller only refer to influences coming from the peripheral systems of national
and local governments as well as capital markets. They do not acknowledge the complexity of
architectural quality as described in chapter 1.3.1 and the risks this involves for the efficient
deployment of property and utility rights in buildings. As research suggests that architectural
quality has positive appreciation effects on rents and purchase prices (Ahlfeldt, 2010), it is
likely that architectural quality also bears opportunities for commercial real estate. It is therefore
evident that adequate forecasting and anticipation of all dimensions of architectural quality
should be an integral part of the forecasting toolbox of any commercial real estate manager,
next to an adequate understanding and forecasting of local and national economies and capital
markets in the Real Estate System.
Furthermore, to make adequate assumptions on the performance of built structures concerning
their value expressed in rents and cap rates, it is likely that the commercial real estate manager
approaches architectural quality through ‘hard, unequivocal yardsticks’ (Binnenkamp, 2016,
p. 240) (See also chapter 1.3.4). As these ‘yardsticks’ are mainly provided in the technical
dimension of architecture, the technical dimension of architectural quality therefore will be at
the forefront of her*his attention.
28
In addition, Geltner and Miller argue that the negative feedback loops will prevent the system
from overheating production in the Development Industry and/ or overheated valuation of cap
rates and rental princes in the Asset and Space Markets. This however requires a high
transparency level between all the systems and subsystems described in the Real Estate System.
However, it is generally known that Real Estate is characterized by a very low transparency
level that complicates the correct assessment of the status of the Real Estate System. Or as Jones
has put it:
There is no central marketplace for real estate assets, unlike the stock market where
shares and bonds are traded normally via computer screens. In contrast, properties are
bought and sold and let through agents who market them on websites. The market is much
less transparent and less efficient because there is no one database where transactions
are recorded. (Jones and Trevillion, 2022, p. 71)
Hence, the complexity of the financial transactions in real estate with its different legal interests,
results in lengthy and costly transactions (Jones and Trevillion, 2022, p. 72). It shall be clear
that the handling of the Real Estate System as defined by Geltner and Miller incorporates a high
level of complex transactions and subsequent transaction costs.
3.1.3 63BConclusion
Concerning the formulation of a management strategy for architectural complexity in
commercial real estate, the following items are drawn up as a conclusion of the discussion of
the Real Estate System.
Primary notions in commercial real estate are the value of the property and utility
rights to a building.
Risk and Opportunities for the value of property and utility rights demand reflection
upon all dimensions of architectural quality.
Technical and Economic Dimensions of architectural quality are at the forefront of
the attention of the real estate manager.
The management of commercial real estate involves many (complex) transactions
and subsequent transaction costs.
3.2. 27BStrategic Quality Management
In the following chapter, I shall set out the essence of Strategic Quality Management as defined
by the US Management scholar David Garvin (1952 -2017). In addition to an understanding of
strategic quality management, Garvin also drew up an understanding of various concepts of
quality as well as dimensions of quality.
3.2.1 64BDescription
70TStrategic Quality Management
Garvin recognised at the end of the 1980-ies that classic product-oriented internal quality
management approaches of Inspection, Statistical Quality Control and Quality Assurance (see
also Table 8) in production and manufacturing could no longer match the superior quality and
reliability of Japanese competition, increased government regulation concerning product
standards, and the consequential rising costs of liability suits (Garvin, 1988, pp. 24–27).
29
Instead, he formulated an external, consumer-oriented, Strategic Quality Management
approach that emphasized market and consumer orientation (See Table 8).
The essence of the approach has been well summarized by a recent report to the American
Society for Quality Control:
- It is not those who offer the product but those whom it serves – the customers, users,
and those influence or represent them – who have the final word on how well a
product fulfils needs and expectations.
- Satisfaction is related to competitive offerings.
- Satisfaction, as related to competitive offerings, is formed over the product lifetime,
not just at the time of purchase.
- A composite of attributes is needed to provide the most satisfaction to those whom
the product serves. Here, quality has been defined comparatively – relative to
competitors – rather against fixed, internal standards. Customers and not internal
departments have been given the final say in determining whether or not a product
is acceptable. By implication, meeting specifications has become a secondary
concern to be pursued only after users’ needs have been carefully defined.
Otherwise, excellence in process control provides little advantage, for it is easily
misguided. (Garvin, 1988, p. 24)
Stage of the Quality Movement
Identifying
Characteristics
Inspection Statistical Quality
Control
Quality Assurance Strategic Quality
Management
Primary concern Detection Control Coordination Strategic Impact
View of quality A problem to be
solved
A problem to be
solved
A problem to be
solved, but one that
is attacked
p
roactivel
y
A competitive
opportunity
Emphasis Product uniformity Product uniformity
with reduced
inspection
The entire
production chain,
from design to
market, and the
contribution of all
functional groups,
especially
designers, to
preventing quality
failures
The market and
consumer needs
Methods Gauging and
measurement
Statistical tools and
techniques
Programs and
systems
Strategic planning,
goal setting, and
mobilizing the
or
g
anisation
Role of quality
professionals
Inspection, sorting,
counting, and
grading
Troubleshooting
and the application
of statistical
methods
Quality
measurement,
quality planning,
and program design
Goal-setting,
education and
training,
consultative work
with other
departments, and
p
ro
g
ram desi
g
n
30
Who has
responsibility for
quality
The inspection
department
The manufacturing
and engineering
department
All departments,
although top
management is
only peripherally
involved in
designing,
planning, and
executing quality
p
olicies
Everyone in the
organization, with
top management
exercising strong
leadership
Orientation and
approach
“inspects in”
quality
“controls in”
quality
“builds in” quality “manages in”
quality
Table 8 Four major quality areas, emphasis on Strategic Quality Management. Table adapted
from Garvin (1988, p. 37)
The involvement of external (consumer) appreciation had the consequence that the producing
firm had to constantly improve its quality standards against those of its competitors. As such
senior management of the company had to include quality into their strategic planning processes
for the company, and product quality became a central strategic element of the firm. This new
strategic approach to quality management influenced the whole process of production and it
committed senior management to internalize the new quality standards into the firm. This
involved continuous education and training of the employees in the quality standards that senior
management strategically set out for the firm (Garvin, 1988, pp. 24–27).
As demonstrated in Table 8 a strategic quality approach as recognised by Garvin relies on a
strong position of the manager, interacting internally as well as externally with the various
quality features of the product. Nevertheless, he recognised the following problem concerning
management:
"Quality is a complex and multifaceted concept. It is also the source of great confusion:
managers - particularly those in different functions - frequently fail to communicate
precisely what they mean by the term. The result is often endless debate, and an inability
to show real progress on the quality front." (Garvin, 1984, p. 39)
70TQuality Concepts
In addition, to help the manager in the formulation of what is meant by quality, he formulated
the following quality concepts.
(1) Transcendent definition of quality
In the transcendent definition, ‘quality is both absolute and universally recognisable’
but ’cannot be defined precisely; rather, it is a simple unanalysable property that we
learn to recognize through experience […it] bows heavily from Plato’s discussion of
beauty’ […] it can be understood only after one is exposed to a succession of objects
that display its characteristics.’ (Garvin, 1984, p. 26)
(2) Product-based definition of quality.
In the product-based definition, ‘quality is a precise and measurable variable’. The
‘approach lends a vertical or hierarchal dimension to quality for goods and can be ranked
according to the amount of the desired attribute that they process. However, an
unambiguous ranking is possible only if the attributes in question are considered
preferable by virtually all buyers’. In product-based quality ‘higher quality can only be
31
obtained at higher costs’ and it can ‘the presence or absence of measurable product
attributes […] can be assessed objectively’ (Garvin, 1984, pp. 26–27).
(3) User-based definition of quality
In the user-based definition ‘quality lies in the eyes of the beholder. […]. It is an
idiosyncratic and personal view of quality’ of individual consumers ‘and one that is
highly subjective’ (Garvin, 1988, p. 43). The concept of user-based definition faces a
practical and fundamental problem. Practically the question arises ‘how to aggregate
widely varying individual preferences’, and fundamentally it will be very difficult ‘to
distinguish those product attributes that connote quality from those that simply
maximize consumer satisfaction’ (Garvin, 1984, p. 27).
(4) Manufacturing-based definition of quality
The manufacturing-based definition of quality is the opposite of the user-based
definition of quality and focuses on the supply side of products (Garvin, 1988, p. 44).
‘Quality is defined as conformance to requirements’ and design specifications. It ‘is
defined in a manner that simplifies engineering and production control’. It has an
emphasis on ‘reliability engineering’ and ‘statistical quality control’, which both focus
‘on the same end: cost reduction’ (Garvin, 1984, pp. 27–28).
(5) Value-based definition of quality.
Finally, Garvin defines the Value-based definition, which is a definition that defines
quality in terms of costs and prices. ‘A quality product is one that provided performance
at an acceptable price or conformance at an acceptable costs’. The value-based
definition of quality bears the problem that it equates the concept of ‘quality, which is
a measure of excellence’ with the concept of ‘value, which is a concept of worth’. The
hybrid result is affordable excellence, which as a concept ‘lacks well-defined limits and
is difficult to apply in practice’ (Garvin, 1984, p. 28).
70TQuality Dimensions
Garvin recognised that marketing, engineering and manufacturing experts often have very
different interpretations of quality, neither is there a reason ‘to assume that business leaders and
consumers will be any more in agreement’ (Garvin, 1988, p. 49). As a consequence, to help an
agreement of the various parties and stakeholders in the formulation of a universal
understanding of quality, Garvin disaggregated ‘the concept of quality’ in the following eight
dimensions (Garvin, 1984, pp. 29–30).
(1) Performance
Performance as described by Garvin refers to the operating characteristics of the
product. (Garvin, 1988, p. 50)
(2) Features
Garvin defines features as the ‘bells and whistles’ of quality performance. It is, just as
the performance dimension, an objective and measurable attribute. (Garvin, 1988,
p. 51).
(3) Reliability
32
The probability of a product’s malfunctioning is defined by Garvin as the dimension of
reliability (Garvin, 1988, p. 52).
(4) Conformance
Conformance ‘means meeting specifications’ that are available for the product. As a
second approach to the quality dimension of conformance, Garvin also includes the
variance within product specifications (Garvin, 1988, p. 52).
(5) Durability
Garvin defines the dimension of durability with the measure of product life. In Garvin’s
definition, it has an economic as well as a technical component. The technical
component describes the ‘amount of use one gets from a product before it physically
deteriorates’, the economic component consequently describes the costs to replace the
component once it has deteriorated. The costs of replacements of the component are
then weighed against the costs of the overall replacement of the product (Garvin, 1988,
p. 55).
(6) Serviceability
The sixth dimension of product quality defined by Garvin refers to the services that are
provided with a product. Garvin refers to aspects such as ‘speed, courtesy, competence,
and ease of repair’. (Garvin, 1988, p. 57).
(7) Aesthetics
Garvin does refer to this quality dimension as ‘how a product looks, feels, sounds,
smells, tastes, or smells’ and states that it is ‘clearly a matter of personal judgements
and a reflection of individual preferences’. Nevertheless, Garvin also acknowledges that
it is ‘not wholly idiosyncratic’ and that there are certain general attributes of aesthetics
that define quality. (Garvin, 1988, p. 59).
(8) Perceived quality
Finally, Garvin describes the quality dimension of perceived quality. With this
dimension, he refers to a quality assessment when consumers do not have complete
information about the product, and quality is judged based on information sources such
as branding and reputation. (Garvin, 1988, p. 59).
Within Garvin’s concept of strategic quality management, the recognition of all 8 quality
dimensions will lead to an integrated, strategic understanding of product quality. Consequently,
it is the task of any manager to work with all dimensions of quality, or as Garvin states;
“the dimensions of quality become more than just theoretical niceties; they become the
basis for using quality as a competitive weapon” (Garvin, 1988, p. 68).
3.2.2 65BDiscussion
In Garvin’s Strategic Management Approach, the emphasis lies on consumer satisfaction
concerning the formulation of a quality level that is desired. If we adopt Garvin’s strategic
consumer-oriented approach to the evaluation of architectural quality, this would imply that the
appreciation of architectural quality in commercial real estate, in its interacting complexity of
33
social, cultural, aesthetic, technical, and economic dimensions (See also chapter 1.3) fully lies
with those that hold the exclusive utility or property rights to the building; Tenants and
landlords. This interpretation however introduces two problems for commercial real estate.
The first problem is related to the evaluation of architectural quality of the users that hold the
exclusive rights to the spaces. We have seen in chapter 1.3.4 and Figure 3 that the evaluation
of architecture involves many ‘soft, non-quantifiable’ (Binnenkamp, 2016, p. 241) qualities, of
which its definition requires debate and discussion. As this debate and discussions can easily
lead to ‘endless disputes on the correct meaning’ (Rönn, 2011, pp. 237–238), it becomes clear
that correct handling of this debate and discussion with the individual users becomes a nearly
impossible management task (especially if the user is not known at the time of the development
of commercial real estate, as is the case in most commercial real estate developments). The
manager therefore must interpret the consumer’s desires concerning the dimensions of
architectural quality, including the consumer’s probably unformulated expectations and desires
on the social, cultural, and aesthetic dimensions of architecture. Finally, as the manager stands
between the consumer and the design specialist such as an architect, the manager therefore must
represent the consumer concerning all dimensions of architectural quality, including the social,
cultural, and aesthetic dimensions.
The second problem in commercial real estate is related to the public dimension of architecture.
As stated in the real estate imperative in chapter 1.3.5, buildings form the vehicles for private
property rights (the right to exclusive use of a space). These buildings, however, stand (in most
cases) in the public realm and are as such part of our societies. And although privately used,
their sheer presence is accessible to everyone. As such the architectural appearance of
commercial real estate is as much a responsibility towards the public domain, as it is a
responsibility toward the consumers that hold, or will hold, the exclusive rights to use the
property. The real estate manager therefore not only represents the consumer in questions of
complex interacting dimensions of architectural quality, but also public satisfaction concerning
the social, cultural, and aesthetic aspirations to architecture.
Concerning the quality concepts defined by Geltner, the architectural quality of commercial
real estate is best understood in a combination of a Transcendent definition of quality, a
manufacturing-based definition of quality and a Value-based definition of quality.
The transcendent definition refers to the complex nature of architecture described in chapter
1.3.1, where architectural quality is understood as a complex system that is more than ‘the sum
of the parts’ (Simon, 1962, p. 469), ‘absolute and universally recognisable’ but ‘cannot be
defined precisely’ (Garvin, 1988, p. 40). The transcendent definition especially applies the
aesthetic, cultural and social dimensions of architectural quality.
Architecture in its process and product is the result of many design disciplines and stages (i.e.,
structural, technical services, functional, health and safety, etc.), that are set by technical and
financial limits, specifications, laws, regulations, and formal and informal governance tools. As
such, architecture is to a large extent subject to ‘conformance to requirements’. Therefore
architectural quality can also be understood in the manufacturing definition that focuses on
‘conformance’- control and subsequent ‘cost reduction’ or containment of cost concerning the
product’s and process’ requirements (Garvin, 1988, p. 44). As the manufacturing definition
only works if qualities are measurable, the manufacturing-based definition specifically applies
to the technical and economic dimensions of architectural quality.
34
Finally, the Value-based definition of quality is mainly applied to the objective of commercial
real estate as described in the Real Estate System, whereas the difficulty of the ‘hybrid result of
affordable excellence’ (Garvin, 1988, pp. 45–46) also applies to the difficulty in the assessment
of architectural quality (Architects Council of Europe, 2019, p. 1).
The user-based definition of quality does not apply to architectural quality due to the evaluation
problems described above. Next to the ‘aggregation problems’ (that are also acknowledged by
Garvin) in the evaluation of architectural quality by the users of the building, architectural
quality also addresses universal public interests that cannot be captured by ‘individual
preferences’.
Also, the product-based definition of quality does not apply to complex architectural quality.
Although one single building can be understood as a product (Groth, 2018, p. 119), the
repetition of this quality is complex if not impossible to the differences in the context of each
building.
The quality dimensions that Geltner formulated can be allocated to the dimensions of
architectural quality as shown in Table 9.
Within the Real Estate System, the Performance dimension of quality can be translated
into architectural quality the level at which the building can operate as a vehicle for
capital investment. As such, it primarily addresses the economic and technical
dimensions of architectural quality (See also chapter 1.3.3). These aspects are
measurable concerning the imminent use of the building, and less measurable
concerning the future use of the building. However, the building must also ‘operate’
concerning the social, cultural, and aesthetic dimensions of architecture. These aspects
are not measurable and can only be assessed through interpretation by the manager.
The Feature dimension can be translated into the technical quality aspects of buildings
and floorplans such as thermal comfort, automation, etc. It is a measurable quality.
The Reliability dimension covers the technical and structural dimension of providing
shelter and safety for the projected use of the building. It is a measurable quality.
The Conformance dimension relates to the conformance obligations of a building to
planning regulations, safety standards and other governance tools that are defined in the
social dimension of architectural quality described in chapter 1.3.3. The variance to
which a building design adheres to urban or architectural design codes relates to
Garvin’s second approach to conformance. It is a measurable quality concerning formal
tools and interpretative concerning informal tools.
The dimension of Durability refers to the sustainability aspects of architecture. It is a
less measurable quality.
Serviceability: This quality dimension cannot be directly related to architectural quality.
However, indirectly the ‘serviceability’ quality of a building shall refer to the efficiency
of operations that a building provides. The level of operation expenses and necessary
maintenance and repair costs would fall into the technical and economic dimensions of
architectural quality. As such it is measurable.
The dimension of aesthetics is a large and wide-spanning issue in architecture, studied
by many scholars in the course of history. It is unmistakably an important dimension of
architectural quality of which the discussion exceeds the research scope of this
dissertation. It is an interpretative quality.
35
Perceived quality: In architecture, the concept of perceived quality can be translated to
the use and application of certain archetypes. These archetypes can also refer to local or
culturally related building practices and architectural forms, such as the difference
between Arabic and European building styles. Or the recognisable difference between
a church, town hall and residential buildings. Another example of perceived quality in
architecture can be found in the application of architectural styles and decorative
patterns, such as the doctrine of classical orders that was invented by the 16-17P
th
P century
humanists (Noble Howe, 1999, p. 15), or the popularity of 19P
th
P century historical styles
(Papon, 2019). The quality dimension relates to the cultural, social and aesthetic
dimensions of architectural quality.
Garvin’s
Quality
Dimension
Measurability
in
Architecture
M =
Measurable
LM = Less
Measurable
I =
Interpretative
Cultural
Dimension
of
Architecture
Social
Dimension
of
Architecture
Aesthetic
Dimension
of
Architecture
Technical
Dimension
of
Architecture
Economic
Dimension
of
Architecture
Performance I X X
Features M X
Reliabilit
y
M X
Conformance M/ LM X
Durabilit
y
LM
Serviceabilit
y
M X X
Aesthetics I X
Perceived
Qualit
y
I X X X
Table 9 Allocation of Garvin’s quality dimensions to the quality dimensions of architectural
quality.
3.2.3 66BConclusion
Out Garvin’s formulation of Strategic Quality Management, his various definitions of concepts
of quality and dimensions of quality the following can be concluded for a management strategy
for architectural quality in commercial real estate:
Consumer (User) emphasis is not enough for strategic management of architectural
quality.
A strategic quality approach of architectural quality relies on a strong position of the
manager, that interacts internally and externally with the various quality features of a
building.
In doing so the manager not only interprets consumer satisfaction, but also interprets
‘public satisfaction’ in the social, cultural, and aesthetic dimension of architectural
quality.
The transcendent definition of quality is particularly relevant for the social, cultural,
and aesthetic dimensions of architectural quality.
The manufacturing-based definition of quality is particularly relevant to the technical
and economic dimensions of architectural quality.
36
The value-based definition of quality is particularly relevant for the correct functioning
of the Real Estate System
Measurable architectural qualities include imminent performance, features, reliability,
formal conformance, and serviceability.
Less Measurable architectural qualities include future performance and durability.
Interpretative architectural qualities include social, cultural, and aesthetic performance,
informal tools, aesthetics, and perceived quality.
3.3. 28BTransaction Costs Economics
As stated in chapter 1.3, architectural quality is both as a process and as a product defined by
the complex of interacting dimensions (See also Figure 1). Many of these interactions involve
formal and informal transactions between the disciplines involved in architecture. In addition,
and as we have seen in the discussion of the Real Estate System in chapter 3.1, the management
and adequate forecasting of commercial real estate within the Real Estate System also involves
many transactions. The economic and organisational consequences of these and other
transactions are studied in Transaction Costs Economics.
3.3.1 67BDescription
70TTransaction Costs Economics
The principal question concerned in Transaction Costs Economics is the organization of
economic transactions in and outside of markets. In the neoclassical economic understanding
of economic organization markets are able to efficiently coordinate transactions themselves
through demand and supply functions and the price mechanisms that are a consequence (Coase,
1937, p. 387). The intervention of organizations, firms, or other regulating bodies to coordinate
transactions would be in a purely neoclassical understanding of economic organization
superfluent. Nevertheless, firms, organizations and regulating institutions exist. Transaction
Costs Economics studies why these bodies exist, and what the aspects of their economic
organisation are. As such, an important thought within Transaction Costs Economics is that the
self-regulation price mechanism of markets is replaced by decisions of an entrepreneur within
a firm, or as the founder of new institutional economic thinking, the economist Robert Coase
(1910-2013) in his widely acclaimed paper The Nature of the Firm stated:
"Outside the firm, price movements direct production, which is co-ordinated through a
series of exchange transactions on the market. Within a firm, these market transactions
are eliminated and in place of the complicated market structure with exchange
transactions is substituted the entrepreneur-co-ordinator, who directs production."
(Coase, 1937, p. 388)
The social scientist Oliver E. Williamson (1932-2020) further developed the thoughts of Coase
and introduced the contract at the base of every economic transaction:
“Transaction cost economics is an interdisciplinary undertaking that joins economics
with aspects of organizational theory and overlaps extensively with contract law. It is the
modern counterpart of institutional economics […].” (Williamson, 1986, p. 124)
"Transaction cost economics adopts a contractual approach to the study of economic
organization. It maintains that any issue that can be formulated as a contracting problem
37
can be investigated to advantage in transaction cost economizing terms. Every exchange
relation qualifies. Many other issues which, at the outset, appear to lack a contracting
aspect turn out, upon scrutiny, to have an implicit contracting quality [...]." (Williamson,
1986, p. 174)
Managerial Discretion
As already set out above the role of the entrepreneur or manager has an important position in
the process of economic organization as understood in Transaction Costs Economics.
Logically, once the individual transactions within an economic activity increase, also the
decisions necessary to replace the self-regulating price mechanisms will increase. The more
complex the transactions become, the higher the complexity of the managerial decisions that
are involved in the transaction. Consequently, this has large organisational consequences for
the firm and makes the firm dependent on the decision competencies of the individual
managers. Furthermore, the economic objective of the firm will benefit from the satisfaction
that the individual manager experiences (Williamson, 1986, p. 9). The amount of space or
freedom the individual manager has to investigate complex decisions that replace the self-
regulating price mechanisms is defined as Managerial Discretion. Williamson further states
concerning the aspect of managerial discretion:
“[…] managers derive satisfaction from self-fulfilment and organizational achievement,
and profits are one measure of this success. In addition, profits are a source of discretion
(indeed, we define 'discretionary profits' as the difference between actual profits and
minimum profits demanded). Discretionary profits represent a source of funds whose
allocation may be importantly determined by managerial, in addition to economic,
considerations.” (Williamson, 1986, p. 9)
Principal-Agent Problem
Within Transaction Costs Economics ‘a crucial problem for organizations is whether a
transaction should be carried out’ (Sozen, 1996, p. 45) internally within the firm or insourced
from a market external to the organisation (Sozen, 1996, p. 45). Especially when the price-
regulation mechanism that is supposed to be replaced by the transaction is complex, this could
involve conflicts of interest between the assigning party (the principal) and the party providing
the insourced services (the agent).
3.3.2 68BDiscussion
As we have seen in the discussion of the Real Estate System in chapter 3.1, and if we observe
the description of the economic dimension of architectural quality in chapter 1.3.3 it shall be
clear that in a management strategy for architectural quality, the ‘self-regulating price
mechanism’ is replaced by the decision of the entrepreneur, in this case, the real estate manager.
As both real estate management as well as architectural design require many transaction
decisions by individual managers, it is evident that the competency and capability as well as
interest and attitude of the manager towards the complex system of architecture is essential for
architectural quality.
Transaction Costs Economics puts the activity and role of the individual entrepreneur – or
manager – and her*his competency, judgement, and attitude towards the transactions (in the
form of formal or informal contracts) in the centre of economic organization. This becomes
particularly relevant concerning the ‘soft, non-quantifiable qualities’ in the social dimension of
38
architecture (See chapter 1.3.4) and the less measurable and interpretative quality dimensions
as discussed in chapter 3.2.2 and Table 9 Allocation of Garvin’s quality dimensions to the
quality dimensions of architectural quality. Finally, as these non-tangible and non-rational
quality dimensions are characterised by a large decision freedom of the manager, the quality
thereof also depends on how the manager applies her*his ‘managerial discretion’.
Therefore, it can be assumed that as soon as the real estate manager can derive personal
satisfaction from dealing with those dimensions – developing an adequate attitude and acquiring
sufficient competencies concerning all the dimensions of architectural quality described in
chapter 1.3.3 – she*he will be able to perform better on the wholistic objective of architectural
complexity.
The principle-agent conflict in terms of Transaction Costs Economics, and the relationship
between architectural design agents (architects) and commercial real estate clients has been
subject to the research of Schulz-Eickhorst in her dissertation ‘Die Bauherren-Architekten-
Beziehung’ (Schulz-Eickhorst, 2002). In her dissertation, which is limited to the relationship
between architects and clients in Germany, Schulz-Eickhorst argues a rather grim relationship
between architects and commercial real estate clients. She suggests that the personal satisfaction
of architects to be recognised as artists [künstlerische selbstverwirklichung] within their own
professional group (Schulz-Eickhorst, 2002, p. 58) is the dominating motivation for architects
to engage in architecture. Furthermore, and similarly as described in chapter 1.3.5, she sees the
objective of a financial return on investment (Schulz-Eickhorst, 2002, p. 232) as the only
objective of a real estate client in architectural design. At the time of the publication of her
thesis architectural services and fees in Germany were still subject to fixed schedules and rates,
regardless of the reputation or competency levels of the individual architect. According to
Schulz-Eickhorst, this structure of fixed schedules and rates did not include any financial
incentive for the architect to engage in economic and organisational efficiency of building
design (Schulz-Eickhorst, 2002, p. 59). She therefore sees a conflict of interest between the
financial return objective of the commercial real estate client, and the objective of artistic
recognition of the architect. In the conclusion of her dissertation, she states that the principle-
agent conflict can be resolved if architects refrain from their understanding as artists, and
commercial real estate clients and architects cooperate in more open and transparent contractual
arrangements (Schulz-Eickhorst, 2002, p. 237). Although set within a different regulatory
framework than that is valid today and the unsubtle assumption that all architects define
themselves as artists, the study of Schulz-Eickhorst provides insight into the organisational
problems in the relationship between architecture and real estate clients. However, the
principal-agent problem that she sees in the architects’ artistic-aesthetic aspirations of
architecture could be easily managed out of the way if the real estate client adopts these
aspirations and looks further than the technical and economic dimensions of architecture. The
study therefore is a good illustration that from a transaction costs economics point of view, a
high level of architectural quality can be achieved if both the client and the design agent fully
and equally adopt the concept of architectural complexity with all its dimensions and evaluation
characteristics. If they refrain from understanding good architecture as an artistic interest that
must be defended by the agent or suppressed by the client, the magic ‘whole [that] is more than
the sum of its parts’ (Simon, 1962, p. 469) has a fair chance to come to the foreground of
managerial and designers’ satisfaction.
39
3.3.3 69BConclusion
Price mechanism is replaced by decisions of an entrepreneur within a firm.
Complex projects such as architecture leave ample space for managerial discretion.
If architectural quality can be made part of the managers’ satisfaction, this will enhance
architectural quality in its holistic dimensions.
Principal–Agent problems in commercial real estate and architecture will cease to exist
if commercial real estate clients and architects refrain from understanding architecture
as an art for which only the design agent is responsible. Instead, a joined responsibility
towards architectural complexity and continued discussion of all its dimensions will not
only support architectural quality but also avoid excessive transaction-related costs and
organizational problems.
3.4. 29BComplex Systems
To explore the managerial consequences of complex systems such as described by architectural
quality in chapter 1.3, I shall now turn to the exploration of management theories that study the
management of complex systems.
3.4.1 70BDescription
70TPrinciples of Complex Systems
In his book Designing and Managing Complex Systems the author David Moriarty describes
17 principles for complex systems:
1. A system is an organized set of components that are linked up to allow them to fulfil a
function.
2. The function is what the system does, i.e., its purpose.
3. The components may be arranged into different subsystems, and the subsystems
together go to form the system.
4. Systems can be recursive. A subsystem may have a similar layout to the larger systems
it is a part of.
5. A component is the simplest part of a system that can be given a single function. For
example, a machine may fulfil a function within a system, but a part of that machine,
although it fulfils a function for the machine, hasn’t actually been given that function by
the designers of the overall system.
6. At the most basic level of the system, the components can be: a. Humans b. Procedures
(including software, rules, norms, and laws) c. Machines
7. While these three classes of components are often systems within themselves, for the
purposes of this exploration of the nature of systems, it won’t often be necessary to look
at this characteristic of components any more closely.
8. A component can be a part of several systems or subsystems.
9. A metasystem is necessary to coordinate activity between systems and subsystems.
40
10. A closed system tries not to change its activity in the event of changes within its
environment (e.g., a mechanical watch). It doesn’t rely on exchanging matter, energy, or
information with its environment once it has been initiated.
11. An open system varies its activity based on changes within its environment (e.g., the
financial markets). It exchanges matter, energy, and information with its environment.
12. An ultra stable system attempts to maintain equilibrium in the event of disturbances.
13. Systems, subsystems, and components have a function that is assigned.
14. Systems, subsystems, and components also need to have the capability to fulfil those
functions.
15. When there is a mismatch between function and capability, a system, subsystem, or
component may not perform adequately.
16. The capability of components may change both independently and dependently of the
activity of the rest of the system.
17. The dynamics of the system (its natural behaviour) will determine how it will perform
in the face of changes within the environment and when reacting to the variable
performance of the subsystems and components of which it is made.
(Moriarty, 2022, p. 32)
70T
Classification of Complex Systems
In addition to general principles of complex systems, Moriarty sums up different classifications
of complex systems (Figure 7).
Figure 7 Different Classes of Systems. Orginal graph as published in Moriarty (2022, p. 47).
Copyright Elsevier Inc.
41
Out of these categories presented in Figure 7, the societal, technical, informational, and
sociotechnical systems are relevant for this dissertation. Societal systems are the result of
several deliberate planning stages that depend on and are initiated by human beings (Moriarty,
2022, p. 66). Technical systems depend on the planning and initiation of human beings but are
for themselves subject to physical and natural laws (Moriarty, 2022, p. 66). Furthermore,
technical systems are the least complex systems (Moriarty, 2022, p. 67). Informational systems
describe and depend on the organization and availability of information (Moriarty, 2022, p. 66).
Finally, sociotechnical systems are a combination of technical, societal, and informational
systems (See also Figure 7).
70T
Cynefin Framework
In dealing with complex systems that form a non-simply interacting sum of its parts (Simon,
1962, p. 469) the manager will be dealing with several levels of complexity in the individual
components, systems and subsystems that are part of the complex system as a whole. A
definition and categorisation of these complexity levels is provided in the Cynefin framework
(Figure 8), as developed by the management consultant Dave Snowden (Moriarty, 2022, p. 39).
The categorization of the level of complexity into the various domains described in the Cynefin
Framework helps the manager to ‘deploy the correct management strategy for the domain that
the system [or subsystem, or component] is’ (Moriarty, 2022, p. 43).
Figure 8 Cynefin Domains developed by Dave Snowden. Original graph as published in
Moriarty (2022, p. 39). Copyright Elsever Inc.
The Cynefin framework describes 4 domains of complexity that can be allocated to complex
systems, and/ or to the dynamics of subsystems and/ or its components. It provides a framework
‘of understanding how different types of systems [or its components and subsystems] require a
different way of thinking’ (Moriarty, 2022, p. 39). Depending on the capability ‘and knowledge
state of the manager and their [attitude] on the issue’ the manager can accurately determine the
level of complexity and hence develop her*his management strategy towards the management
42
of the system (Moriarty, 2022, p. 43). The Cynefin Framework as provided by Snowden has,
although lacking scientific proof, some heuristic advantages in dealing with complexity
(Nachbagauer, 2021, p. 9). As such the Cynefin Domains have been further extended by
Nachbagauer with project type and the formulation of management approaches about
management actions, education and knowledge development as well as strategic actions
(Nachbagauer, 2021, p. 8), see also Table 10.
Project Type Action Pattern Learning/ Training Management Approach
Simple Projects
[Clear Domain]
Project managers
sense and categorize
system behaviour
Single-loop learning,
standardized courses
Standards and
standardized project
management tools;
slicing, planning, and
controllin
g
Complicated repetitive
Projects
[Complicated Domain]
Project managers
sense and analyse system
behaviour
Double loop learning,
training based on
guidelines
Advanced project
management guidelines;
personal knowledge and
centralised expertise;
slicing along
professional
requirements.
Complicated non-
repetitive projects
[Complicated Domain]
Expert
sense and analyse system
behaviour
Double loop learning,
unlearning, and learning
from others; simulation
training based on
frameworks
(Community of) experts
with specialized
language; flexible
frameworks based on
ratio and heuristics;
slicing along
professional
requirements and
tendenc
y
to trivialisation.
Complex (unique)
projects
[Complex Domain]
Experienced project
managers
sense and probe sense
system behaviour
Deutero learning,
understanding, and
learning from patterns;
experience-based
learning
Networks of (senior)
project managers with
experience, authority,
and trust; team and
culture-oriented
management;
sensemaking, trial and
error, scepticism of
expertise and humility;
whole systems approach,
restraint slicin
g
.
Table 10 Project types and management approaches. Source table: Nachbagauer (2021, p. 8).
The Cynefin Framework describes four types of contexts or domains that in level of complexity
build up on each other (or counterclockwise follow upon each other in Figure 8) . The lowest
level is the Clear Domain:
In this domain, effect clearly follows cause. Patterns repeat themselves, and the outcomes
are usually the same. (Moriarty, 2022, p. 41)
Followed by the Complicated domain:
In this domain, effect follows cause in a way that may not be obvious or may be masked
by multiple other effects. However, these relationships are discoverable. The
Complicated domain can be viewed as the domain of expertise. (Moriarty, 2022, p. 41)
Continued with the Complex domain:
43
In this domain, effect does not clearly follow cause. Changes ripple quickly through the
system in a manner that may mask the initial events. It will not be obvious which approach
is required to manage a system in the Complex domain. Because it isn’t possible to derive
a fact-based response, the management response needs to be probe-sense-respond; probe
the system by trying different management strategies, sense which of them confers the
best degree of control, and respond by scaling up this strategy. (Moriarty, 2022, p. 42)
And finally closes by the Chaotic domain:
With a system operating in this domain (or, more likely, not operating), there is no link
between cause and effect. The system is changing unpredictably and often more quickly
than a human operator can keep up with. The system is unconstrained and ungovernable,
with the potential for catastrophic failure. (Moriarty, 2022, p. 42)
The lines between the domains in Figure 8 describe a domain shift, that can occur if a
disturbance causes a shift of the system as a whole, one or more of its subsystems or one or
more of its components into the next domain (Moriarty, 2022, p. 40). The line between the
chaotic and clear domain (presented with a red line in Figure 8) describes the cliff of project or
system failure (Moriarty, 2022, p. 43) if trespassed counterclockwise. A situation where the
manager does not know at what level of complexity the complex system is currently operating
creates disorder (Moriarty, 2022, p. 43).
70T
Dynamic Safety Model
The Cynefin Framework mainly provides a heuristic tool for understanding the complexity
levels of the individual components of complex systems such as the sociotechnical system of
architectural complexity. In addition, the work of Nachbagauer (see Table 10) also guides
management strategies when confronted with several complexity levels. However, it does not
provide a theoretical framework for the management of complexity. The Dynamic Safety Model
as it has been described by the industrial researcher Jens Rasmussen (Moriarty, 2022, p. 112)
can provide such a framework.
Figure 9 Dynamic Safety Model by Jens Rasmussen. Orginal graph as published in Moriarty
(2022, p. 113). Copyright Elsevier Inc.
44
The Dynamic Safety Model (Figure 9), which was originally developed for industrial safety
(Moriarty, 2022, p. 112), consists of an operational area within which the system functions.
Within this area, the operating point represents the focus of operations within the system. The
operational area of the operating point is surrounded by three boundaries: The boundary of
economic failure; The boundary of unacceptable workload; And finally, the boundary of
unacceptable performance. The boundary of unacceptable performance has two lines: The
dashed line describes the limit as prescribed by management, and the continuous line is the
actual performance limit. The space in between describes the error margin (Moriarty, 2022,
p. 114).
As organisations will try to ‘achieve a balance between control and efficiency’ (Moriarty, 2022,
p. 117) over their operations, they will tend to describe procedures that can capture and regulate
the movement of the operating point within its boundaries. Moriarty mentions on this point:
‘However, when organizations continue adding procedures to an already complex
system, this can often result in the human operators being bogged down by the weight of
the procedures that they are supposed to follow’ (Moriarty, 2022, p. 117)
Finally, according to Rasmussen, a sociotechnical system would fail ‘as a whole’ if the
operating point ends up outside one of the boundaries (Moriarty, 2022, p. 113). Rasmussen
defines three phenomena that cause the displacement of the operating point towards the failure
boundaries: Trade-offs, Procedural drifts, and Domain shifts.
A trade-off occurs when the work-as-imagined does not match with the work-as-done
(Moriarty, 2022, p. 117) Where trade-offs occur due to external influences or ill-formulated
principles, procedural drifts describe ‘a more gradual, normally unintentional divergence from
work-as-imagined’. Procedural drifts disguise the complexity of the project, a complexity that
is necessary to achieve quality, and as such risk creating disorder that can cause the operating
point ‘to crossing a failure boundary’ (Moriarty, 2022, p. 119). Finally, Rasmussen describes
Domain Shifts as a third reason for the failure of complex sociotechnical systems. With domain
shifts, Rasmussen refers to a misinterpretation of the complexity levels of the system as a whole,
one or more of its subsystems, or one or more of its components (Moriarty, 2022, p. 40). As set
out in the strategic management framework in Table 10, complexity domains require different
action patterns, learning and training as well as management approaches. If the managers and
designers responsible for the system as a whole do not have adequate experience and do not
perform with ‘sense and probe sense behaviour’ (Nachbagauer, 2021, p. 9) to adequately
identify the complexity levels of the individual components of the system, they will not be able
to set out the adequate management approach that the system and/ or its subsystems and
components require.
3.4.2 71BDiscussion
Concerning the 17 principles of complex systems formulated by Moriarty, the dimensions of
architectural quality as described in chapter 1.3.3 form together with the description of
architectural complexity in chapter 1.3.1, the objective of architecture in chapter 1.3.2, the
evaluation of architectural quality in chapter 1.3.4, and the real estate imperative in chapter
1.3.5 the components of a complex system (Principle 1). Furthermore, we can define the Real
Estate System as described in Chapter 3.1 as a subsystem of architecture (Principle 3). The
economic dimension of architecture (see Chapter 1.3.3) is part of the Real Estate System as well
45
as the complex system of holistic architectural quality (Principle 8). The technical dimension
(see Chapter 1.3.3) can be defined as consisting of procedures that include norms, laws, and
rules (principle 6). To a certain extent, this also applies to the cultural and social dimensions
(see chapter 1.3.3), which are to are certain level defined in building codes and regulations, as
well as local planning customs and laws. The objective of this dissertation; The formulation of
a management strategy for architectural quality in commercial real estate, refers to the
‘metasystem [that] is necessary to coordinate activity between systems and subsystems’
(principle 9), the principles nr. 14, 15 and 16 shall be guiding in the definition of the
competencies that particularly real estate clients as most influential stakeholders to shape the
built environment (Carmona, 2009, p. 2644) must possess to maintain the equilibrium of
dimensions as described with Figure 1 (Page 6). If the ‘purpose’ (principle 2) of the complex
system of architectural quality is to create an equilibrium of social, cultural, aesthetic, technical
and economic dimensions, the coordinating clients, managers and designing agents active in
the system, subsystems and components must be capable to adhere to all those functions
(principle 14). This again sets competency requirements for the humans and procedures
engaged in the system (principle 6). Knowledge development of all 5 dimensions of architecture
shall therefore be a key principle in the education and capacity or capability (principle 14) of
human and procedural components involved in the complex system of architecture.
Concerning the categories for complex systems, architectural quality fits best within the
category of a sociotechnical system (See Figure 7), which is a combination of societal,
technical, and informational systems. The cultural, social, and aesthetic dimensions of
architectural quality, and to a certain extent, also the economic dimension of architectural
quality (See chapter 1.3.3) fall within the societal subsystem of the sociotechnical system.
Furthermore, the technical dimension of architectural quality, addressing the structural and
physical components of architecture, can be understood as components of the technical
subsystem. Finally, the economic dimension of architectural quality (See chapter 1.3.3) which
describes the forecasting and market assessment requirement of the real estate system and the
economic feasibility of architectural projects, is highly dependent on the correct functioning of
an informational subsystem.
To manage the complexity of architectural quality in commercial real estate, the manager shall
be capable to identify and classify the various components of architectural complexity as clear,
complicated, complex or chaotic. Accordingly, the manager shall be capable of acknowledging
the full complexity of architectural quality (See chapter 1.3.1), thus avoiding a situation of
disorder and consequently loss of architectural quality. As such the manager shall receive
adequate training in all the dimensions (see chapter 1.3.3) relevant to architectural quality.
Concerning the conclusion on Garvin’s quality dimensions mentioned in chapter 3.2.3 and the
management approaches mentioned in Table 10 we can conclude that the measurable
architectural qualities fall within the Clear domain, the less measurable qualities in the
Complicated domain, and finally the interpretative qualities in the Complex domain.
Concerning the dimensions formulated in the research objective of this dissertation (see chapter
1.3.3), we can conclude that consequently the highly interpretative, subjective cultural and
aesthetic dimension as well as the second aspect of the economic dimension and the real estate
imperative are to be allocated to the complex domain. The informal tools of the social domain
as well as the technical domain operate in the Complicated domain, and finally, the formal tools
46
of the social dimension and financial feasibility of projects in the first aspect of the economic
dimension operate, due to their legal and mathematical nature, in the Clear domain.
As a theoretical framework for the management of complexity, the Dynamic Safety Model can
be translated as following onto the complex system of architectural quality as it is described
with Figure 1. Whereas the diagram of perfectly interacting dimensions in Figure 1 primarily
addresses the product of architectural quality, the Dynamic Safety Model can be used as a
theoretical background for the strategic management of the process of architectural quality. As
such, the operating point that is described in the Dynamic Safety Model in Figure 9, represents
the red dot in the diagram of architectural complexity in Figure 1.
In architectural quality, the boundary of economic failure relates to the correct functioning of
the Real Estate System as described in Chapter 3.1, and as such represents the economic
dimension of architectural complexity (See Chapter 1.3.3). The boundary of unacceptable
workload generally refers to the efficiency with which participants in the complex system of
architectural quality can manage transactions that are necessary to replace the ‘self-regulating
price mechanism’ (See chapter 3.2.2). The boundary of unacceptable workload refers to
economic, professional and personal value systems that apply to professionals in architecture
(Groth, 2018, p. 118) and commercial real estate. It is strongly related to the expected
remuneration of the professional, as well as the level of efficiency and satisfaction that the
professional can achieve in the process of architectural quality. As such, the boundary can also
be understood as the ultimate acceptable level of managerial discretion (See Chapter 3.3 in the
system of architectural quality. Finally, the performance boundary refers to the financial
feasibility of the complex interaction of architectural quality.
Ultimately, I shall consider the phenomena of Trade-offs, Procedural Drifts and Domain Shifts
that cause the operating point to shift within or outside of the boundaries of the Dynamic Safety
Model.
An important Trade-Off in the system of architectural quality occurs when in the process of
architectural quality, designs (work-as-imagined) do not match with the finally executed
building (work-as-done). An example of such a situation would be the difference between the
architectural quality as presented in (winning) design competitions, and the lesser quality of the
realised project. The lesser quality of the realised project has, as an operating point, trespassed
one of the boundaries of the Dynamic Safety Model. In the example of design competitions
financial feasibility issues could cause the trespassing of the performance boundary and/or a
mismatch in the design budget versus quality level could cause the architect to cross the
unacceptable workload boundary. Similarly, trade-offs can occur when mismatches between
market assumptions and actual market dynamics exist in the subsystem of the Real Estate
System. If the technical, social, cultural, and aesthetic dimensions of architectural quality have
not been designed to deal with the market dynamics that push from the subsystem of the Real
Estate System, trade-offs on those dimensions will be necessary to save the project. If left
unsolved, again the operation point will trespass one of the boundaries, after which the system
of architectural quality fails.
Procedural Drifts in the complex system of architectural quality of commercial real estate can
be translated to the tendency to slice the architectural assignment into separate manageable parts
that form smaller, less complex transactions and therefore require less management capacity
(see also chapter 3.3). An example would be the decision to assign separate (often internal)
47
design teams with floor plan development and other teams for façade design or external
aesthetic questions. Also, the replacement of social and cultural dimensions of architectural
design by marketing agencies is an example of such a procedural drift. This would allow the
manager simplify to her*his management processes concerning the individual elements of
architectural quality, but also eliminates essential feature to create a ‘whole [that] is more than
the sum of its parts’ (Simon, 1962, p. 469).
Finally, a misinterpretation of the complexity levels of the dimensions of architectural quality
may cause the operating point of architectural quality to exceed one of the boundaries of the
Dynamic Safety Model. Examples of Domain Shifts can be found in those situations where
standardisations of architectural solutions discard the cultural, social or physical context of the
individual building project (Architects Council of Europe, 2019, p. 1). Solutions aimed to
manage the technical dimension of architectural quality in the Clear Domain, may without a
specific consideration of the individual context of its application, operate the Complicated,
Complex or even Chaos Domains. If this is not recognised by the manager, the operating point
of architectural quality will sooner or later cross outside one of the boundaries of the Dynamic
Safety Model and the system will fail. Similarly, it does not make sense for the manager to
outsource complex decisions on interpretive architectural dimensions such as the cultural,
social, and aesthetic dimensions to the design agent. Apart from the risk of introducing
principal-agent problems, the manager will lose grip on the management of the holistic
understanding of architectural complexity and the ‘whole [that] is more than the sum of its
parts’ (Simon, 1962, p. 469).
3.4.3 72BConclusion
Concerning a theoretical framework for the management of architectural complexity the
following can be concluded out of Moriarty’s study of Jensen and Rasmussen.
Architectural quality describes a complex system. To function, each component of the
system, and its representing agents and professionals, must be capable of reacting and
interacting with each other.
This requires continuous education of all participants in all dimensions of architectural
complexity and transparency in the system.
Architectural quality can be categorised as a socio-technical system.
The capability of managers to deal with various levels of complexity is essential to
architectural quality.
Architectural quality operates in the Clear domain concerning measurable qualities, the
Complicated domain concerning less measurable qualities and the Complex domain
concerning interpretative qualities.
The cultural and aesthetic architectural quality dimensions, as well as the economic
dimension related to the Real Estate System, operate in the Complex domain, the social
dimension concerning the informal governance tools and the technical dimension of
architectural quality operate in the Complicated domain and finally the economic
dimension concerning financial project feasibility as well as the formal governance tools
in the social dimension of architectural quality operate in the Clear domain.
The objective of architectural quality; a building that is more than the sum of the
interacting dimensions of architectural quality (Figure 1) can be understood as the
operating point in the Dynamic Safety Model.
48
In the Dynamic Safety Model, the economic failure boundary is defined by the correct
functioning of the Real Estate System. The boundary of unacceptable workload refers
to the remuneration and personal satisfaction possibilities of professionals (clients and
design agents) of architectural quality in commercial real estate, and as such refers to
the level of managerial discretion that is available within the system. Finally, the
performance boundary refers to the financial feasibility of the interacting dimensions of
architectural quality.
Trade-offs, Procedural Drifts, and unrecognised Domain Shifts in any of the
architectural quality dimensions will cause the architectural quality system to fail.
Assessing and understanding the complexity levels of all individual dimensions and
components of architectural quality is essential for its success. Simplifying one of the
components of architecture can easily lead to Domain Shifts, that cause the system to
fail.
3.5. 30BConclusion
In the previous chapters, the Real Estate System as drawn up by Geltner and Miller has been
discussed as a theoretical background for the operations of commercial real estate. Strategic
Quality Management as defined by Garvin has been reviewed to capture architectural quality
in general quality management definitions. Transaction Costs Economics has been discussed
concerning the importance of managerial freedom and ‘managerial discretion’. And finally,
Moriarty’s study of Jensen and Rasmussen introduced several management theories related to
the management of complex systems. In the combination of discussions and conclusions of the
individual theoretical concepts, we can now conclude the theoretical framework for
architectural quality in commercial real estate as shown in the diagram in Figure 10 on page 49.
49
Figure 10 Theoretical Framework for architectural Quality in Commercial Real Estate
The diagram is a combination of the Dynamic Safety Model as it has been defined in chapter
3.4, the diagram of architectural complexity as set out in the research problem of the dissertation
in Figure 1, and the Real Estate System as set out in Chapter 3.1. In the diagram, the operating
point is moving between the optimum of risk and return opportunity in the Real Estate System
and the optimum of architectural quality, where all architectural quality dimensions perfectly
intersect.
As stated in the real estate imperative in Chapter 1.3.5 and Table 2, and the evaluation of
architectural quality in Chapter 1.3.4 and Figure 3, commercial real estate has a primary interest
in the technical and economic, quantifiable, quality dimensions of architecture. However, the
consideration of a holistic approach to architectural quality is not possible without the
consideration of the social, cultural, and aesthetic dimensions of architecture. These dimensions
50
must therefore be seen as collateral to any interaction of economic and technical dimensions.
As such these have been indicated as ‘architectural collateral’ in Figure 10.
The base of the framework is formed by the Real Estate System, where quality is defined
according to the Value-based definition of quality as a function of ‘costs and prices’ (Garvin,
1988, pp. 45–46). In this definition, the price is set through the evaluation of cash flows at return
expectations (cap rates) and as such defines the economic dimension of architectural quality.
The costs, however, are defined through the technical dimension of quality. Setting prices and
costs according to the valuation-based definition of quality is a complex task, that involves
adequate cost estimation of design projections and understanding of the status and dynamics of
the various components of the Real Estate System. As such it operates in the complex domain.
In the Dynamic Safety Model, the maximum affordable price (the lowest possible cap rate) sets
the boundary of economic failure, whereas the highest affordable costs set the boundary of
unacceptable workload.
Once an adequate price level of rents and cap rates has been set, a manufacturing-based
definition of quality will continue to lead the definition of architectural quality. In this
definition, the costs are fixed based on an assumption of the technical dimension, and as such
provide the budget for the architectural quality. The technical dimension, however, is still under
the influence of yet undefined aspirations in the cultural, social, and aesthetic dimensions of
architecture. Nevertheless, if we assume that these aspirations have been adequately expressed
by the client of architecture, the complexity of the design agent will operate in the complicated
and clear domains.
Finally, as architecture expresses itself in buildings, the cultural, social, and aesthetic
aspirations of architectural quality need to be integrated into the technical dimension of quality.
To this end the design agent and architecture client need to agree upon a transcendent definition
of quality that is the result of the exchange of client and design agent on the cultural, social, and
aesthetic dimensions in the complex domain. Their agreement and understanding thereof sets
the prescribed boundary of unacceptable performance in the Dynamic Safety Model.
The transition of a value-based definition of quality from the perspective of the Real Estate
System and a transcendent definition of quality from the perspective of the ‘Architectural
Collateral’ into the manufactured-based definition of quality is the crucial management
challenge for the management strategy for architectural quality in commercial real estate. A
management challenge that involves many transactions that directly or indirectly relate to
architectural quality in its holistic understanding. It requires a correct understanding of the
complexity of the complete system of architectural quality, its subsystems as well as human
and procedural components. Finally, as set out in the discussion of the concept of Transaction
Costs Economics in Chapter 3.3.2, the success of the system highly depends on the capability,
interest and attitude of the real estate manager to correctly use her*his managerial discretion
for the benefit of an architectural quality that is more than the sum of its parts.
51
4. 13B Phenomenology of Investorenarchitektur and General Debate
As we have seen previously, Investorenarchitektur is an often-appearing term in German
language publications, it is assumed to describe the problematic relationship of architecture and
real estate. It is used both to refer to the product of that relationship, a building, or to the process
of design and development of buildings of which real estate investors are the clients. As we
have set out in Chapter 2.4, the term is clearly more common in the architectural press than it
is in publications that are focussing on readers from the real estate sector. Through the
application of the analytical steps in phenomenology as described in Chapter 2.2.2 an
understanding will be achieved of what aspects of the problematic relationship between
architecture and the real estate sector are addressed with the term, or on what points the
‘architectural collateral’ that was defined in the conclusion of the previous chapter is not
managed well. The phenomenological analysis of the discussion on Investorenarchitektur and
the general debate between architecture and real estate will result in the description of themes
that define the gaps between real estate and architecture.
The chapter starts with the phenomenological analysis of the use of the term
Investorenarchitektur in architectural and real estate press. To be continued with the
phenomenological analysis of the general debate between architecture and real estate. The latter
analysis also covers publications outside of the German-speaking countries and puts the
research in an international context.
4.1. 31BInvestorenarchitektur in Architectural Publications
In the following chapter 69 publications in German language architectural press are presented.
To capture the problem in the relationship of architecture and real estate that is supposedly
expressed in the use of the term Investorenarchitektur and in line with the step of ‘bracketing’
described in the methodology chapter 2.2.2, each publication is reviewed in the context in which
the term is used. Thereafter the problem the term is describing is reduced to a single sentence
or set of words, in the analysis this is indicated as ‘Meaning Investorenarchitektur’. For
reference purposes, each unit of meaning is numbered. Each review starts with a quote in
German language of the sentence in which the term was used in the original article. These
quotes are meant as illustrations for German-speaking readers. An overview of the reviewed
publications is presented in Table 11. At the end of the chapter, the units of meaning are
summarized and allocated to themes in Chapter 4.1.2.
Publication Country Title Reference
Architektur
Fachma
g
azin
AT Die Stadt durchlebt den Wandel (Stuttner, 2020)
Architektur
Aktuell
AT Bothe Richter Teherani: Kontorhaus in Hamburg (Weiß, 2002)
Architektur
Aktuell
AT Only bad news is good news? Rückblick auf den Salzburger
A
r
chitektursomme
r
(Höllbacher, 2002)
Archithese CH Liebe zur Qualität (Baum
g
arten, 2016)
Archithese CH Erhardstrasse 10 (Wirschin
g
, 2021)
Baunetz DE ‚Unser brennender Wille‘ Cité Artisanale bei Paris von
Candilis Josic Woods droht Abriss.
(BauNetz and
Wöhler, 2007)
Baunetz DE Reine Muskeln. Herzog & de Meuron designen
Einfkaufszentrum in Florida.
(BauNetz, 2008)
Baunetz DE Berliner Luft. Bücher im Baunetz (BauNetz, 2010b)
Baunetz DE 154 HYS. Ron Arad plant Wohnhaus in Tel Aviv. (BauNetz, 2010a)
52
Publication Country Title Reference
Baunetz DE Europa am Ufer. Wettbewerbsentscheidin
g
in Berlin (BauNetz, 2011)
Baunetz DE Himmel über Paris. Herzog & de Meuron Triangle
g
enehmi
gt
(BauNetz, 2015b)
Baunetz DE Aufräumen in Kairo. Foster+Partners gewinnen
Wettbewerb am Nil
(BauNetz, 2015a)
Baunetz DE Knock Down Ungers. Fotoausstellung von Stephanie Kloss
in Berlin
(BauNetz, 2019b)
Baunetz DE Hippe Kartoffeln in München. Mixed-Used-Projekt von
MVRDV und N-V-O
(BauNetz, 2019a)
Baunetz DE Work-Life-Balance. 12 x Wohnen und Arbeiten unter
einem Dach.
(BauNetz, 2020)
Bauwelt DE Keine Kreuzfahrt. Auf der Suche nach den Regeln einer
heuti
g
en Stadtbaukunst.
(Rumpf, 2010, p. 2)
Bauwelt DE ‚Miesianer zu sein, heißt nicht etwas zu kopieren‘. Eine
Podiumsdiskussion.
(Mönninger, 2011)
Bauwelt DE Bau-Kulturnation Österreich? Problem-Felder und Best-
Practices zwischen Flächenverbrauch, steigender
Motorisierun
g
und peripherem Einzelhandel.
(Seiß, 2012, p. 4)
Bauwelt DE Im Windschatten der Infrastruktur (Goevert, 2012,
p
. 67)
Bauwelt DE Chichago gezeichnet (Fischer et al.,
2013, p. 19)
Bauwelt DE Großstadthaus (Kleilein, 2015,
p
. 17)
Bauwel
t
DE Baubür
g
ermeisterschaf
t
(Baus, 2015, p. 5)
Bauwelt DE Eingang hier (Schade-Bünsow,
2017, p. 51)
Bauwelt DE Investorenarchitektur.Künstlerarchitektur (Friedrich, 2017b,
p
. 8)
Bauwelt DE Es ist einfacher, die gemischte Stadt zu bauen, als gemischt
genutzte Gebäude.
(Friedrich and
Brensing, 2017a,
p
. 38)
Bauwelt DE Weißer Turm in Tübingen (Schönwetter,
2018, p. 36)
Bauwel
t
DE Licht am Ende des Tunnels (Adam, 2019)
Bauwelt DE Yangoons Architekturszene heute (Henning, 2019,
p
. 35)
Bauwelt DE Die Frage ist doch, ob man zusammen Architektur
erschaffen kann.
(Friedrich and
Heinich, 2019,
p
. 12)
Bauwel
t
DE Marchenhaft und archaisch (Adam, 2020, p. 8)
Bauwelt DE Rosa-Luxemburg-Stiftung (Klingbeil, 2022a,
p
. 43)
Bauwelt DE Schöne Aussicht … (Klingbeil, 2022b,
p
. 4)
DB Deutsche
Bauzeitun
g
DE Kann eine Schopping Mall stadtverträglich sein? (Bartetzky, 2008)
DB Deutsche
Bauzeitun
g
DE >> Verpackungsarchitektur<< (Cimolini and von
Mühlendahl, 2008)
DB Deutsche
Bauzeitun
g
DE Wohnbebauung >> Plaza Verde << (Schärer, 2008)
DB Deutsche
Bauzeitun
g
DE Quartier Schützenstraße in Berlin (1997) (Remmele, 2009)
DB Deutsche
Bauzeitun
g
DE Kultur auf’s Forum. Berlin: zwischen Sharoun und Mies
van der Rohe keimt Hoffnun
g
auf.
(Tietz, 2011)
DB Deutsche
Bauzeitun
g
DE Berlins vergessene Mitte (Grünzig, 2011)
53
Publication Country Title Reference
DB Deutsche
Bauzeitun
g
DE Insel in Weiss. Quartier Killesberghöhe in Stuttgart (Schönwetter,
2014)
DB Deutsche
Bauzeitun
g
DE Wohnbebauung >> Am Tegeler Hafen << (Remmele, 2015)
DB Deutsche
Bauzeitun
g
DE National 11 September Memorial & Museum in New York
(USA)
(Pawlitschklo,
2016)
DB Deutsche
Bauzeitun
g
DE Umbau eines Bauernhauses in München Alt-Riem (Schönwetter,
2016)
DB Deutsche
Bauzeitun
g
DE Verwaltungsgebäude Karl Köhler in Besigheim. Wenn der
Bauherr selbst baut.
(Lieschke, 2016)
DB Deutsche
Bauzeitung
DE Was fordert das flach geneigte Dach? Flache Steildächer als
Alternative zum Flachdach
(Steinbach, 2018)
DB Deutsche
Bauzeitun
g
DE Vier Stadthäuser in Renens bei Lausanne. Vier Farben, vier
Bauten.
(Adam, 2022)
DBZ DE Amandus Sattler Fünf Thesen für eine neue
architektonische Wirklichkei
t
(Kuehnle, 2014)
DBZ DE Abriss der Cit
y
-Hof-Hochhäuser scheint entschieden. (DBZ, 2017)
DBZ DE Gestaltungslangeweile lässt grüßen. Nicht nur auf dem
Stutt
g
art 21 Gelände.
(DBZ, 2018c)
DBZ DE Mallification. Einkaufszentren erleben in Deutschland
einen Aufschwun
g
–
und das ist nicht
g
ut.
(DBZ, 2018d)
DBZ DE Abrisse und Klone in Hambur
g
(DBZ, 2018b)
DBZ DE Abendteuerroman (DBZ, 2018a)
DBZ DE Wohn- und Geschäftshaus Bâleo Erlenmatt, Basel/ CH. (Cieslik, 2020)
Der Architek
t
DE Liebe deine Stad
t
(Hubert, 2013)
Der Architek
t
DE Vor dem Fall. (Richter, 2015)
Der Architekt DE Schlüssig auf legendärem Terrain. studioinges bauen am
Darmstädter Saladin-Eck.
(Kasparek, 2015)
Der Architek
t
DE Am Michaelsber
g
(Denk, 2015a)
Der Architek
t
DE Ein Haus mit Beziehun
g
en (Denk, 2015b)
Der Architek
t
DE Architecture Matters. Eine Fra
g
e der Ökonomie? (Potratz, 2018a)
Der Architek
t
DE Wer macht Stadt? Wechsel
g
espräch in Stutt
g
ar
t
(Potratz, 2018b)
Der Architek
t
DE Viel ist nicht
g
enu
g
. Buch der Woche (Kasparek, 2021b)
Der Architekt DE Gegen den Bullshit. Buch der Woche (Kasparek,
2021b)(Kasparek,
2021a)
Detail DE Architektur an den Bedürfnissen der Menschen
or
g
anisieren
(Reich, 2012)
Detail DE Ökolo
g
ie und Ökonomie (Ahrend, 2009)
Detail DE Verstellter Blick am Hi
g
hline Par
k
(Schittich, 2018)
Detail DE Au
g
ustinerhof In Nürnber
g
(Schoof, 2022)
Hochparterre CH Investorenarchitektur und Kriti
k
(Hone
gg
er, 2014)
Hochparterre CH Musterstadt am Rand der Schweiz (Huber, 2022)
Hochparterre CH 24 Bauten und Pro
j
ekte (Herzo
g
, 2022)
German
Architects
DE Wer die Immobilie zahlt und Macht (Baus, 2013b)
Table 11 Overview of 69 publications in the architectural press concerning
Investorenarchitektur.
4.1.1 73BMeaning of the term Investorenarchitektur in architectural press
Architektur FACHMAGAZIN | Austria
February 2020:72T Die Stadt lebt durch den Wandel72T
54
"Lange Zeit wirkte es als Mahnmal einer fehlgeleiteten Investorenarchitektur. Im Jahr
2019 erfolgte schließlich der Abriss des schwerfällig wirkenden Bauwerks. Derzeit
entsteht an dessen Standort Österreichs höchstes Wohnhaus." (Stuttner, 2020)
The article discusses an exhibition of the artist Andreas Fogarasi. In the exhibition,
Fogarasi showed building debris of buildings that were demolished due to changes in
social, political, or economic conditions. All buildings stood in Vienna. One set of debris
originated from a large commercial cinema complex that was constructed as a result of
Vienna's policy for urban densification in the 1990s. The complex turned out not to be
profitable as a cinema and was converted into an indoor leisure centre for children. After
this function left the building, it stood empty for 6 years until it was demolished in 2019.
The author states that the empty cinema stood as a memorial of ‘misguided’ [fehlgeleitete]
Investorenarchitektur. In doing so she suggests that architecture by real estate investors
cannot be trusted to result in long-term urban quality, if not guided by urban development
policies and design Reduction.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Architecture not trusted to result in long-term
architectural or urban quality (A 1).
Architektur.Aktuell | Austria
May 2005:72T Bothe Richter Teherani: Kontorhaus in Hamburg
72T"Nach der vertanenen Chance der ziegelroten Investorenarchitektur an der
Kehrwiederspitze zeichnet sich in Hamburg eine authentischere Moderne des
Kontorhauses ab. Im spezifischen zeitgenössischen Kontrast, nicht in oberflächlicher
Material-Anbiederung gewinnt der stadtgeschichtliche Hintergrund Bedeutung." (Weiß,
2002)
72TIn the article the term is used to vilify the architecture of office buildings in the inner-city
of Hamburg. The author sees the architecture as out of line with adequate contemporary
style and puts it in contrast with buildings that represent, according to the author, an
'authentic modernism'.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur72T: Architecture that is not sophisticated (A 2).
September 2002:72T Only bad news is good news? Rückblick auf den Salzburger
Architektursommer.
72T"Einer der beteiligten jüngeren Architekten wirft seinem einstigen Lehrmeister vor, seit
Jahr und Tag nur mehr ‚Investoren-Architektur‘ zu produzieren." (Höllbacher, 2002)
72TThe article covers the discussion of a design competition for the renovation and extension
of the local opera building in Salzburg, Austria. The author states that during a dispute on
the results of the competition, a younger participating architect accused an older
participating architect, who was also his educator, of producing 'more and more'
Investorenarchitektur. The term is used by an architect to offend another architect, by
using the term the offending architect suggests that it is not appropriate for architects to
engage too much with real estate investors.
55
Meaning Investorenarchitektur72T: Architecture architects do not want to be associated with
(A 3).
72TArchithese | Switzerland
November 2016:72T Liebe zur Qualität
"Werteverlust und Investorenarchitektur" (Baumgarten, 2016)
72TIn the article the author cites the architect David Chipperfield, who laments that in his
home village in the UK, the design of public spaces is reverted to private investors that
mostly pursue commercial interests and do not show any interest in architectural quality
or a wider, cultural, and social meaning of architecture. The author uses the term
Investorenarchitektur to describe the type of architecture that is described by
Chipperfield.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur72T: Architecture that prioritises commercial interests above
interests of society and culture (A 4).
December 2021:72T Erhardstrasse 20
72T"Durch die hier erprobte Fassadenmalerei, die Verwendung von hochwertigen
Materialien und das auf den Ort abgestimmte Hofgefüge unterscheidet sich der
Gebäudekomplex von Thomas Kröger positiv von konventioneller Investorenarchitektur"
(Wirsching, 2021)
72TThe author of the article discusses the design of a building in the centre of Munich and
states that it stands out positively from ‘conventional’ Investorenarchitektur. In doing so
she suggests that the quality expectation of architecture by real estate investors is by
default low.
72TMeaning Investorenarchitektur: 72TArchitecture not trusted to be compatible with long-term
urban or architectural quality (A 5)72T.
72TBaunetz | Germany
January 2007: 72T‘Unser brennender Wille’.
"Für 800 Quadratmeter mittelmäßiger Investorenarchitektur ist Kosciusko-Morizet
anscheinend bereit, knapp 6500 Quadratmeter architektonischen Erbes abzureißen."
(BauNetz and Wöhler, 2007)
The article discusses the threatening demolition of the Cité Artisanale in Sèvres, a
modernist Icon built in 1964-1965 in a suburb of Paris. According to the author, the
project is to be replaced by a building in a neo-classical style. The word
Investorenarchitektur is used the typify the neo-classical project as mediocre architecture.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Mediocre architecture (A 06).
March 2008:72T Reine Muskeln. Herzog & de Meuron designen Einkaufszentrum in Florida.
72T"Das Bildmaterial, das der Website des amerikanischen Projektentwicklers entnommen
ist, zeigt leider nicht viel mehr als die Renderings einer im Rohbaustadium
56
steckengebliebenen Parkhausarchitektur und beinhaltet, wie so oft bei
Investorenarchitektur, wenig Erläuterungstext." (BauNetz, 2008)
72TThe article reports of a project for a mall in Florida (USA) as it is presented on the website
of a developer. The term Investorenarchitektur is used in the context of the author's
experience of a superficial design.
72TMeaning Investorenarchitektur: Architecture that is superficial 72T(A 07).
August 2010:72T Berliner Luft. Bücher im Baunetz.
72T"Der Palast der Republik hat sich in Luft aufgelöst, das ICC soll auch weg, Baulücken
werden mit Investorenarchitektur gefüllt, während die Straßen am Stadtrand im Osten
(und im Westen) teilweise noch nicht einmal asphaltiert sind." (BauNetz, 2010b, p. 1)
72TThe author laments the disappearance of architectural icons such as the 'Palast der
Republik' and 'ICC', and the fact that many streets are still not plastered. Nevertheless,
the cities free spots are filled with commercial projects: Investorenarchitektur.
72TMeaning Investorenarchitektur: Architecture that prioritises commercial interests above
interests of society and culture 72T(A 08).
72TAugust 2010: 154 HYS. Ron Arad plant.
72T"Man kann nur hoffen, dass sich Arad, der selbst in Tel Aviv geboren und aufgewachsen
ist, nach seinem gefeierten Design Museum aus den rostroten Corten-Stahl-Bändern nun
nicht auf das Niveau bloßer Investorenarchitektur herab lässt – und schon gar nicht in
der 'Weißen Stadt'." (BauNetz, 2010a)
72TThe article discusses a project proposal in Tel Aviv. The term Investorenarchitektur is
used to express the experience of the author that final design does not end up in a lower
quality than originally planned.
72TMeaning Investorenarchitektur: Architecture that is of low quality 72T(A 09).
April 2011:72T Europa am Ufer. Wettbewerbsentscheidung in Berlin.
72T"Wenn Stadtplaner einem neu zu schaffendes Stadtquartier den Namen „Europacity“
geben, kann es sich eigentlich nur um Investorenarchitektur handeln." (BauNetz, 2011)
72TThe article critically discusses urban area Europacity in Berlin. The word
Investorenarchitektur is used to describe the critical reception of the urban design of the
area.
72TMeaning Investorenarchitektur: Low-quality urban design 72T(A 10).
July 2015:72T Himmel über Paris. Herzog & de Meurons Triangle genehmigt.
72T"Andere Kritiker sehen in der gläsernen Pyramide eine Investorenarchitektur der
Luxusklasse und die konservative Partei UMP will sowieso keine Veränderung in ihrer
Hauptstadt." (BauNetz, 2015b)
72TThe article discusses a project of a controversial high-rise tower project in Paris, designed
by the Swiss architects Herzog and De Meuron. Amongst others, UNESCO alerted that
it would destroy the ‘flat skyline’ of Paris. The word Investorenarchitektur is used to
57
express the experience that the real estate clients prioritise commercial interests of luxury
real estate over cultural concerns.
72TMeaning Investorenarchitektur: Architecture that prioritises commercial interests above
social or cultural interests 72T(A 11)72T.
November 2015:72T Aufräumen in Kairo. Foster + Partners gewinnen Wettbewerb am Nil.
72T"Das Ergebnis: ein dichtes Agglomerat lokaler Bautypen, welches durch einen zentralen
Platz für Feierlichkeiten und andere Veranstaltungen in der Nachbarschaft, einen Markt
und eine Geschäftsstraße strukturiert ist, umsäumt von westlicher Investorenarchitektur."
(BauNetz, 2015a)
72TThe article discusses a winning design competition entry by the British architecture office
Foster and Partners for the redevelopment of an urban area in central Cairo, close to the
Nile. In the project, the British architects dedicate the most attractive strips, along the
shores of the Nile or alongside the main streets to high-end commercial real estate
projects. The inner parts of the area are reserved for a traditional mix of residential and
small and medium enterprises. The author uses the term Investorenarchitektur to refer to
the strips reserved for ‘Western style’ high-end real estate and expresses her*his sceptics
on the export of Western ideas as a successful model for urban regeneration in the capital
of Egypt.
72TMeaning Investorenarchitektur: Architecture that prioritises commercial interests above
social or cultural interests 72T(A 12)72T. Architecture denying local cultural context 72T(A 13)72T.
Western-Import architecture 72T(A 14)72T.
June 2016:72T Knock down Ungers. Fotoausstellung von Stephanie Kloss in Berlin.
67T"Ab Sonntag, 30. Juni 2019 zeigt sie ihre Arbeit 'Knock Down (OM Ungers)' im Haus am
Lützowplatz, also direkt gegenüber dem Grundstück, auf dem der Ungers-Bau stand und
wo sich heute ein weiteres Beispiel der üblichen Berliner Investorenarchitektur befindet."67T72T
(BauNetz, 2019b)
72TThe article discusses a photo exhibition on the demolition of a building from the IBA '84-
'87, designed by Oswald Mathias Ungers. The term Investorenarchitektur is used to typify
the project that has replaced Unger’s remarkable design as conventional. In doing so,
she*he is sceptic about the quality potential of Investorenarchitektur.
72TMeaning Investorenarchitektur: Conventional architecture with low quality potential 72T(A
15).
November 2019:72T Hippe Kartoffeln in München. Mixed-Used-Projekt von MVRDV und N-V-O.
72T"Letztlich sollen sie wohl auch den ganzen Fun nach außen transportieren, den die trendy
Nutzergruppe des Neubaus hier voraussichtlich haben wird, beziehungsweise darauf
aufmerksam machen, dass hier tatsächlich ein interessantes Gebäude entstanden ist, das
sich von der üblichen Investorenarchitektur wohltuend absetzt." (BauNetz, 2019a)
72TThe article praises the mixed-use project Werk12 designed by the Dutch architecture
office MVRDV. The word Investorenarchitektur is used to express the positive contrast
with the conventional architecture that surrounds the project. In a similar style as the
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previous article the author uses the term to express her*his scepticism about the quality
potential of architecture by real estate investors.
72TMeaning Investorenarchitektur: Conventional architecture with low quality potential 72T(A
16).
February 2020:72T Work-Life-Balance. 12 x Wohnen und Arbeiten unter einem Dach.
72T"Vor dem Hintergrund, dass in den immer dichter werdenden Stadträumen immer
weniger Platz für Projekte jenseits der gängigen Investorenarchitektur frei zu sein
scheint, entwickeln sich gerade in den städtebaulichen Nischen spannende Ansätze,
Wohnen und Arbeiten zu verbinden." (BauNetz, 2020)
72TThe article praises several projects that unite working and living functions under one roof.
The author laments that in contemporary cities there is increasingly less space for this
kind of projects and criticizes that architecture by real estate investors conventionally
does not leave space for these kinds of innovations.
72TMeaning Investorenarchitektur: Architecture that is not innovative 72T(A 17)72T.
B72Tauwelt | Germany
April 2010: 72TKeine Kreuzfahrt. Auf der Suche nach den Regeln einer heutigen Stadtbaukunst.
„Keine Stadtautobahnen, keine Vorstadtsiedlungen, keine Gewerbeparks, keine
Investorenarchitektur, kein Starbucks, kein H&M.“ (Rumpf, 2010, p. 2)
The article is a review of an architecture conference held in Düsseldorf that was organised
by the German Institute of Urban Design (Deutsches Institut der Stadtbaukunst) in
Düsseldorf in 2010. The conference had the title 'Conference on the Beauty and
Liveability of the City ('Konferenz zur Schönheit und Lebensfähigkeit der Stadt'). The
author puts the conference in contrast with the conference that led to the 'Charta of Athens'
in 1933 (fourth CIAM Congress) that, according to the author, formulated the modernist
principles of urban design. The author puts the term Investorenarchitektur in relation to
these modernist principles, which he illustrates with condemnations made by the
architects present at the conference: architectural decay, out-of-scale commercial
suburban shopping centres, event architecture and deserted pedestrian zones.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Criticism to Modernism (A 18). 72TArchitecture that
prioritises commercial interests above social or cultural interests (A 19). Architecture
denying local cultural context (A 20).
November 2011:72T ‚Miesianer zu sein, heißt nicht, etwas zu kopieren‘. Eine Podiumsdiskussion.
"Dass solche Investorenarchitektur genauso langweilig bleibt, kann man den
Protagonisten der Gegenwartsarchitektur anhängen, es ist aber ein Phänomen, das
unabhängig von seinen Erzeugern existiert." (Mönninger, 2011)
The article is the presentation of a panel discussion on the work of the German/ American
architect Ludwig Mies van der Rohe. The panellists discuss the concept of 'stararchitects'.
One of the panellists states that the urge for increased authenticity and focus on the
personality of the architect that can be observed in contemporary architecture is related
to the increased regulatory framework for architecture. According to the panellist, the
59
strict regulatory frameworks have a pressing effect on architectural creativity. This leads
to an increased desire for individual expression, or expressive architecture, which is
illustrated with the work of contemporary ‘stararchitects’. The term
Investorenarchitektur is used by the same panellist for commercial projects designed by
'stararchitects' The panellist states that this type of architecture remains nevertheless as
boring as everyday architecture that follows commercial interests.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: 72TArchitecture that prioritises commercial interests above
social or cultural interests (A 21). 72TUse of ‘stararchitects’ to push up commercial interests
72T(A 22)72T.
April 2012: 72TBau-Kulturnation Österreich? Problem-felder und Best-Practices zwischen
Flächenverbrauch, steigender Motorisierung und peripherem Einzelhandel.
"Dass Österreich bis heute immer wieder respektable Architekten hervorbringt, ändert
daran wenig, bedeutet Baukultur doch viel mehr als einige ansprechend gestaltete
Stecknadeln in einem Heuhaufen aus expressiv-kitschigen Einfamilienhäusern,
Massenwohnbauten von der Stange, billigen Handels- und Gewerbehallen,
minderwertiger Investorenarchitektur, auf fragwürdige Weise entstandenen öffentlichen
Bauten, flächen- und infrastrukturvergeudender Zersiedlung und autogerechten
Städten." (Seiß, 2012, p. 4)
The term Investorenarchitektur is used in a listing of defaming descriptions of the built
environment: expressive-kitsch family homes, mass-produced residential buildings,
cheap retail- and commercial buildings, inferior Investorenarchitektur, public buildings
with a questionable background, excessive urbanisation and car-adapted cities.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Architecture of an inferior quality 72T(A 23)72T.
June 2012: 72TIm Windschatten der Infrastruktur72T.
"Sie werden von ihrer neuen Attraktivität für kaufkräftigere Bevölkerungsschichten
profitieren, aber auch der Gefahr der Verdrängung ihrer bisherigen Bewohner begegnen
müssen und versuchen, hochverdichtete Investorenarchitektur zu verhindern." (Goevert,
2012, p. 67)
The article discusses the Crossrail project in London. The author uses the term
Investorenarchitektur to describe the threat of high levels of densification and the effects
of crowding out local citizens around the new stations.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: 72TArchitecture that prioritises commercial interests above
social or cultural interests (A 24)72T.
October 2013: 72TChicago gezeichnet72T.
"Vor kurzem ließ das Debatten-Portal der Bundesstiftung Baukultur 'BKult.de'
abstimmen, ob wir in Deutschland mehr Investorenarchitektur bräuchten – das Ergebnis
war nicht einmal gespalten, es war eher wie das einer politischen Wahl in Bayern:
eindeutig! 76 Prozent stimmten mit Nein, 24 Prozent mit Ja." (Fischer et al., 2013, p. 19)
"Alles Gebäude, die bis in die letzte Pore, ohne Wenn und Aber, Investorenarchitektur
sind und die über einen Zeitraum von knapp 100 Jahren in Chicago realisiert wurden."
(Fischer et al., 2013, p. 19)
60
The article references twice to the term Investorenarchitektur. The first reference
mentions the online forum Bkult (Gutzmer et al., 2013) in which 24 votes were given on
the question if societies should desire more or less Investorenarchitektur, the majority of
the participants voted against more Investorenarchitektur (Gutzmer et al., 2013; Wellner,
2020, p. 136). This vote is ironically put into contrast with an excursion of architecture
students at the University of Technology München to Chicago. In the discussion of this
excursion, the term Investorenarchitektur is put into relation to 25 high-rise buildings in
Chicago, Illinois (USA) that were built in the period between 1885 and 1971, and that
were all the result of commercial real estate investments. The authors paraphrase the
architect Louis H. Sullivan in stating that the conditions of our society are the foundations
for architecture and not the other way around. They see these projects as positive
responses to the economic constellations of society at the time.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur:72T Architecture that successfully integrates commercial,
social developments and aesthetic interests (A 25)72T.
February 2015: 72TGroßstadthaus.
"Auf der Rückseite, zum Mauerstreifen hin, sieht die Welt allerdings noch ganz anders
aus: Der Blick fällt über die Ausläufer der Mauergedenkstätte auf den Wedding,
zunehmend versperrt durch die gesichtslose, verklinkerte Investorenarchitektur, die
entlang der Bernauer Straße entsteht." (Kleilein, 2015, p. 17)
The article is an illustration of the tension between design and economic objectives. The
author discusses a residential building in Berlin, designed by the architectural office
Roedig.Schop. The term Investorenarchitektur is used to put the building into contrast
with adjacent 'faceless' architecture. The article also contains an interview by the author
with the clients Claudia and Daniel Thorban and Christoph Roedig, one of the architects
of the office Roedig.Schop.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Faceless architecture 72T(A 26)72T.
March 2015: 72TBaubürgermeisterschaft.
"Das von Planungsproblemen gebeutelte Stuttgart – Bahnprojekt 21, eine
heruntergekommene Stadtautobahn als „Kulturmeile“, katastrophale
Feinstaubbelastungen, beschämende Wohnungssituation und mediokre
Investorenarchitektur en masse, nicht zuletzt die lausige Situation, dass die
Liegenschaftsverwaltung ausgerechnet beim Finanzbürgermeister ein abenteuerliches
Eigenleben führt – all das bedarf einer klugen, weitsichtigen Persönlichkeit im Amt des
Beigeordneten für die Stadtentwicklung." (Baus, 2015, p. 5)
The article discusses the vacancy of the city counsellor of planning and construction of
the city of Stuttgart (DE). The term Investorenarchitektur is used in the context of
mediocre quality of architecture of large-scale architecture projects by real estate
investors.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Large-scale architecture of mediocre quality 72T(A 27).
January 2017:72T Eingang hier.
61
"Zudem ist es mit angemessenem Aufwand errichtet worden und markiert so einen
deutlichen Kontrast zur Investorenarchitektur in den großen Städten Chinas." (Schade-
Bünsow, 2017, p. 51)
The article uses the term to put the large-scale urban developments in China in contrast
with the well-designed ecological theme park that is discussed in the article. The author
praises the parc for its use of regional construction materials, regional production methods
and ecological principles.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: 72TArchitecture that prioritises commercial interests above
social, cultural interests or interests of ecological sustainability (A 28).
February 2017: 72TInvestorenarchitektur, Künstlerarchitektur.
"Ob es eine Chance für die Qualität unserer Städte ist, dass immer mehr von ihnen
'Investorenarchitektur' nicht mehr gänzlich zu meiden versuchen, sondern sich zu den
Anlegern, Maklern, Anwälten und Projektentwicklern ins Haifischbecken wagen?"
(Friedrich, 2017b, p. 8)
"Wobei es vielleicht schon kontraproduktiv ist, dabei das Wort 'Investorenarchitektur' zu
verwenden – wenn man Paulus van der Kuil glaubt, der zurzeit an der TU Berlin unter
eben diesem Titel zum schwierigen Verhältnis von Immobilienwirtschaft und Architektur
promoviert." (Friedrich, 2017b, p. 8)
"Der Begriff 'Investorenarchitektur', sagt er [Paulus van der Kuil], würde implizieren,
dass es sich quasi um eine eigene Spezies von Architektur handele. Und das führe in die
Irre." (Friedrich, 2017b, p. 8)
"Diese Bauten a priori als 'Investorenarchitektur' abzuqualifizieren, hielte einen davon
ab, die wirklich wichtige Frage zu stellen: 'Wie kommt es dazu, dass diese Art von
Gebäuden entsteht?' Um dann im nächsten Schritt die Schrauben zu finden, die gedreht
werden müssen, damit derartige Bauten, damit unsere Städte in Zukunft besser werden."
(Friedrich, 2017b, p. 8)
In the editorial of the special issue 'Im Haifischbecken' the term Investorenarchitektur is
used 5 times. Three times the term is used to refer to the project that led to this dissertation.
In the title of the article, the author of the article juxtaposes Investorenarchitektur to
Künstlerarchitektur [Artistic Architecture]. Additionally, the author uses the term to refer
to clients who have a commercial relationship with architecture, such as investors, real
estate agents, lawyers, and project developers. The author suggests that to engage with
these clients, the architect needs to dare himself into the 'lion's den'.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: 72TArchitecture that prioritises commercial interests above
social or cultural interests (A 29).
February 2017: 72TEs ist einfacher, die gemischte Stadt zu bauen, als gemischt genutzte Gebäude.
"Es gibt Architekten, die sich dort nicht eingeschlossen fühlen, die das, was sie mit
Projektentwicklern umsetzen könnten, als 'Investorenarchitektur' bezeichnen. Was nicht
positiv gemeint ist." (Friedrich and Brensing, 2017a, p. 38)
"Ich kenne viele Fälle, in denen 'Investorenarchitektur' so geworden ist, dass ich sage:
'Das hätte auch anders sein können' – obwohl ich die Dinge, die dahinter stehen, verstehe.
Es gibt aber genauso Projekte, in denen sich erkennbar der Architekt als Künstler
62
verwirklicht hat, bei denen ich wiederum sagen würde: 'Zum Glück ist es nicht meins.'”
(Friedrich and Brensing, 2017a, p. 38)
The article is an interview between the author of the article and the chairman of the
German Branch of the Dutch-German project developer OVG Real Estate. The article
refers twice to the term Investorenarchitektur. According to the author, the German real
estate association ZIA defines the architectural profession as part of the real estate sector.
The author states that some architects do not see themselves as part of the real estate
sector and continues that these architects refer to the kind of architecture that results from
cooperation between real estate clients and architects as Investorenarchitektur. The
author adds that this is not meant as a positive classification. In the second instance, the
chairman reacts to the term. He agrees that many projects which are classified as
'Investorenarchitektur' [in the negative sense], could have been of another [presuming
better] quality. But he also states that he understands the motives behind why things
become Investorenarchitektur. Then, the chairman continues that he also knows projects
where the architect has put her*himself into practice as an artist, and states he is happy
not to have been the client.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: 72TArchitecture architects do not want to be associated with
(A 30). 72TArchitecture that does not allow artistic expression of an architect (A31).
February 2018: 72TWeißer Turm in Tübingen72T.
72T"Dass dabei keine typische Investorenarchitektur herausgekommen ist, können sich
Ackermann + Raff als Verdienst zuschreiben." (Schönwetter, 2018, p. 36)
The article discusses a residential and mixed-use building that was constructed by a
building cooperative. The building cooperative acted as investors, none of the investors
became users after the completion of the building all members of the building cooperative
put their apartments on the rental market. The building cooperative had a limited budget.
The author of the article positively assesses the creativity of the architect, who was able
to integrate smart architectural solutions despite the small budget and without falling into
the ‘typical’ choices of Investorenarchitektur.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Architecture that does not allow architectural creativity
72T(A 32)72T.
February 2019: 72TLicht am Ende des Tunnels72T.
"Der 1968 geborene US-Amerikaner war 2002 nach Hongkong gekommen und betreut
bei Aedas die Projekte, die, architektonisch ambitioniert, mehr sein sollen als
fernostkompatible Investorenarchitektur." (Adam, 2019)
The article is a positive review of the design of a new railway station in Hong Kong (CN).
The term Investorenarchitektur is used to put the design in contrast with architecture
imported by Western firms into the Far East.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: 72TArchitecture that prioritises commercial interests above
social or cultural interests (A 33). Architecture denying local cultural context; Western-
Import architecture (A 34).
September 2019: 72TYangons Architekturszene heute72T.
63
"Doch neben den großen Architekturfirmen, die in Yangon wie in Singapur, Bangkok oder
Phnom Penh die immergleiche „Investorenarchitektur“ mit irrwitzigen Glastürmen und
historisierenden Patchworkfassaden abliefern, gibt es in der Stadt inzwischen eine Reihe
vorwiegend lokal agierender Büros, die sich mit frischen Ideen ganz unterschiedlich in
der Stadt engagieren." (Henning, 2019, p. 35)
The term is used to characterise architecture by real estate investors with absurd designs
that simultaneously appear in Yangon (MM), Singapore, Bangkok (TH) or Phnom Penh
(KH).
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Absurd architecture 72T(A 35).
October 2019: 72TDie Frage ist doch, ob man zusammen Architektur erschaffen kann72T.
"Das würde bestätigen, dass auch in der jungen Generation zumindest teilweise die
Vorstellung herrscht: Investorenarchitektur ist etwas, wonach man sich nicht strecken
möchte." (Friedrich and Heinich, 2019, p. 12)
"Vorhin ist das Wort Investorenarchitektur gefallen, das Kritiker gerne verwenden, um
auszudrücken, dass das Investoren-Projektentwickler-Modell eine besondere Spezies von
Architektur erzeugt – eine besonders schlechte." (Friedrich and Heinich, 2019, p. 12)
The term is used twice in the article. In the first instance, it is used to describe the
reluctance of young architects to engage with the real estate sector. In the second instance,
it is used to describe an inferior type of architecture.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: 72TArchitecture architects do not want to be associated with
(A 36). 72TArchitecture that does not allow artistic expression of an architect 72T(A 37)72T.
November 2020: 72TMärchenhaft und archaisch72T.
"Und der Investorenarchitektur, die überall im Lande grassiert, ohnehin." (Adam, 2020,
p. 8)
The article discusses an exhibition on the Japanese architect Terunobu Fujimori in Neuss
(DE). The work of Fujimori is discussed in positive terms and is characterised by a highly
referral, archaic style. The term Investorenarchitektur is used to put the architecture of
Fujimori in contrast with the conventional dematerialised architecture by real estate
investors that 'rages' through Japan.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Conventional architecture 72T(A 38)
April 2022: 72TRosa-Luxemburg-Stiftung
"Hotels und Unternehmenszentralen, erdacht als eine Art städtebauliches Bindeglied.
Insbesondere zwischen Ostbahnhof und Warschauer Straße ist es geprägt von dem, was
man umgangssprachlich Investorenarchitektur nennt, wobei die Liste namhafter
Architekturbüros, die hier gebaut haben oder noch dabei sind zu bauen, nicht zu
verachten ist." (Klingbeil, 2022a, p. 43)
The article discusses a project in the city centre of Berlin. The term is used to refer to
buildings surrounding the discussed project that the author typifies as architecture that
one ‘colloquially understands as architecture by real estate investors’. As she does not
64
express much praise on these projects, the author supposedly uses the term in the context
of architecture that prioritizes commercial interests above social or cultural interests.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Architecture that prioritizes commercial interests above
social or cultural interests 72T(A 39)72T.
November 2022: 72TSchöne Aussicht…
"Noch sind eine „Skybar“ und ein Fahrradrepariershop geplant. Gegen die Lage des
Turms an der Warschauer Brücke, inmitten des Mediaspreegeländes, einer Ansammlung
von trister Investorenarchitektur, ist nichts einzuwenden." (Klingbeil, 2022b, p. 4)
The article presents a short discussion of a 140-meter-high office tower near S-Bahn
station Warschauer Straße in Berlin. The term is used to refer to the 'sad' architecture that
is in the nearby Mediaspree area.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Sad architecture 72T(A 40)72T.
DB Deutsche Bauzeitung | Germany
January 2008: 72TKann eine Shopping-Mall stadtverträglich sein?
"Billiger Wohnraum weicht einem Konsumtempel, spröde Moderne macht für
Investorenarchitektur Platz: Auf den ersten Blick erscheint die Entwicklung am Leipziger
Brühl als Paradebeispiel für die hemmungslose Kommerzialisierung des Stadtraums, die
sich derzeit nicht nur in Ostdeutschland vollzieht." (Bartetzky, 2008)
The term is used to criticize the replacement of affordable housing blocks with a
commercially used building, a mall in Leipzig. The author refers to this typology as
Investorenarchitektur, and questions if this type of architecture can be compatible with
architectural quality.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Architecture not trusted to be compatible with long-term
urban or architectural quality (A 41).
April 2008: 72T>>Verpackungsarchitektur <<
"Aber die »Freiheit des Kapitalismus« hat auch ihre Schattenseiten; vorkonfektionierte
Investorenarchitektur überlässt Architekten oftmals nur die Fassade als letztes
Gestaltungsrefugium." (Cimolini and von Mühlendahl, 2008)
The article is a report on the current state of architecture in Slovenia. The term
Investorenarchitektur is used to describe pre-configured architecture as a negative
consequence of capitalism. The only possibility to express architectural creativity is left
in the façade design. The author states that the real estate sector dictates urban design
policies and replaces them with their own set of rules. Development of public spaces is
neglected, and façade design is reduced to marketing tool pre-defined spaces.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Architecture that does not allow architectural creativity
(A 42).
December 2008: 72TWohnbebauung >> Plaza Verde <<
"Rothrist wird zum attraktiven Wohnort ausgebaut, mehrheitlich jedoch mit anonymer
Investorenarchitektur." (Schärer, 2008)
65
The article is a positive review of a project in Rothrist (CH). The term is used to put the
project into contrast with the ‚anonymous‘ Investorenarchitektur.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Anonymous Architecture (A 43).
November 2009: 72TQuartier Schützenstraße in Berlin (1997)
"Für die Einen ist der Bau eine nicht unwillkommene Abwechslung inmitten größtenteils
völlig charakterloser Investorenarchitektur, für die Anderen immer noch ein eher
missglückter Versuch origineller Fassadengestaltung" (Remmele, 2009)
The article discusses the Quartier Schützenstraße, a building complex in Berlin designed
by the Italian architect Aldo Rossi. The architecture of this complex fits in the 'critical
reconstruction' policy of the urban planning administration in Berlin at the time. The term
Investorenarchitektur is used to put Rossi's architecture into contrast with the
characterless architecture that surrounds the complex.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Characterless architecture (A 44).
January 2011: 72TKultur auf’s Forum. Berlin: zwischen Scharoun und Mies van der Rohe keim
Hoffnung auf.
"Die aktuelle Grünflächenplanung jedenfalls stellt sicher, dass der Platz zwischen
Nationalgalerie und Philharmonie an Aufenthaltsqualität gewinnt und zudem nicht ohne
Not durch banale Investorenarchitektur verstellt wird." (Tietz, 2011)
The article is a reflection on the possible urban development of the Kulturforum in Berlin,
especially the empty plot of land between the architectural Icons of the Neue
Nationalgalerie and Philharmonie. At the time of writing of the article this space was -
according to the author - dedicated as a public green area. The author expresses his content
that this circumstance shall avoid the empty plot filled with superficial
Investorenarchitektur.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Superficial ‘banal’ architecture (A 45).
January 2011: 72TBerlins vergessene Mitte
"Anstelle der Altstadt entstand eine Büro- und Geschäftscity mit banaler
Investorenarchitektur, deren Architekten heute zu Recht vergessen sind." (Grünzig, 2011)
The article is a discussion of an exhibition on the development of the historical centre of
Berlin between 1840 and 2010. The author discusses the demolition of historic buildings
and replacement with offices and retail buildings that took in the second half of the 19th
century. He identifies these buildings as ‘banal’ Investorenarchitektur.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Superficial architecture (of the 19P
th
P century) (A 46)
October 2014:72T Insel in Weiss. Quartier Killesberghöhe in Stuttgart
"Im Vergleich zu diesem Viertel zeigt sich am Quartier Killesberghöhe, dass die Vergabe
an nur einen Bauträger durchaus große Vorteile haben kann und dass der Begri
»Investorenarchitektur« kein Schimpfwort sein muss." (Schönwetter, 2014)
The article is a positive review of a project in Stuttgart. For the project, the city issued a
design competition in which consortia of architects and commercial developers could
66
participate. The author states that Investorenarchitektur does not always need to mean a
curse.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: 72TArchitecture that successfully integrates commercial,
social developments and aesthetic interests 72T(A 47).
June 2015: 72TWohnbebauung << Am Tegeler Hafen >>
"Angesichts derart uninspirierter Investorenarchitektur lobt man sich die nahe gelegenen
Stadtvillen aus der IBA-Zeit." (Remmele, 2015)
The article retrospectively discusses the IBA ''84-'87 projects that were constructed at
Tegeler Hafen in Berlin. The author has an ambivalent position towards the post-modern
architectural language of these projects but praises the projects in contrast with the
adjacent, recently completed uninspired Investorenarchitektur. According to the author,
the IBA projects express an attitude and an idea, something that he does not recognize in
the projects described as Investorenarchitektur.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Architecture without principles (A 48).
February 2016:72T National September 11 Memorial & Museum New York (USA). Dem
Unfassbaren Raum.
"Vor der uninspirierten Investorenarchitektur der unmittelbar benachbarten Bürotürme
gewährt dieser Neubau dank unregelmäßiger Winkelform und schräg verlaufender
Edelstahl-Fassadenpaneele eine Ahnung der unrealisiert gebliebenen Dynamik von
Daniel Libeskinds Masterplan aus dem Jahr 2003. " (Pawlitschklo, 2016)
The article is a review of the National 11 September Memorial & Museum in New York
City (USA). The term is used to refer to the 'uninspired Investorenarchitektur' of the
office towers that surround the museum.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Uninspired architecture (A 49)
February 2016: 72TUmbau eines Bauernhauses in München Alt-Riem.
"Kein Wort mehr gegen Investorenarchitektur!" (Schönwetter, 2016)
The article is a positive review of the renovation of a farmhouse in München-Riem by the
developer Euroboden. The term is used to identify the commercial interests of the
developer.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: 72TArchitecture that successfully integrates commercial,
social developments and aesthetic interests 72T(A 50).
November 2016: 72TVerwaltungsgebäude Karl Köhler in Besigheim. Wenn der Bauherr selbst
baut.
"Diese begehbare Visitenkarte ist wohl das Gegenteil von Investorenarchitektur, in der
die Planer, Bauherren und Ausführenden nur selten Hand in Hand arbeiten." (Lieschke,
2016)
The article is a positive review of a recently delivered office building in Besigheim (DE).
The term Investorenarchitektur is used to put the discussed project into contrast with
67
projects identified as Investorenarchitektur where designers, clients and construction
companies seldom cooperate.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Architecture where the client and architect do not
cooperate (A 51).
December 2018: 72TWas fordert das flach geneigte Dach?
"Scheinbar modern schmückt sich die »Investorenarchitektur« meist mit einem maximal
5° geneigten Flachdach, um Flächen und Gewinn zu maximieren." (Steinbach, 2018)
The author discusses the advantages of inclined roof structures above flat roof structures.
In the article, the author sets the architecture produced by the real estate sector, defined
as Investorenarchitektur, in relation to the modernistic tradition of a roof with a decline
of less than 5 degrees.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Architecture that adopts modernistic principles to
prioritise commercial interests above aesthetic, social or cultural interests (A 52).
March 2022: 72TVier Stadthäuser in Renens bei Lausanne
"Akzente setzen, wenn es um Investorenarchitektur geht?" (Adam, 2022)
The author discusses various projects in which the clients had a commercial interest,
which he defines as Investorenarchitektur. He positively reviews 4 projects, where he
praises the architects for being able to create architectural quality against all odds.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: 72TArchitecture that successfully integrates commercial,
social developments and aesthetic interests 72T(A 53)72T. Architecture where the quality
potential is not expected 72T(A 54).
DBZ | Germany
November 2011: 72TAmandus Sattler: Fünf Thesen für eine neue architektonische Wirklichkeit
"2. Investorenarchitektur
'Ich weiß von Architekturbüros, die auch oder nur noch selbst initiierte Projekte planen
und damit ihre konzeptionellen Planungsmöglichkeiten erweitern – aber auch
Verantwortung für die Menschen übernehmen, die nicht im Fokus der Geldgeber stehen.
Unabhängig von Projekten führen Gespräche über Architektur mit Investoren zu einem
besseren Verständnis beider Seiten darüber, wie ein Mehr an Architektur die Projekte
auch wirtschaftlich erfolgreicher machen kann.'" (Kuehnle, 2014)
The article is a report on a lecture given by the German architect Amandus Sattler. He
uses to term to specify architecture of which the client has a commercial intention. The
architect also mentions that commercial investors see architecture as a commodity and
that they have lost touch with the meaning and scope of good architecture. He also states
that an exchange between architects and investors leads to better architecture.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Architecture that prioritizes commercial interests above
social or cultural interests (A 55).
September 2017: 72TAbriss der City-Hof-Hochhäuser scheint entschieden
68
"Der von der Jury so skizzierte „noble Eingang“ kann aber durchaus auch als nobler
Wunsch verstanden werden, mit noch mehr Investorenarchitektur städtebauliche
Probleme zu lösen, die eben diese bekannterweise mit sich bringt." (DBZ, 2017)
The term is used in relation with the involvement of commercial developers in urban
development policies. The author sees this critical and questions if commercial
developers can solve problems of urban development.
Meaning Investorenarchitktur: Architecture not trusted to be compatible with long-term
urban or architectural quality (A 56).
January 2018:72T Gestaltungslangeweile lässt grüßen. Nicht nur auf dem Stuttgart 21- Gelände.
"Nun ist nicht nur die Akzeptanz der Bürger das Problem des Projekts, sondern auch die
Investorenarchitektur, die auf dem aufgelassenen Güterbahnhof hinter dem Bahnhof seit
Stilllegung der Gleise entsteht – das A1-Gelände." (DBZ, 2018c)
„Investorenarchitektur den Vorrang lässt, statt alternative Konzepte zu entwickeln“.
(DBZ, 2018c)
The article is a review of the inner-city development in Europaviertel in Stuttgart (DE).
The term Investorenarchitektur is used twice. The author puts the term
Investorenarchitektur in relation to the high-end residential projects and office buildings
that are realised in the project. The second instance of the use of the term
Investorenarchitektur refers to the soulless aesthetics of the projects in the Europaviertel,
and the author's impression that architectural aesthetics were not integrated into
Stuttgart’s policy of urban planning.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur; Architecture not trusted to be compatible with long-term
urban or architectural quality (A 57).
June 2018: 72TMallification. Einkaufszentren erleben in Deutschland einen Aufschwung – und das
ist nicht gut.
"Dieses Beispiel ist kein Einzelfall in Deutschland. Investorenarchitektur boomt, ein
Resultat der voranschreitenden Privatisierung der Städte." (DBZ, 2018d)
"Das soll eine Perspektive sein? Weder werden durch solche Projekte sinnvolle
Perspektiven aufgezeigt, noch Möglichkeitsräume außerhalb einer Investorenarchitektur
geschaffen." (DBZ, 2018d)
The article is a discussion of the decline of shopping malls in the United States and
Germany. The author puts the term Investorenarchitektur into relation to these malls and
more generally the privatisation of cities. According to the author, this contributes to the
increased monotonous appearance of cities. The author questions if commercial
development without public guidance can result in the attractive development of cities.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Architecture that prioritizes commercial interests above
social or cultural interests (A 58). Architecture is not trusted to be compatible with long-
term urban or architectural quality (A 59).
June 2018: 72TAbrisse und Klone in Hamburg
69
"Die elf Seiten dünne Abrissbegründung der Stadtentwicklungssenatorin Dorothee
Stapelfeldt, in welcher mit dem „überwiegenden öffentlichen Interessen“ für die
Legitimität des Abrisses argumentiert wurde, liest sich ohne jeden Erkenntniszugewinn
darüber, warum nun das in diesem Schreiben immer wieder hochgepriesene Denkmal
einer Investorenarchitektur zu weichen habe." (DBZ, 2018b)
The term is used in relation to the demolition of a listed building and the replacement of
an average-designed building by a commercial client.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Average architecture (A 60).
October 2018: 72TAbendteuerroman
"Dass hierbei auch einige recht umstrittene Projekte, meist aus der Hand so genannter
Stararchitekten, zum Zuge kommen, irritiert ein wenig, unter „Best Practice“ muss man
sich etwas anderes vorstellen dürfen, als vordergründig innovative
Investorenarchitektur." (DBZ, 2018a)
The article is a review of a book publication that reviews and collects riverbank
redevelopment areas. The book contains several 'best-practice' examples of projects with
commercial clients, which the author identifies as Investorenarchitektur. The author
expresses her*his doubt if projects run by commercial clients can be taken as 'best
practice’.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Architecture not trusted to be compatible with long-term
urban or architectural quality (A 61).
April 2020: 72TWohn- und Geschäftshaus Bâleo Erlenmatt, Basel/ CH
"Einige Zwischennutzungen und zwei städtebauliche Wettbewerbe später treffen auf der
Fläche die beiden großen Schweizer Trends im Wohnungsbau aufeinander:
Genossenschafts- vs. Investorenarchitektur." (Cieslik, 2020)
The article is a mildly positive review of a residential project in Basel (CH). The term is
used to express the commercial objective of the client. The author states that the
responsibility for the architectural quality lies with the architect, engagement or attitude
of the client is not mentioned.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Architecture not trusted to be compatible with long-term
urban or architectural quality (A 62).
Der*Die Architekt | Germany
April 2013: 72TLiebe deine Stadt
"Im März 2009 tat sich ein neues Loch in der Stadt auf: das Stadtarchiv stürzte in die U-
Bahn-Baustelle am Waidmarkt, es gab Ungereimtheiten beim Bau der neuen
Messehallen, das abgerissene Barmer-Viertel wartet seit Jahren darauf, von
gesichtsloser Investorenarchitektur übersät zu werden – es gibt zahllose Beispiele für
abscheuliche Sanierungen und Neubauten…" (Hubert, 2013)
The author uses the term Investorenarchitektur to refer to faceless architecture.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Faceless architecture (A 63).
70
Januar 2015: 72TVor dem Fall
"Kritisch begleitete er auch Neubauprojekte in Leipzig. 2001 schrieb er über die
Leipziger Marktgalerie, was noch heute Gültigkeit hat, spricht man über
Investorenarchitektur: 'Sinnvoll wäre es, ohne Zeitdruck gemeinsam mit einem
Architekten eine konsequente und moderne Formensprache zu entwickeln' und den
'Architekten nicht zum Fassaden-Dekorateur zu degradieren, der eine
unternehmensseitig voroptimierte Verkaufsfläche lediglich zu ummanteln hat. Für einen
Investor muss es sich rechnen, aber das, sollte man denken, schließt gestalterische
Qualität nicht aus.'" (Richter, 2015)
The article discusses a book by the German architectural critic Peter Guth, Guth who has
a biography of the former GDR and is known for his expertise on art and architecture of
the GDR. The author praises his analysis of the Marktgalerie in Leipzig written in 2001.
She uses the term Investorenarchitektur to capture a comment of Guth in his discussion
of the Marktgalerie in Leipzig, where he states that architects should not be degraded to
facade designers and that investors should include aesthetic quality in their considerations
of project feasibility.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: 72TArchitecture that is not innovative 72T(A 64)72T.
October 2015: 72TSchlüssig auf legendärem Terrain
"Vis à vis befindet sich das ebenfalls barocke Schloss, auf der anderen Seite des
Schlossgrabens das hexagonale Hörsaalgebäude aus der Feder von Ernst Neufert aus
den frühen 1970er Jahren sowie eine nichtssagende Investorenarchitektur an der Ecke
der B26." (Kasparek, 2015)
The article discusses a project in Darmstadt. The author uses the term
Investorenarchitektur to refer to the architecture surrounding the discussed project, which
is - according to the author - meaningless.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Meaningless architecture (A 65).
December 2015: 72Tam Michaelsberg. Spaziergänge mit Heiner Farwick
"Es ist eben nicht allein das Technische: Wir sehen das bei Bauwerken, die wir als
Investorenarchitektur beschreiben." (Denk, 2015a)
The article is the report of a conversation between the editor of the magazine, Andreas
Denk, and the president of the Association of German Architects (Bund Deutscher
Architekten).
The term Investorenarchitektur is used to identify architecture in which according to
Farwick, aesthetic aspirations have been discarded. According to Farwick, this failing
aesthetics is also noticed by the layman observer. The article presents a conversation by
Farwek and Denk on Architecture as science, and the necessity for further research on
design methods and processes that cover the full spectrum of architecture that consists of
aesthetic, technical and economic components. Farwick and Denk agree that this wider
interdisciplinary spectrum describes architecture as science. Farwick further states that
the awareness that architecture is more than an applied science is generally present at
universities, but rather absent in politics and economics. Farwick also questions if
71
educators are aware of the necessity to address the full spectrum in exchange with their
students, and not limit themselves to just one aspect.
Further in the conversation Denk asks Farwick if he believes that the economic sector has
an interest in the wider, scientific spectrum of architecture. Farwick states that this is
generally not the case, as clients are under economic pressure. Although there are
exemptions, as such the wider spectrum of architecture gets less attention from
commercial clients according to Farwick. Farwick and Denk see it as the responsibility
of architects to put the wider spectrum of architecture under the attention of the public
and in education.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Architecture that lacks aesthetic aspiration (A 66).
Architecture that results from incomplete education in real estate and architecture (A 67).
December 2015: 72TEin Haus mit Beziehungen
"Das Spektakuläre der Architektur, das sich leicht mit dem Begriff der
Investorenarchitektur verbinden ließe, lenkt hier von der besonderen Qualität des
Gebäudes ab." (Denk, 2015b)
The article is a discussion of a project in Düsseldorf designed by the architect Daniel
Liebeskind. The author states that "formalities" and procedural difficulties obstructed the
architect from reaching a quality level that could be compared with his famous buildings
from the 1980'ies, particularly the Jewish Museum in Berlin and the Felix-Nußbaum-
Haus in Osnabrück. The author uses the term Investorenarchitektur to refer to
obstructions that according to the author Liebeskind experienced in the design process of
the project in Düsseldorf.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Architecture of which quality is limited by commercial
considerations (A 68).
February 2018: 72TArchitecture Matters. Eine Frage der Ökonomie?
"Die Macher der Veranstaltung sind dabei überzeugt, dass eine polarisierende Sichtweise
nicht zielführend ist: 'Die immer noch gern wiederholte Gegenüberstellung von
Immobilie und Architektur – hier der allein von wirtschaftlichen Kriterien getriebene
Investor, dort der realitätsferne, rein von ästhetischen Kriterien geleitete Architekt, der
sich vor allem selbst verwirklichen möchte, und wenn beide denn mal zusammenkommen,
entsteht seelenlose ‚Investorenarchitektur‘ – ist mittelfristig nicht sinnvoll'." (Potratz,
2018a)
The short article announces the annual conference 'Architecture Matters' in Munich,
organised by the architecture communicator Nadine Heinich. The theme of the 2018
conference is "Money Talks". The author cites the conference organisers, who state that
when investors with a sole commercial interest in buildings and architects that pursue
only an artistic, self-centred interest in architecture come together, this results in
Investorenarchitektur.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Architecture that is the result of a failing cooperation
between architect and real estate client (A 69).
September 2018: 72TWer macht Stadt? Wechselgespräch in Stuttgart
72
"Die Veranstalter sehen den Qualitätsverlust in diesem Bereich gefährdet 'angesichts von
… Renditestreben beherrschter Investorenarchitektur in unseren Städten'." (Potratz,
2018b)
The article announces a discussion and debate evening organised by the German
Association of Architects. The topic of the evening is 'who defines the appearance of the
city'. The author states that the organizers see a loss of quality in the German cities, due
to Investorenarchitektur which is governed by commercial interests.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Architecture that prioritizes commercial interests above
social or cultural interests (A 70).
February 2021: 72TViel ist nicht genug. Buch der Woche: Eigenwillige Eigenheime.
"Die Autorin macht in ihrem '1×1 der Bausünde' klar: Lieber eine Bausünde, als etwas
gänzlich Belangloses. Lieber also Unikate, als bloß lieblos in die Landschaft oder die
Innenstädte gewürfelte Investorenarchitektur." (Kasparek, 2021b)
The article discusses a book that has collected examples of self-made architecture by
homeowners, which results in highly eclectic and diverse architecture. The author states
that although the architectural quality of these self-made trial-and-error projects may be
disputable, it is still better than the trivial, unloving Investorenarchitektur with which
landscapes and cities are filled.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Trivial Architecture (A 71)
October 2021: 72TGegen den Bullshit. Buch der Woche: Lederer Ragnarsdóttir Oei 2
"Bauten, die aus einem sich selbst antreibenden, kapitalistischen System heraus entstehen
und keinem gesellschaftlichen Zweck mehr dienen, ja nicht einmal mehr das Minimalziel
von Architektur erfüllen, ein umhegtes Obdach zu sein, da es sich um
Investorenarchitektur handelt, in der wahlweise gearbeitet oder ausschließlich von sehr
Wohlhabenden gewohnt werden soll." (Kasparek, 2021a)
The author uses the term Investorenarchitektur to refer to buildings that do not fulfil to
the least of quality aspects of architecture.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Architecture not trusted to be compatible with long-term
urban or architectural quality (A 72).
Detail | Germany
December 2002: 72TArchitektur an den Bedürfnissen der Menschen organisieren
"Oft hat Architektur eine ganz schön arrogante Haltung – dies gilt insbesondere für die
typische »Investorenarchitektur«. Hier hat die Innenarchitektur inzwischen aber die
Chance, nicht nur zu reagieren, sondern eine Art Führungsrolle zu übernehmen, um eine
neue Kultur des Arbeitsplatzes zu etablieren." (Reich, 2012)
The article presents an interview between the interior designer PearsonLloyd from
London, and the Editor of Detail, Katja Reich. The topic of the conversation is the
'Docklands' series of office furniture that is designed by PersonLloyd. The designers state
that architecture often neglects human needs and has an arrogant attitude towards its
73
users. The authors state to recognise this arrogance, especially in Investorenarchitektur,
without further specifying which type of architecture is meant.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Arrogant Architecture, Architecture that does not
consider human needs (A 73).
October 2009: 72TÖkologie und Ökonomie
"Dass der Fokus auf kurzfristige Gewinne langfristig für eine nachhaltige Entwicklung
nicht genügt, zeigt die aktuelle Finanz- und Wirtschaftskrise. Auch auf Veranstaltungen
wie der EXPO REAL wird also klar, dass sich die »Investorenarchitektur«, die sich
bislang wenig um die Umwelt, ihr Umfeld und die Zukunft gekümmert hat, ändern muss.
Nachhaltigkeit umfasst neben Ökologie und Ökonomie vor allem auch den
soziokulturellen Aspekt, der bei gewinnoptimierter »Investorenarchitektur« oft zu kurz
kommt." (Ahrend, 2009)
The article discusses the importance of socio-cultural and ecological sustainability in
architecture. The author states that at the annual real estate fair EXPO Real of 2009
demonstrated that the architecture that is optimised towards financial return neglected
these aspects of sustainability. The term Investorenarchitektur is used to define a type of
architecture that only concentrates on financial return.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Architecture that prioritizes commercial interests above
social or cultural interests (A 74).
December 2018: 72TVerstellter Blick am High-Line Park
"Der High Line Park in New York wird zusehends von aufdringlicher
Investorenarchitektur eingeengt." (Schittich, 2018)
The article is a discussion of the gentrification process and increased activity of high-end
real estate development activity that accompanied the development of Manhattan's High-
Line Park. The term Investorenarchitektur is used to classify these gentrifying projects,
giving them the connotation of 'intrusive'.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Gentrifying architecture (A 75).
February 2022: 72TAugustinerhof in Nürnberg von Staab architekten
"Investorenarchitektur im Altstadtkontext ist oft Puzzlearbeit – der Augustinerhof von
Staab Architekten zeigt das mit einer bewegten Dachlandschaft und einer unregelmäßig
gegliederten Betonwerksteinfassade." (Schoof, 2022)
The article is a discussion of a recently completed project in the inner city of Nürnberg.
The term Investorenarchitektur is used to refer to architecture that is assigned by private
developers. The author states that it is often a puzzle to fit in architecture by real estate
developers, thus suggesting a conflict of commercial and social or cultural interests.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Architecture that prioritizes commercial interests above
social or cultural interests (A 76).
Hochparterre | Switzerland
October 2014:67T Investorenarchitektur und Kritik
74
"Die stilistische Eigenschaften der sogenannten Investorenarchitektur sind bisher erst
wenig in den Blick der Architekturkritik geraten, schreibt die «NZZ»."
"Weltweit wird die gebaute Umwelt zunehmend durch die sogenannte
Investorenarchitektur geprägt. Doch deren stilistische Eigenschaften und bildliche
Aussagen sind bisher erst wenig in den Blick der Architekturkritik geraten, schreibt die
«NZZ»: «Wenn die Architekturkritik gestalterische Verbesserungsmöglichkeiten
aufzeigen will, darf sie sich nicht zu fein sein, auch Beispiele banaler oder schlichtweg
schlechter Gestaltung zu analysieren und zu klären, ob und inwiefern sich Gründe für die
ästhetischen Defizite bei den gegebenen Finanzierungs- und Entscheidungsabläufen
finden lassen» fordert die Zeitung und wagt die Hypothese: 'Langweilige wie
spektakuläre Beispiele von Investorenarchitektur scheinen die Eigenschaft zu teilen, dass
sie sich in ihrer Gestaltung ausser auf die angestrebte Rendite selten auf etwas anderes
beziehen als auf weitere Beispiele ihrer eigenen Gattung, sei es mit dem Ziel von
Anpassung oder Übertrumpfung.'" (Honegger, 2014)
The article discusses the publication 'Noch keine Langeweile" in the Neue Zürcher
Zeitung from October 2014 (Seibold-Bultmann, 2014). The term Investorenarchitektur
describes a type of architecture that puts financial return above all other quality criteria
in architecture.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Architecture that prioritizes commercial interests above
social or cultural interests (A 77).
March 2022: 67TMusterstadt am Rand der Schweiz
"Da gibt es Bauten, deren Fassaden ein interessantes Innenleben versprechen, während
andere den Charme von Investorenarchitektur verströmen." (Huber, 2022)
The article discusses the urban development of Les Vergers in Meyrin close to Geneva.
The term is used to put 'interesting architecture' in contrast with the ‘charm’ of
Investorenarchitektur.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Uninteresting architecture (A 78).
November 2022: 24 67TBauten und Projekte
"Die Überbauung Westhof mischt die Investorenarchitektur auf dem Hochbord auf –
inhaltlich wie formal." (Herzog, 2022)
The article is a discussion of 24 new constructions in the municipality of Dübendorf, close
to Zurich. The term Investorenarchitektur is used to differentiate the projects that were
built by a commercial developer from those that have a cooperative financing structure.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Architecture that prioritizes commercial interests above
social or cultural interests (A 79).
German-Architects | Germany
February 2013: 72TWer die Immobilie zahlt und macht.
"Maßstabssprüngen ist ein ganz erheblicher Anteil an der Entwicklung ubiquitärer
Investorenarchitektur zuzuschreiben, die Architekten – und niemand sonst – in der
Entwicklung ihres Erscheinungsbildes zu verantworten haben." (Baus, 2013b)
75
The author uses the term the refer to ubiquitous architecture.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Ubiquitous architecture (A 80).
4.1.2 74BSummary of the meaning of Investorenarchitektur in the architectural press.
The phenomenological analysis of the use of the term Investorenarchitektur in architectural
press published in the German language has resulted in separate 80 units of meaning of
Investorenarchitektur. In the following step, the units of meanings were clustered into themes,
presented in Table 13, which has led to 9 clusters of themes, presented in Table 12 below. The
theme allocation of the individual units of meaning can be found in Table 13 on page 79.
Theme cluster Number of Units of Meaning
Aesthetic Problems 6
A
g
enc
y
5
Qualit
y
collateral in Real Estate 29
Competenc
y
11
Idios
y
ncras
y
6
Missin
g
aspiratio
n
18
Theor
y
Crisis 5
Table 12 Theme clusters in the architectural press using the term Investorenarchitektur.
In most of the articles (29 units of meaning) the term Investorenarchitektur referred to a
hegemony of commercial real estate decisions in architectural quality, and as such are
illustrations to the real estate imperative described in Chapter 1.3.5. Except for the units of
meaning with the numbers A 25, A 47, A 50, A 53 (See also Table 13), these units of meaning
refer to decisions of architectural quality that seem to be concerned with the technical and
economic dimensions of architecture only, and probably formulating architectural quality in the
value-based definition and manufacturing-based definition only. Except for the units mentioned
above, the cultural, social and aesthetic quality dimensions that are collected in the
‘Architectural Collateral’ of the theoretical framework concluded in the previous chapter and
presented in Figure 10 (page 49), seem to have been absent or neglected. Consequently, the 29
units of meaning have been clustered under the theme of Quality Collateral in Real Estate.
The next largest cluster (18 units of meaning) concerns articles where the term
Investorenarchitektur is used to express an evaluation of architecture that is experienced to be
without any architectural aspiration, this cluster has been indicated as the cluster of Missing
Aspiration.
This cluster is followed by a cluster of 11 units of meaning where Investorenarchitektur is used
to express experienced incompetency of the real estate sector to achieve architectural quality.
The authors of these articles experience architectural quality and commercial real estate to be
incompatible. As this addresses the aspect of the Competency of commercial real estate
managers, the cluster has been named accordingly.
The cluster named Aesthetic Problems (6 units of meaning) describes articles where the author
used the term Investorenarchitektur to express a negative aesthetic experience.
Furthermore, 6 units of meaning have been clustered into the theme of Idiosyncrasy. In this
theme group, the term Investorenarchtektur is used to describe an understanding of architectural
quality that does not match with the holistically interacting dimensions as described in Figure
76
1. Concerning the product of architecture, an idiosyncratic understanding is present when the
understanding of architectural quality is limited to façade design only. Concerning the process
of architecture, an idiosyncratic quality is present when the design agent is excluded from or
limited to aesthetic considerations. Also, a situation where a ‘stararchitect’ is hired because of
her*his commercial value rather than her*his architectural talent is understood as an
idiosyncratic understanding of architectural quality.
The cluster of Theory Crisis (5 units of meaning) describes a situation where the author of the
article experiences that contemporary or modernist architecture provides an inadequate
response to the architectural assignment, and therefore creates low-quality
Investorenarchitektur.
Finally, 5 themes are clustered in the theme of Agency. This cluster describes situations where
the design agents (architects) express not to be willing to work for commercial clients. The term
Investorenarchitektur in this cluster is used to describe a problem in the professional
relationship between the design agents and commercial real estate principals.
77
Reference Nr. Unit of Meaning Theme
(Stuttner, 2020) A 01 Architecture is not trusted to result in long-term architectural
or urban qualit
y
Competency
(Weiß, 2002) A 02 Architecture that is not sophisticated. Theor
y
crisis
(Höllbacher, 2002) A 03 Architecture architects do not want to be associated with A
g
enc
y
(Baumgarten, 2016) A 04 Architecture that prioritises commercial interests above
interests of societ
y
and culture
Quality
collateral to RE
(Wirsching, 2021) A 05 Architecture is not trusted to be compatible with long-term
urban or architectural qualit
y
.
Competency
(BauNetz and
Wöhler, 2007)
A 06 Mediocre architecture Aesthetic
p
roblems
(BauNetz, 2008) A 07 Superficial architecture Missing
aspiration
(BauNetz, 2010b) A 08 Architecture that prioritises commercial interests above
interests of societ
y
and culture
Quality
collateral to RE
(BauNetz, 2010a) A 09 Architecture that is of low quality. Missing
aspiration
(BauNetz, 2011) A 10 Low-quality urban design. Aesthetic
p
roblems
(BauNetz, 2015b) A 11 Architecture that prioritises commercial interests above
social or cultural interests
Quality
collateral to RE
(BauNetz, 2015a) A 12 Architecture that prioritises commercial interests above
social or cultural interests.
Quality
collateral to RE
A 13 Architecture denying local cultural context Quality
collateral to RE
A 14 Western-Import architecture Quality
collateral to RE
(BauNetz, 2019b) A 15 Conventional architecture with low-quality potential Missing
aspiration
(BauNetz, 2019a) A 16 Conventional architecture with low-quality potential Missing
aspiration
(BauNetz, 2020) A 17 Architecture that is not innovative. Missing
aspiration
(Rumpf, 2010, p. 2) A 18 Criticism to Modernis
m
Theor
y
crisis
A 19 Architecture that prioritises commercial interests above
social or cultural interests
Quality
collateral to RE
A 20 Architecture denying local cultural context. Quality
collateral to RE
(Mönninger, 2011) A 21 Architecture that prioritises commercial interests above
social or cultural interests
Quality
collateral to RE
A 22 Use of ‘stararchitects’ to push up commercial interests. Idios
y
ncras
y
(Seiß, 2012, p. 4) A 23 Architecture of an inferior quality. Missing
aspiration
(Goevert, 2012,
p
. 67)
A 24 Architecture that prioritises commercial interests above
social or cultural interests.
Quality
collateral to RE
(Fischer et al., 2013,
p
. 19)
A 25 Architecture that successfully integrates commercial, social
developments and aesthetic interests
Quality
collateral to RE
(Kleilein, 2015,
p
. 17)
A 26 Faceless architecture Aesthetic
p
roblems
(Baus, 2015, p. 5) A 27 Large-scale architecture of mediocre quality Aesthetic
p
roblems
(Schade-Bünsow,
2017, p. 51)
A 28 Architecture that prioritises commercial interests above
social, cultural interests or interests of ecological
sustainabilit
y
Quality
collateral to RE
(Friedrich, 2017b,
p
. 8)
A 29 Architecture that prioritises commercial interests above
social or cultural interests
Quality
collateral to RE
(Friedrich and
Brensing, 2017a,
p. 38)
A 30 Architecture architects do not want to be associated with. A
g
enc
y
A 31 Architecture that does not allow artistic expression of an
architec
t
Idiosyncrasy
78
Reference Nr. Unit of Meaning Theme
(Schönwetter, 2018,
p
. 36)
A 32 Architecture that does not allow architectural creativity. Idiosyncrasy
(Adam, 2019) A 33 Architecture that prioritises commercial interests above
social or cultural interests
Quality
collateral to RE
A 34 Architecture denying local cultural context. Western-Import
architecture
Quality
collateral to RE
(Henning, 2019,
p
. 35)
A 35 Absurd architecture Theory crisis
(Friedrich and
Heinich, 2019,
p. 12)
A 36 Architecture architects do not want to be associated with. A
g
enc
y
A 37 Architecture that does not allow artistic expression of an
architec
t
Idiosyncrasy
(Adam, 2020, p. 8) A 38 Conventional architecture Missing
aspiration
(Klingbeil, 2022a,
p
. 43)
A 39 Architecture that prioritizes commercial interests above
social or cultural interests
Quality
collateral to RE
(Klingbeil, 2022b,
p
. 4)
A 40 Sad architecture. Missing
aspiration
(Bartetzky, 2008) A 41 Architecture is not trusted to be compatible with long-term
urban or architectural qualit
y
Competency
(Cimolini and von
Mühlendahl, 2008)
A 42 Architecture that does not allow architectural creativity Idiosyncrasy
(Schärer, 2008) A 43 Anonymous Architecture. Missing
aspiration
(Remmele, 2009) A 44 Characterless architecture. Missing
aspiration
(Tietz, 2011) A 45 Superficial ‘banal’ architecture. Missing
aspiration
(Grünzig, 2011) A 46 Superficial architecture (of the 19th century) Missing
aspiration
(Schönwetter, 2014) A 47 Architecture that successfully integrates commercial, social
developments and aesthetic interests
Quality
collateral to RE
(Remmele, 2015) A 48 Architecture without principles Theor
y
crisis
(Pawlitschklo,
2016)
A 49 Uninspired architecture Missing
aspiration
(Schönwetter, 2016) A 50 Architecture that successfully integrates commercial, social
developments and aesthetic interests
Quality
collateral to RE
(Lieschke, 2016) A 51 Architecture where client and architect do not cooperate. A
g
enc
y
(Steinbach, 2018) A 52 Architecture that adopts modernistic principles to prioritise
commercial interests above aesthetic, social or cultural
interests
Quality
collateral to RE
(Adam, 2022) A 53 Architecture that successfully integrates commercial, social
developments and aesthetic interests.
Quality
collateral to RE
A 54 Architecture where the quali
t
y
potential is not expected. Competenc
y
(Kuehnle, 2014) A 55 Architecture that prioritizes commercial interests above
social or cultural interests
Quality
collateral to RE
(DBZ, 2017) A 56 Architecture is not trusted to be compatible with long-term
urban or architectural qualit
y
Competency
(DBZ, 2018c) A 57 Architecture is not trusted to be compatible with long-term
urban or architectural qualit
y
Competency
(DBZ, 2018d) A 58 Architecture that prioritizes commercial interests above
social or cultural interests.
Quality
collateral to RE
A 59 Architecture is not trusted to be compatible with long-term
urban or architectural qualit
y
Missing
aspiration
(DBZ, 2018b) A 60 Average architecture. Missing
aspiration
(DBZ, 2018a) A 61 Architecture is not trusted to be compatible with long-term
urban or architectural qualit
y
Competency
(Cieslik, 2020) A 62 Architecture is not trusted to be compatible with long-term
urban or architectural qualit
y
Competency
79
Reference Nr. Unit of Meaning Theme
(Hubert, 2013) A 63 Faceless architecture. Aesthetic
p
roblems
(Richter, 2015) A 64 Architecture that is not innovative. Missing
aspiration
(Kasparek, 2015) A 65 Meanin
g
less architecture. Theor
y
crisis
(Denk, 2015a) A 66 Architecture that lacks aesthetic aspiration Aesthetic
p
roblems
A 67 Architecture that results from incomplete education in real
estate and architecture
Competency
(Denk, 2015b) A 68 Architecture of which quality is limited by commercial
considerations
Quality
collateral to RE
(Potratz, 2018a) A 69 Architecture is the result of a failing cooperation between
architect and real estate client.
Agency
(Potratz, 2018b) A 70 Architecture that prioritizes commercial interests above
social or cultural interests
Quality
collateral to RE
(Kasparek, 2021b) A 71 Trivial Architecture Missing
aspiration
(Kasparek, 2021a) A 72 Architecture is not trusted to be compatible with long-term
urban or architectural qualit
y
Competency
(Reich, 2012) A 73 Arrogant Architecture, Architecture that does not consider
human needs
Idiosyncrasy
(Ahrend, 2009) A 74 Architecture that prioritizes commercial interests above
social or cultural interests
Quality
collateral to RE
(Schittich, 2018) A 75 Gentrifying architecture Quality
collateral to RE
(Schoof, 2022) A 76 Architecture that prioritizes commercial interests above
social or cultural interests
Quality
collateral to RE
(Honegger, 2014) A 77 Architecture that prioritizes commercial interests above
social or cultural interests
Quality
collateral to RE
(Huber, 2022) A 78
Uninteresting architecture. Missing
aspiration
(Herzog, 2022) A 79 Architecture that prioritizes commercial interests above
social or cultural interests
Quality
collateral to RE
(Baus, 2013b) A 80 Ubiquitous architecture. Missing
aspiration
Table 13 Summary of 80 units of meaning with their theme allocation of the term
Investorenarchitektur in architectural press.
4.2. 32BInvestorenarchitektur in Real Estate Publications
In the following chapter 10 publications in German language real estate press are presented.
The problem that is supposedly described using the term Investorenarchitektur is captured in
the same manner as the analysis of the publications in the architectural press. An overview of
the reviewed publications is given in Table 14.
Publication Country Title Reference
Immobilienmana
g
e
r
DE Investorenarchitektur: Eine schwieri
g
e Ehe (Hardebusch, 2016)
Immobilienmanager DE Gewerbeimmobilien, Baukultur und
Insta
g
ra
m
(Beyerle, 2021)
Immobilienmana
g
e
r
DE
Immobilienzeitung DE Der ‘Rote Otto’ sorgt am Domplatz für
neuen Schwun
g
.
(Stiehl, 1998)
Immobilienzeitun
g
DE Allein der Architekt ist verantwortlich (Immobilienzeitun
g
, 2002)
Immobilienzeitung DE Goldgräberstimmung in Eschborn ist
verflo
g
en.
(Immobilienzeitung, 2005)
Immobilienzeitung DE Wider die Beliebigkeit des Bauens. (Immobilienzeitung,
2006b)
80
Publication Country Title Reference
Immobilienzeitung DE Schlips trifft auf Jeans (Immobilienzeitung,
2006a)
Immobilienzeitung DE Architekturdebatte: Prinz Charles fehlt im
Chor der Kritike
r
(Immobilienzeitung, 2007)
Immobilienzeitung DE Der Giebelchen und Erkerchen
überdrüssi
g
.
(Rebhan, 2009)
Immobilienzeitung DE
Das kann alles weg: Abriss-Atlas in Berlin (Nöthen, 2015)
Table 14 Overview of 10 publications in real estate press concerning Investorenarchitektur.
4.2.1 75BMeaning of the term Investorenarchitektur in real estate press
Immobilienmanager | Germany
October 2016: 72TInvestorenarchitektur: Eine schwierige Ehe
"Trotz vieler gemeinsamer Interessen ist 'Investorenarchitektur' zum Unwort
verkommen." (Hardebusch, 2016)
"Die Diskussion um Investorenarchitektur bewegt sich zwischen den beiden Polen
gewagte Formensprache oder zweckmäßig zeitloses Gefallen" (Hardebusch, 2016)
"'Investorenarchitektur' oder 'Entwicklerarchitektur'?" (Hardebusch, 2016)
"Die daraus resultierenden Ergebnisse werden in der Öffentlichkeit gern als
'Investorenarchitektur' gescholten." (Hardebusch, 2016)
The article discusses the distressed relationship between architects and real estate clients
by example of architectural design competitions. According to the author, cost savings
and cost cuttings round in the development phase are the cause that the winning
competition entry often differs to a large extent from the realised project. The architecture
that results from this cost-cutting process is referred to as Investorenarchitektur.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Price-winning architecture after saving and cost-cutting
procedures (R 1).
October 2021: 72TGewerbeimmobilien, Baukultur und Instagram
"Denn genauso automatisch findet sich bei Ausschreibungen, Kommunikationspitches
oder Architektenauswahlverfahren der Begriff bzw. Vorwurf „gesichtslose
lnvestorenarchitektur" wieder. Zumal die lnsta-Jünger von heute die Nutzer oder
Nachfrager von morgen sein können." (Beyerle, 2021)
The author states that branding of architectural projects is important for their later success
and acceptance. Each developer should reflect on the emotional experiences that are to
be addressed with the architectural design. He uses the term Investorenarchitektur to refer
to architecture that does not consider a deliberation on the emotional experiences that
should be called upon with the architecture. The author calls this type of architecture
‘faceless Investorenarchitektur’.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Architecture that does not appeal to emotions (R 2).
Immobilienzeitung | Germany
July 1998: 72TDer Rote Otto sorgt am Domplatz für neuen Schwung
81
"Der Entwurf sei typisch für die allgegenwärtige, kalte Investorenarchitektur Marke
Westdeutschland, machte der Leiter des Stadtplanungsamtes seinem Unmut gegenüber
der Presse Luft." (Stiehl, 1998)
The article is a discussion of the winning entry of a design competition for a new 9000m²
bank building in the historic centre of the city of Magdeburg, located in East Germany.
Although a renowned architecture office from Münster was responsible for the design,
the head of the city planning used the term 'cold Investorenarchitektur of a West-German
type' to express his dissatisfaction with the design.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Architecture that puts priority on commercial interests
(R 4). Low-quality architecture (R 5).
October 2002: 72TAllein der Architekt ist verantwortlich
"Das Schimpfwort von der "Investorenarchitektur" ist nicht gerechtfertigt."
"Wenn ein Bürogebäude diesen hohen Anspruch nicht erfüllt, ist daran keineswegs die
Sparsamkeit des Investors, die viel gescholtene 'Investorenarchitektur', schuld: "Für
schlechte Architektur kann der Investor nichts." (Immobilienzeitung, 2002)
The article presents the position of the architect Hadi Teherani, who states that good
architecture is not a question of money, but a question of thought. He uses the term
Investorenarchitektur to refer to architecture that is the result of financial and budgetary
considerations only,
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Architecture resulting from saving and cost-cutting
procedures (R 6). Architecture without thought (R 7).
June 2005:72T Goldgräberstimmung in Eschborn ist verflogen
"Genau wie im dortigen Westend, in dem sich nicht zufällig dieselbe schmucklose und
zweckmäßige Investorenarchitektur der 60er und 70er Jahre findet, wurde Eschborn zum
Dorado für private Investoren." (Immobilienzeitung, 2005, p. 2)
The article is a discussion of the rapid and uncontrolled development of the city of
Eschborn (near Frankfurt am Main) in the 1960-ies and 1970-ies. The term
Investorenarchitektur is used to refer to the functional and austere architecture of the
1960-ies and 1970-ies.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Austere architecture (R 8).
June 2006: 72TWider die Beliebigkeit des Bauens
"Diesen Bürgerstolz vermisst Chapeaurouge bei vielen Projekten institutioneller
Bauherren, der viel gescholtenen Investorenarchitektur: 'Viele dieser Projekte sind von
Beliebigkeit gekennzeichnet. Man sieht ihnen an, dass der Bauherr nicht langfristig
gedacht hat, sondern sich möglichst umgehend von dem vielleicht noch nicht einmal fertig
gestellten Bau wieder trennen will.'" (Immobilienzeitung, 2006b)
In the article, the chairman [Chapeaurouge] of a real estate investment manager
[Norddeutsche Grundvermögen] set out his view on architecture, which should be
characterised by smart concepts, individual expression, design of all times and of
82
functional quality. He laments that many projects of institutional investors are
characterised by arbitrary decisions, which he refers to as Investorenarchitektur.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Arbitrary architecture (R 9).
July 2006: 72TSchlips trifft auf Jeans
"Nicht von ungefähr wird häufig abwertend von 'Investorenarchitektur' gesprochen."
(Immobilienzeitung, 2006a)
The article presents an internal discussion within the German Federal Association of
Architects [Bundesarchitektenkammer], on whether to participate in the Real Estate Fair
Expo Real in München in 2006. The president of the architectural association of the
Federal state of Baden-Württemberg sees architecture as a marketing instrument for
investors and therefore promotes being present at the fair. He suggests that individual
designs put into a regional context can enhance the returns of investors. He laments that
many investors do not know this, and instead fall back on more general designs, which
he pejoratively refers to as Investorenarchitektur.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Generic architecture neglecting context (R 10).
April 2007: Architekturdebatte:72T Prinz Charles fehlt im Chor der Kritiker
"Investorenarchitektur?" (Immobilienzeitung, 2007)
The article is a discussion of the various opinions on the valuation of the architectural
quality of Hamburg's Hafencity. The term is used to suggest cold and heartless, boring
architecture, that misses 'human dimensions'.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Cold, inhumane Architecture R 11).
July 2009: 72TDer Giebelchen und Erkerchen überdrüssig
"Längst nicht jeder Bauende arbeitet nah an der Bauhaus-Idee, sagt Oswalt. "Vieles mit
dem Etikett Beworbene, gerade auch im Gewerbebau, ist mühselige
Investorenarchitektur." (Rebhan, 2009)
The article discusses the increased popularity of the forms and appearances of
architectural design developed at the Bauhaus school, which existed until 1933. The
author states that the typical forms and general appearance related to the original Bauhaus
designs are currently successfully traded as Bauhaus-style amongst architects developers
and sellers of private homes. The original Bauhaus however had the intention to develop
an architectural style. The author quotes the director of the Bauhaus Foundation in Dessau
at the time - Philip Oswalt - who laments that many projects that use the label 'Bauhaus'
are cumbersome, superficial Investorenarchitektur that have become products for a high-
end market that is only accessible for few.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: ‚Bauhaus style‘ used for commercial and exclusive
architecture (R 12).
January 2015: 72TDas kann alles weg: Abriss-Atlas Berlin
83
"Zehn Journalisten drehen nun mit ihrem Abriss-Atlas den Spieß um und geben ihre
Favoriten zum Abriss frei, machen Platz für ein neues Berlin und fordern provozierend
zum Diskurs heraus - im Kampf gegen die Investorenarchitektur." (Nöthen, 2015)
The article is a book presentation, in which the authors propose 50 buildings for
demolition. The term Investorenarchitektur is used to indicate architecture, that needs to
be conquered.
Meaning Investorenarchitektur: Inadequate architecture (R 13).
4.2.2 76BSummary of meaning of Investorenarchitektur in real estate press
The phenomenological analysis of the use of the term Investorenarchitektur in real estate press
has resulted in 12 units of meaning of the term Investorenarchitektur. Identically as in the
analysis of the term Investorenarchitektur in architectural press, they have been clustered into
themes of which the individual allocation is presented in Table 16. The overview of the themes
into which the units of meaning were clustered is presented in Table 15 below.
Theme cluster Number of Units of Meaning
Missin
g
Aspiratio
n
6
Theor
y
Crisis 2
Idios
y
ncras
y
2
Qualit
y
Collateral in Real Estate 2
Table 15 Theme clusters in real estate press using the term Investorenarchitektur.
The largest cluster in articles published in the real estate press is clustered in the theme Missing
Aspiration, similarly as in the discussion of the articles published in architectural press the term
Investorenarchitektur is used when the author had the experience that the full potential of
architectural creativity had not been used.
Those instances where the term Investorenarchitektur was used to refer to a prioritisation of
commercial interests over architectural interests are clustered in the theme of Quality Collateral
in Real Estate.
Furthermore, two units of meaning were clustered into the theme of Idiosyncrasy. In one case
the author refers to the use of the ‘Bauhaus style’ as a marketing tool for exclusivity, whereas
the original objective of the Bauhaus movement was to create architecture accessible and
affordable for anyone. In another case, the author refers to the idiosyncratic understanding of
architectural quality in the process of architecture. In this article, the author states that the
winning entry to design competitions often shows a high architectural ambition, of which only
a skimmed-down version is realised. The author as such confirms the trade-off as described in
the discussion of management theories on complex systems in Chapter 3.4.2, and suggests that
design competitions are no effective tools for the management of architectural quality in
commercial real estate as they block the necessary interaction of the client with the design agent
during the initial phase of development.
Finally, two experiences of Investorenarchitektur are clustered in the theme Theory Crisis, as
they describe the experienced inadequacy of architects or contemporary architecture to provide
appropriate answers to contemporary architectural questions.
84
Reference Nr. Unit of Meaning Theme
(Hardebusch, 2016) R 01 Prize-winning Architecture after saving and costs
cuttin
g
procedures
Idiosyncrasy
(Beyerle, 2021) R 02 Architecture that does not appeal to emotions Missing
aspiration
(Stiehl, 1998) R 04 Architecture that puts priority on commercial
interests
Quality
collateral to
RE
R 05 Low-quality architecture Missing
aspiration
(Immobilienzeitung, 2002) R 06 Architecture resulting from saving and costs cutting
procedures
Quality
collateral to
RE
R 07 Architecture without thou
g
h
t
Theor
y
crisis
(Immobilienzeitung, 2005) R 08 Austere architecture Missing
aspiration
(Immobilienzeitung,
2006b)
R 09 Arbitrary architecture Missing
aspiration
(Immobilienzeitung,
2006a)
R 10 Generic architecture neglects context Theory crisis
(Immobilienzeitung, 2007) R 11 Cold, inhumane Architecture Missing
aspiration
(Rebhan, 2009) R 12 ‚Bauhaus style‘ used for commercial and exclusive
architecture
Idiosyncrasy
(Nöthen, 2015) R 13 Inadequate architecture Missing
aspiration
Table 16 Summary of 12 units of meaning with their theme allocation of the term
Investorenarchitektur in real estate press.
4.3. 33BDebate on Architecture and Real Estate
In the following chapter 31 publications are presented that cover the general debate on
architecture and real estate. To capture the problem in the relationship between architecture and
real estate, the method of interpretative phenomenological analysis is applied in a similar way
as in the analysis of the publications containing the term Investorenarchitektur. In the first step
the essence of the article and the problem or problems it is addressing are summarized, this step
covers the step of reduction and bracketing as described in Chapter 2.2. Thereafter, the
discussed problem is captured into a statement of a short sentence or a few words. In the analysis
below this is presented as the issue in the article concerning the problematic relationship of
architecture and real estate. Again, an overview of the reviewed publications is presented at the
beginning of the chapter in Table 17 and a summary of the issues in Table 20 at the end of the
chapter.
Publication Country Title Reference
A
rchithese – The Empire o
f
Real Estate: The architecture o
f
lucrative speculation
H
immelreich et al. (2014)
Empire of Real Estate CH Editorial Himmelreich and Dreher
(2014)
Empire of Real Estate CH Kann architektur sich rentieren? Kaltenbrunne
r
(2014)
Empire of Real Estate CH Ökonomie, Eitelkeit und Grösse Löffle
r
(2014)
Empire of Real Estate CH Spielräume für Vielfal
t
Himmelreich (2014)
A
rdeth 3 –
M
one
y
. Economies o
f
Architecture
F
rassoldati et al. (2018)
Ardeth Mone
y
IT Mone
y
, or the elephant in the roo
m
Frassoldati et al. (2018)
Ardeth Mone
y
IT Editorial. The Economies of Architecture Till (2018)
Ardeth Mone
y
IT The False Problem of Urbane Desi
g
n Torisson (2018)
Ardeth Money IT Flows of Architecture, Flows of
Capitalism
Gough (2018)
85
Publication Country Title Reference
Ardeth Mone
y
IT Teachin
g
the Value of Wor
k
Groth (2018)
Ardeth Mone
y
IT Labour, the Wa
y
We Wor
k
Dodd (2018)
The Art o
f
Inequalit
y
: Architecture, housin
g
, and real estate a provisional report.
M
artin et al. (2015b)
The Art of Inequalit
y
US Introduction Martin et al. (2015a)
The Art of Inequality US Designing Inequality Moore and Schindler
(2015)
The Art of Inequalit
y
US Real Estate A
g
enc
y
Martin (2015)
The Art of Inequality US Contracts Shvartzberg Carrió
(2015)
The Art of Inequalit
y
US Textbooks Carve
r
(2015)
The Art of Inequalit
y
US Schools Rhee (2015)
The Art of Inequalit
y
US Terms
N
icolescu (2015)
Baukultur! DE Architektur als Investmen
t
Kähle
r
(2005)
Bauwelt –
I
m Hai
f
ischbecken
F
riedrich (2017a)
Im Haifischbecken DE
Investorenarchitektur.
Künstlerarchitektu
r
Friedrich (2017b)
Im Haifischbecken DE Architektur, zu Markte
g
etra
g
en Esche
r
(2017)
Im Haifischbecken DE Wenn man präzise plant, lassen sich
schöne Dinge realisieren, ohne das die
Rendite zu stark sinkt.
Friedrich and Brensing
(2017b)
Im Haifischbecken DE Das Ursprungsinteresse des Investors
liegt nicht in der Architektur, sie ist
Mittel zum Zweck.
Brensing (2017a)
Im Haifischbecken DE Jeder Weiterverkauf eines Grundstücks
kostet Architekturqualitä
t
Friedrich (2017c)
Im Haifischbecken DE Es ist Einfacher, die gemischte Stadt zu
b
auen, als
g
emischt
g
enutzte Gebäude
Friedrich and Brensing
(2017a)
Im Haifischbecken DE Sozio-ökonomischer Hedonismus Brensin
g
(2017b)
Bauwelt 20, 2019 DE Die Frage ist doch, ob man zusammen
Architektur schaffen kann
Friedrich and Heinich
(2019)
Bkult DE Brauchen wir mehr
Investorenarchitektur?
Gutzmer et al. (2013)
Frankfurter Allgemeine
Zeitun
g
am Sonnta
g
DE Eintönige Neubauten Oberhuber (2017)
German Architects – Quo Vadis 2013
Quo Vadis 2013 DE Was Immobilie und Architektur
unterscheide
t
Baus (2013a)
Quo Vadis 2013 DE Wer die Immobilie zahlt und macht. Baus (2013b)
Quo Vadis 2013 DE Wo Architektur keine Immobilie sein
darf
Baus (2013c)
Immobilienmanager DE Investorenarchitektur eine schwierige
ehe
Hardebusch (2016)
Immobilienmanager DE Gewerbeimmobilien, Baukultur und
Insta
g
ra
m
Beyerle (2021)
Immobilienzeitung DE Allein der Architekt ist verantwortlich Immobilienzeitung
(2002)
Immobilienzeitung DE Wider die Beliebigkeit des Bauens Immobilienzeitung
(2006b)
Immobilienzeitung DE Architekturdebatte: Prinz Charles fehlt
im Chor der Kritike
r
Immobilienzeitung
(2007)
New York Times US Architecture View; Architect vs.
Developer: A curious d
y
namic
Goldberger (1982)
N
eue Zürcher Zeitun
g
CH
N
och (k)eine Lan
g
eweile? Seibold-Bultmann (2014)
NRC NL Architect Nanne de Ru: “Een goed
gebouw zonder goede opdrachtgever
b
estaat niet”.
Hulsman (2021)
86
Table 17 Overview of 31 publications covering the polemic relationship between architecture
and real estate.
4.3.1 77BIssues in publications that cover the debate on the relationship between architecture and
real estate.
Archithese – The Empire of Real Estate: The Architecture of Lucrative
Speculation – April 2014
In the aftermath of the financial crises of 2007 and 2008 the Swiss architecture magazine
Archithese dedicated an entire issue to the relationship of architecture and real estate. The issue
is titled “The Empire State of Real Estate: The Architecture of lucrative speculations” and
contains the following contributions from various authors with a background in architecture
and social sciences.
72TUEditorial, page 8 (Himmelreich and Dreher, 2014)
In the editorial of the issue, the editors pose the questions:
“Who are the main players and what are the goals they pursue, what are the rules they
play by? Which kind of relationships between architects, the building industry, and
developers result from this, and what does this signify for future architectural work?”
(Himmelreich and Dreher, 2014, p. 6).
The editors lament the “disillusioning” state of the architecture that results from the
speculations of the real estate market and states that the ‘real estate sector is a world apart, with
its own laws, values, codes, even its own language’, according to the editors the real estate
sector demonstrates ‘authority of opinion and definition over architecture apart from the actual
profession’. The editors state that the issue looks at the ‘conditions and mechanisms of real
estate’ and conclude ‘that this can be no more than the first step into a larger discourse’.
Furthermore, the editors state that the issue also is ‘an attempt to regain the complex subject
matter for architecture theory and criticism to assess the scope of contemporary architecture’
(Himmelreich et al., 2014, p. 6).
UIssue:U Architecture and Real Estate are worlds apart (D 01). Contemporary architecture lacks a
theoretical foundation that can provide answers on how to deal with architecture driven by
commercial interests (D 02).
72TUKann architektur sich rentieren, pages 24-31 (Kaltenbrunner, 2014)
In the contribution “Kann architektur sich rentieren?” [can architecture be profitable?] The
architect, city planner and director of the Department of Housing and Building of the federal
Institute for Research on Building, Urban Affairs and Spatial Development (Bundesinstitut für
Bau- Stadt- und Raumforschung BBSR) Robert Kaltenbrunner describes the international real
estate fairs MIPIM and EXPO real as places where cities and regions compete to attract the
globally mobile capital of real estate investors. Architectural and urban design are understood
as marketing tools, instrumental to creating city icons that can cause the desired Bilbao effectP1F
2
P.
Architects are reduced to service providers to the real estate sector, and architectural
2 The completion of the Guggenheim Museum in 1997 designed by the US-American architect Frank Gehry
initiated an accelerating urban regeneration of the city of Bilbao, capital of the Basque Country in the North of
Spain. This is called the Bilbao Effect.
87
considerations are reduced to city branding. He continues stating that the monotonous
appearance of many contemporary architectural projects is not only caused by a lack of
creativity on the side of the planners but also due to the increased pressure for standardisation
and floorplan flexibility by the real estate sector. He states that city planning has moved from
an activity driven by political and non-monetary considerations to a privatised and profit-
oriented activity. Nevertheless, he also laments that city planners and designers formulate the
design objectives for cities in vague and unprecise terms, often philosophical instead of
pragmatical in terms of economic developmentP2F
3
P. He concludes the article by stating that ‘the
historical pattern of (city) design and planning is based on - or lives from – the antagonism of
the representative and the ordinary, of dominating and servicing functions’ P3F
4
P (Kaltenbrunner,
2014).
UIssuesU: Architecture is reduced to a marketing instrument (D 03). Architecture has withdrawn
in unprecise philosophical terms, unable to give pragmatical answers (D 04).
72TUÖkonomie, Eitelkeit und Grösse, pages 44-47 (Löffler, 2014)
Most publications that confront architecture and real estate sector characterise the real estate
sector as driven by economic rationality. The contribution Ökonomie, Eitelkeit und Grösse by
the author Günter Löffler is an exception. Mr. Löffler is a professor of finance at the University
of Ulm. In the article, he explores the concept of vanity height and as such illustrates that [real
estate] clients are not exempt from irrational decisions. Vanity height is defined as the height of
a building that exceeds a profitable ratio of construction costs and possible returns of a single
building floor. The higher the building, the more costly its construction. He references the US
Economist Jason Barr, who has shown in his empirical research Skyscraper Height on the height
of New York City's skyscrapers throughout the century that buildings were nevertheless
constructed above their economically profitable height. Barr concludes that aspects of social
status and or personal preferences of the client's leadership must have influenced these from an
economic point of view irrational decisions (Barr, 2012; Löffler, 2014). Mr. Löffler also refers
to a second study, this time a study by three Dutch economists. In their study of office rents in
the cities of Amsterdam, Rotterdam, and Utrecht the authors concluded that office tenants are
willing to pay higher rents for taller buildings. As such the authors see evidence for their
statement that the reason tall buildings arise can not only be explained by “standard economic
theory, which states that tall buildings arise from economizing on land rents” (Koster et al.,
2014). Löffler concludes his article by stating that high-rise construction and the overall
appearance of our cities should not only be understood as the result of a “forcing market
dictation”P4F
5
P of economic rational reasoning (Löffler, 2014).
UIssueU: Architecture is not driven by economic rationality only; it is as much the result of the
personal preference of clients (D 05).
3 For this he refers to the annual city planning conference in Düsseldorf , organised by the German Institut of
Stadtbaukunst at the University of Technology in Darmstadt https://www.stadtbaukunst.de/konferenz/ [accessed
08.06.2023]
4 Translated from German by author; Orginal text: “Das überlieferte Muster der (Stadt)Gestaltung basiert auf –
oder lebt von – dem Antagonismus des Repräsentativen und des Alltäglichen“.
5 Translated from German by author: Orginal citation: “[dem] disziplinierenden Diktat der Märkte“
88
Figure 11 Average additional height in New York City due to spatial competition, 1895–
2004. The empirical study was based on 458 skyscrapers in Manhattan. Graph as
published by Barr (2012).
72TU
Spielräume für Vielfalt, pages 48-53 (Himmelreich, 2014)
The article „Spielräume für Vielfalt“ is an interview with the Swiss architect Pascal Müller by
Jørn Himmelreich, one of the editors of the issue of Archithese discussed in this chapter. The
article discusses the housing project Kalkbreite in the city of Zurich (CH), of which the client
was a housing association with common public interest [Gemeinnützigkeit]. In the article, the
architect Pascal Müller illustrates that clients such as those of the Kalkbreite project show high
commitment to the design brief. They have outspoken ideas on ‘design concepts and lifestyle
patterns’ and strongly identify themselves as users of the building. This is put into contrast with
the attitude of commercially driven clients such as real estate investors that, according to the
architect Pascal Müller, ‘have no interest in who will be living in the building after its
completion. What counts, is that projects can be sold quickly and without problems’. He further
gives examples of marketing classifications of user groups that are then matched to certain
standardized solutions, which according to the architect ‘produces standardised architecture’
(Himmelreich, 2014).
U
Issues
U
: Real estate clients prioritize commercial interests in architecture (D 06). Architects think
real estate clients are not interested in the social and cultural aspects of architecture (D 07).
Ardeth – Money, Economies of Architecture
Ardeth is a biannual magazine on the project of architecture, it does not discuss individual
projects, nor does it discuss individual architects. Instead, it
“concentrates on the flows of forces, often invisible, that gather before, during and after
the moments of architectural creation” (Till, 2018, p. 15).
It consists of an editorial board with scholars in architectural theory from various Italian
universities. Also, editors from German and US universities are present. Each issue is organised
around a theme, to which a guest editor is invited (Ardeth, 2023). The journal illustrates the
discussion in the field of architectural theory on the relationship between architecture and
capitalism. The issue with the title ‘Money, Economies of Architecture’ was guest-edited by
89
Jeremy Till, who is an architecture professor at Central Saint Martins, UAL (UK). The issue
provides a publication that is an illustration of the discussion on the relationship of architecture
and real estate in the field of architectural theory.
72TUMoney, or the Elephant in the Room, pages 5-9 (Frassoldati et al., 2018)
In the opening article of the issue, the editorial board states that
67T“Authors answered the call for papers primarily by considering money as a problematic
matter, one that calls for close unpacking to denounce inequalities and forms of
exploitations, to demystify biased representations, and to unveil latent powers or
opaque systems of speculation. Quite differently from what might have happened in a
journal dedicated to building management or operations research, none of the authors
chose to work on issues of innovation, efficiency, or development of the project of
architecture by tackling its economic dimension in its instrumentality and
(hypothetical) neutrality.” (Frassoldati et al., 2018, pp. 5–6).
Furthermore, reference is given to the 2014 issue of Perspecta (Andrachuk, 2014), citing:
“In 2014, the editors of 'Perspecta' opened the editorial of the thematic issue of the
journal, Money, with these words: 'There is an elephant in the room. It sits at every client
meeting. It chooses every material, and sets length of every cantilever.' And again:
'formless itself, money forms architecture – but the academic community remains hesitant
to broach the subject' “ (Frassoldati et al., 2018, p. 6).
UIssues:U Architectural (academic) community sees money as a problematic manner (D 08).
Architectural (academic) community is hesitant to engage with the subject of money (D 09).
72TUEditorial. The economies of Architecture, pages 15-19 (Till, 2018)
Also, the guest editor Jeremy Till highlights the problematic relationship of the architectural
profession with money and suppression of the subject in the architectural discourse:
"Of all of these flows [the flows of forces that gather before, during and after the creation
of architecture] that of money arguably has the most impact on the projects of
architecture and at the same time has remained suppressed in much architectural
discourse. It is as if talking money in some way besmirches the image of architects as
artists, floating above the concerns of normal life." (Till, 2018, p. 15).
Furthermore, Till highlights the different worlds in which architecture seems to operate:
"The profession has always had a problem in resolving the schism between being a set of
businesses against the desired myth of autonomy, with architecture existing in a world
set apart. It is easier therefore to suppress or ignore the discussion of money, and its
power and influence over the profession" (Till, 2018, p. 15).
Furthermore, the author mentions the problem of spreadsheet domination by professions
outside of the architectural practice:
"Often derided by architects, quantity surveyors take all the complexities of spatial
production and reduce them down to a spreadsheet, over which only they have full
control. At a stroke the project is wrested from the hands and values of one profession,
and from hereon in is overseen by the methods and values of another. Architecture never
really recovers from this moment of severe abstraction: as the bottom line spewed out by
90
the spreadsheet dominates the processes of the project, so the architect is left clinging to
a few remnants of aesthetics and technique." (Till, 2018, p. 15).
Till also highlights the reduced role of the architect
“Where once the architect oversaw the entire process, now they are left swinging in the
wind of economic forces controlled by others. What this financialized system of spatial
production enforces is a single view of value, reducing buildings to commodities in a
chain of exchange” (Till, 2018, p. 16)
Finally, the author states that architecture has become complicit to neoliberalism
“As long as the neoliberal market keeps its stranglehold on political and economic
policies, it will be difficult, if not impossible, for architects to find real points of
resistance” (Till, 2018, pp. 16–17).
UIssuesU: Architectural (academic) community sees money as a problematic manner (D 10).
Architecture is dominated by spreadsheets (D 11). Architects no longer control the process of
design and construction (D12).
72TUThe False Problem of Urbane Design, pages 74 -95 (Torisson, 2018)
The Author Fredrik Torisson is a researcher, author and architect based in Sweden; he is
currently affiliated with the University of Malmö. With the concept of urbane design, Torisson
addresses the instrumentalization of architecture for commercially successful urban
development. In the article this is illustrated by the general belief in urban planning that
facilitating creative class, positively influences the economic development of cities. He argues
that similarly to the “social turn” in artsP5F
6
P, in architecture a social turn can be observed:
“The social turn in architecture can be perceived as a shift of focus from the architectural
object (i.e., the building) onto the social system generated through a participatory design
process.” (Torisson, 2018, p. 76)
albeit Torisson argues that this social turn is instrumentalised for neoliberal purposes. This
instrumentalization of architecture and urban design he defines as urbane design. He further
states that after the publication of Richard Florida’s book The Rise of the Creative Class in
2002, the attraction of the creative class has become a focal point for planning departments
around the world, according to Torisson. He states:
"The stupendously successful reception of Florida’s The Rise of the Creative Class (2002)
in planning departments around the world [ ...], has left planners with a problem. While
The Rise of the Creative Class provides a manifesto-like description of what the exalted
creative class are drawn to, it provides no manual for how to develop these conditions.
Florida’s work is not a design manual as such, and thus the aspirational city that seeks
to re-launch itself as a post-Fordist pamperer of the creatives needs to generate the
conditions, and also produce the creative class itself, and this requires the development
of a strategy. This is where urbane design enters the picture. Urbane design, however,
goes beyond the mere support or nurturing of culture: it actively designs it, and curates
the connections rather than enabling them. Urbane design straddles place-marketing,
6 Torisson cites the art critic Claire Bishop: "Bishop suggests that the social turn emerged in part from New
Labour’s policies that sought to instrumentalise art in the service of society" Torisson (2018, p. 77).
91
urban design, architecture, anticipation production, and a range of other activities."
(Torisson, 2018, pp. 76–77).
In Urbane Design
67T“the organisation of social space is [...] instrumentalized to neoliberal ends.” (Torisson, 2018,
p. 80).
UIssue:U Architecture is instrumentalized as a marketing tool for commercial purposes (D13).
72TUFlows of Architecture, Flows of Capitalism, pages 97-114 (Gough, 2018)
At the time of writing this dissertation, the author Tim Gough was a lecturer in architectural
theory at Kingston University London, school of Art and Architecture. The article opens with
the question.
"How can architecture, a discipline so tightly intertwined with money, resist
neoliberalism? Is architecture inevitably consigned [ ...] to a stoic or eremitic
resignation?" (Gough, 2018, p. 96)
The author concludes that this is not necessarily the case and states:
"Architecture conjugates all sorts of things (“flows”, in the terminology used here) to
create a surplus value beyond (or before) the capitalist surplus value that is only one
negative instance of a broader positive phenomenon." (Gough, 2018, p. 96).
The article is an illustration of the struggle that can be observed in the field of architectural
theory with the political and economic powers of capitalism or neoliberalism. The author argues
that architecture must be understood as a ‘haecceity’ a ‘thisness’ and continues:
"What the architect should properly intend to create, therefore, is not a building, not a
solidity, but this difference, this individual or haecceity or particular surplus value of
architecture that consists of a synthesis or conjunction, within which the subject and
object are not pre-determined, and which takes into account the responsibility of
architecture to engage with a multitude of flows – including the political and economic
ones which seem dominated by capitalism." (Gough, 2018, p. 111).
He concludes the article by stating:
"There is in reality no massive being of capitalism, if by that is implied a solid block that
must be gradually hacked away or destroyed in one act of revolution. Certainly, there is
a massive effectiveness of capitalism, but this derives not from its solidity but from its
ability to harness flows for the creation of surplus value." (Gough, 2018, p. 112)
UIssuesU: Architecture is dominated by capitalism (D14). Contemporary architecture lacks a
theoretical foundation that can provide answers to how to deal with architecture driven by
commercial interests (D 15). Architecture has withdrawn in unprecise philosophical terms,
unable to give pragmatical answers (D 16).
72TUTeaching the Value of Work, 117-133 (Groth, 2018)
The author Megan Groth is an adjunct faculty at Woodbury University in Los Angeles –
Burbank. The article
92
“[...] explores the complexities of the value prescribed to architecture work by
considering three different value systems – economic value, professional value and
personal value – to suggest practical ways that the architecture design studio teaching
can be augmented to better provide students with skills in the learning environment that
will help them thrive in the labour environment." (Groth, 2018, p. 118).
Within the economic value system, she criticises the general habit that fees for architectural
work are usually billed as a percentage of the construction cost. According to Groth this
"[…] links architecture work directly to the building material costs and short term
market forces out of the control of the architect, and creates a conflict of interest between
the architect as the owner’s agent who works (sometimes more hours) to keep the building
cost low for the owner and the architect who would like to be well-compensated for her
work[…]. By tying the economic value of the architect’s work to the finished built
product, work is only valued in relation to the short-term economic goals of the client –
the leasing or selling of the building after completion – without incorporating the long-
term economic or social value of the building (Groth, 2018, p. 119).
Groth continues:
"By tying the economic value of the architect’s work to the finished built product, work is
only valued in relation to the short-term economic goals of the client – the leasing or
selling of the building after completion – without incorporating the long-term economic
or social value of the building." (Groth, 2018, p. 119)
67T“In order to teach expanded ethics, we need to teach a more critical understanding of
context in architecture that is not simply form based but includes a sense of the global
and local networks in which architects work and build. Architecture is a deeply social
process and yet it is valued as an aesthetic pursuit, independent of the messy power
structures inherent to it. Architectural form is seen both externally and internally as a
reflection of the society that produced it and architects must take a stand in regards to
how their work affects themselves and others in society.”67T (Groth, 2018, p. 120)
67T"This shift from working for public clients with long term social and financial goals to
speculative private developers that rely on impatient capital to build for market trends
means that today’s architects are being asked to do a fundamentally different type of
work. This work is often tailored to a proforma that doesn’t value ‘the public good’,
relying on the private monetization of the public realm and taking on a higher amount of
risk. Despite this, most architects are concerned with issues of social and economic
justice and believe that architecture has a role in those issues (Crawford, 1991). This
leaves architects hiding their ulterior motives of design excellence, social responsibility,
design innovation & attention to the public realm from clients, often not billing them for
hours that are worked."67T (Groth, 2018, p. 120)
UIssueU: Remuneration issues withhold architects from sharing social and cultural aspects of
design and the public good of architecture from clients (D17).
The Art of Inequality, Architecture, Housing and real estate: a provisional
report – 2015
The report is a publication of the Temple Hoyne Buell Center for the Study of the American
Architecture of Columbia University in New York City (US) on the long-term research project
on architecture, housing, and socioeconomic inequality. Although the focus of the research
93
project is different from the topic of this thesis, the report contains observations on the
relationship between architecture and real estate that are illustrative of this thesis.
72TUIntroduction, pages 10-14 (Martin et al., 2015a)
In the introduction of the report, emphasis is put on the place of architecture in the system of
housing production:
“[…Architecture] does not come after economic forces (those mysterious representatives
of ‘the economy’) have done their work. Architecture actively participates at every step,
simply because there is no housing without architecture, however humbly defined or
constrained its authors – architects, designers, policymakers, developers, bankers,
residents, etc. may feel” (Martin et al., 2015a, p. 11).
And continues with a statement on the socio-economic importance of the relationship of
architecture and real estate:
“Understood most blatantly as the form given to real estate, but also as an arrangement
of material things that makes real estate possible, architecture thus becomes both
evidence and instrument of growing socioeconomic divides” (Martin et al., 2015a, p. 12)
UIssue:U Architecture has been reduced to a form given to real estate (D19).
72TUDesigning Inequality pages 60-85
In the chapter Designing Inequality the authors identify ways in which architecture has
intersected with political and financial efforts. In this chapter, they also state that:
“What we seem to have forgotten is to look at the underlying structure, called real estate
development, which has also been designed. Inequality, architecture, and real estate
development are intimately connected, each unable to exist without the others. Over the
years, this fraught comingling has allowed real estate development, perhaps the least
questioned of the three actors, to achieve statistical, discursive, and artistic dominance.
This artful hegemony is designed. For designers to affect it, they must first apprehend it,
recognizing their role in its perpetuation and coming to terms with the necessary,
uncomfortable contradictions therein. In this recognition—working to reimagine the
terms through which architecture both illuminates and engages with the world, in a
proportionally scaled response to real estate development’s own planetary
machinations—architects will necessarily confront seemingly intractable challenges.
This intractability is present, once again, by design, since real estate has come not simply
to artfully manage the architectural imagination; but rather to govern it—with all the
enforcement measures that implies. The response therefore, within and without
architecture, will always be principally political in nature.” (Moore and Schindler, 2015,
p. 81)
UIssueU: Domination of architecture by the real estate sector requires political answers (D 20).
72TUReal Estate Agency, pages 92-133
In the chapter Real Estate Agency, the director of the research institute Reinhold Martin
describes to what extent real estate and real estate capital “govern” architecture, and that
inequality which is addressed in the research project is “an intentional consequence of the real
estate system”. In the chapter, he further states that
94
“[…] architecture is more than just an artful overlay or disguise that covers up the
unsavory equations driving real estate development spreadsheets. It is a prerequisite.
Even in its crudest form, or in its most latent (as an 'architecture without architects'
designed and built, say, by real estate developers), architecture plays into every
calculation, if only as the material form taken by any quantity of usable—and rentable,
or saleable—space. It does not do so merely as what economists call an 'externality', or
an incalculable quality that contributes to value, as in the real-estate mantra, 'location,
location, location'.” (Martin, 2015, p. 94).
UIssueU: Architectural design is not an external - optional - design feature, it is inherent to any
construction activity (D 21).
Baukultur! 2005
UArchitektur als Investment, pages 86-93 (Kähler, 2005)
In the annual report of the year 2005 of the federal Institute for BaukulturP6F
7
P [Bundessstiftung
Baukultur] the architectural historian, architectural critic and publicist Gerd Kähler made an
early reference to the term Investorenarchitektur. He states that the term appeared in Germany
shortly after the publication of the pamphlet Die Unwirtlichkeit unserer Städte [the inhospitality
of our cities] originally published in 1965 by the German psychoanalyst and writer Alexander
Mitscherlich (Mitscherlich, 1965). According to Kähler, the term was used to describe buildings
designed by architects with an attitude that was based on cost-reduction and return optimization.
Kähler states that since then - shortly after 1965 – the cliché has risen that good architecture
can only be realised out of non-commercial motives. He continues to comment that vice versa
the term Investorenarchitektur could imply that for buildings that are constructed with a
financial return objective, any design aspiration can be waived that does not match the
“capitalistic logic of return”. He contemplates that it is perhaps this prejudicial understanding
that has caused so many construction clients and capital investors to simply neglect the human,
qualitative, aesthetic, and urbanistic appealing aspects of architecture. He laments that real
estate clients and investors who nevertheless do respect these aspects are eccentric, falsely
reducing their motives for good architecture to marketing or PR considerations. According to
Kähler the small and medium-sized businesses that show to be amongst the exceptions of
construction clients that dare to take a holistic standpoint towards the architecture, including all
aspects of what is commonly referred to as Baukultur (Kähler, 2005).
UIssueU: Cliché that good architecture can only be realised with non-commercial motives (D 22).
Bauwelt - Im Haifischbecken - March 2017
For the third issue of the year 2017 of the German architecture journal Bauwelt the journalist
Jan Friedrich visited the real estate fair and networking event MIPIM of 2016 in Cannes (FR).
At the event, he encountered many architects that according to him never had been put into
relation with large real estate investors and developers. He notices that avoidance of
engagement in Investorenarchitektur no longer seems to be problematic for these architects.
According to him, these architects dare to enter the lion’s den [Haifischbecken] of financial
investors, real estate agents, lawyers, and real estate developers. He questions if this is a “chance
7 In 2005 the institute was still in its founding phase, the report was officially issued by the federal ministry of
Traffic, Construction and Housing.
95
for the improvement of the quality of our cities”. The issue contains several contributions that
cover the distressed relationship between architecture and the real estate sector.
Figure 12 The Cover Page of issue 3.2017 of the German architecture Journal Bauwelt. Photo
on cover by S. d’Halloy/Image & Co.
72TUArchitektur, zu Markte getragen, pages 22-23 (Escher, 2017)
The article written by Gudrun Escher for the major part is a historical review of the real estate
fairs MIPIM in Cannes (FR) and Expo Real in Munich (DE). She describes that the MIPIM had
started in 1990 as a networking event for the international (global) real estate industry then
emerging from the finance sector, to be followed by the Expo Real in Munich in 1997. She
continues to describe that from 2001 onwards also architects were present at the fair, and as of
2005 also cities were increasingly present as exhibiting participants. She concludes that both
architecture and cities have become branding items for the real estate sector (Escher, 2017).
UIssueU: Real estate sector has instrumentalized architecture for commercial purposes (D 23).
72TUWenn man prezise plant, lassen sich schöne Dinge realisieren, ohne dass die Rendite zu stark
sinkt, pages 24-25 (Friedrich and Brensing, 2017b)
The article is an interview held by the architecture journalists Jan Friedrich and Christoph
Bensing with Alexander Möll and Christoph Reschke, who were in 2017 managing directors of
the German development branch of the internationally operating US real estate developer
96
Hines. Asked about when architects are involved in a project, the director Möll answers that
architects are only included in later stages of the project “when a story is needed”, initial
planning and cost calculation is done in-house. On the question of what an architect should do
to gain the interest of Hines for her*his services, the director Reschke answers that the architect
should present its added value to the project. This is according to Reschke best expressed by
creativity on saving construction costs, to which the director Möll adds the example of [amongst
other expertise] the architect’s in-depth knowledge of regulations that could save façade
isolation. Asked about their definition of excellent architecture the developers answer that this
is defined by “class A architecture”, which is according to the developers a kind of building
that is “profitable, looks good, is appreciated by the user and not to forget is found by financial
investors”P7F
8
P. Asked about the quality of the buildings that are developed, the managing director
Möll answers that this is increasingly set by a demand from financial investors, expressed in
certifications and sustainability labels. On the question of what the most important changes in
the real estate sector were in recent years, the directors mention the increased globalisation and
the increased separation of labour and capital: “In former times the big financial investors
[insurance companies, open and closed-end investment funds] all had in-house development
department, nowadays they buy this labour as external service”. According to the directors, the
contemporary management boards of these financial investors have a different attitude toward
architecture than the management boards that still oversee an internal development department.
To this, the director Reschke adds “Today you have someone sitting there [in the management
board of the financial investor, Ed.] that says: ‘I give the money, I want a good piece of real
estate. Architecture? I don’t want to be involved, I want to have a return [on the investment,
Ed.], I don’t want to have this and that risk’P8F
9
P’’. He states that decisions in the real estate sector
have increasingly rationalised, “the individual artistic taste [of the management board, Ed.]
plays a minor role”P9F
10
P. Asked about his experience on the prejudice that architecture costs
money, the director Möll counters the prejudice that real estate investors only look at the
financial interest, immediately admitting that this prejudice in some cases indeed may be true.
He further poses a general question of what investments in architectural quality bring from the
perspective of the financial investor or real estate developer, stating that this describes “the
conflict of the budget-responsible with the artistP10F
11
P”, which can only be solved by a cooperation
[between the architect and the real estate developer, Ed.] that makes sense. The interviewers
state that many real estate developers dictate the organisational concept and floor plans of a
building in architectural competitions, causing architects to feel reduced to “pretty-makers”
[“Behübscher”]. Asked about his vision on this statement the director Möll answers that in his
experience it is not very common that architects have the competency to develop a highly
efficient internal organisation, that fits particularly good the project particularly well.
According to Möll, it is better to dictate the internal side of the building and look with the
architect “for a sculpture, a dress” for the outer appearance of the building. Finally, the
interview closes with the statement of the director Reschke: “When one takes the effort and
designs with precision, one can create beautiful things. One can integrate various items without
8 „Ein Gebäude, das wirtschaftlich ist, das gut aussieht, in dem der Nutzer sich wohlfühlt – und, das dürfen wir
nicht vergessen, das auch seine Investoren findet.“
9 “Heute haben Sie dort jemanden, der sagt: ‘Ich gebe das Geld, ich will eine gute Immobilie. Architektur? Da will
ich gar nicht involviert sein, ich will die und die Rendite haben, die und Risiken will ich nicht.’”
10“Der individuelle künstlerische Geschmack spielt eine geringere Rolle“.
11 „Das ist der Konflikt des Budget-Verantwortlichen mit dem Künstler.“
97
losing an eye on affordability and profitability. It is a question of aspiration: Will one in ten
years still be proud of what one has realised”P11F
12
P (Friedrich and Brensing, 2017b).
UIssuesU: The Real Estate sector dominates architectural design (D 24). Architecture is understood
as an external design feature (D 25). Architects have lost the competence to develop efficient
floor plans (D 26). Architects are understood as artists (D 27).
72TUDas Ursprungsinteresse des Investors liegt nicht in der Architektur, Sie ist Mittel zum Zweck,
pages 26 and 27 (Brensing, 2017a)
The article is an interview between the journalist Christian Brensing and the architect and
emeritus professor of architecture Rainer Hascher (TU Berlin). Asked about the changes in the
relationship between clients and architects, Rainer Hascher mentions that the client-user has
become very rare. Large firms delegate the development of their demand for buildings to real
estate developers. Acting as a middleman between the user and the designer, the developer does
not identify with the building. In working for developers, the focus of building design has
changed toward creating a maximum of floorspace, states the architect. The journalist addresses
that it could be the role of city planning to secure the quality of the built environment. In his
reaction, Rainer Hascher states that for this it would only work if the [German, Ed.] communal
planning offices are staffed with competent employees who dare to challenge the designs that
are submitted by the real estate developers. Furthermore, Hascher mentions the role of
stararchitects, which he defines as “somebody [architects, Ed.] that have an international and
national reputation […] to successfully represent the interests of the financial investors in the
discussion with city councils and communal planning offices”P12F
13
P. He concludes by stating that
through startarchitects high-quality architecture is possible, however, the interest of the real
estate client in architecture remains instrumental for financial return (Brensing, 2017a).
UIssuesU: Competent urban design should secure architectural quality (D 28). As middleman real
estate developers do not identify with the architecture of the buildings as users do (D 29). Real
estate instrumentalizes architecture for financial return (D 30).
72TUJeder Weiterverkauf eines Grundstücks kostet Architekturqualität, pages 34-35 (Friedrich,
2017c)
The article is an interview between the journalist Jan Friedrich and the German architect Eike
Becker. The office of Eike Becker mainly has clients out of the real estate sector. In the article,
the architect Becker highlights that the real estate agents, lawyers, real estate developers,
institutional investors, private investors, architects, and engineers that meet at real estate fairs
such as MIPIM are very different types of people with all different a focus on the built
environment. He states that the question of the group of architects – “What is the design of the
cities for the society that we desire?”P13F
14
P is not the top question of the real estate sector.
Furthermore, he states that a systemic problem causes the loss of innovation in architecture. He
illustrates this by the example of an architect who manages to increase the maximum
12 „Wenn man sich die Mühe machte und präzise plant, kann man schone Sachen realisieren, verschiedene Dinge
integrieren, ohne dass die Rendite so stark herunterfährt, dass wir uns es nicht mehr leisten können. Nicht zuletzt
ist das eine Frage des Anspruchs: Wird man in zehn Jahren noch stolz sein auf das, was man gemacht hat.“
13 „Jemand [Architekt*innen, Ed.], der international wie national einen Ruf hat, dem man zutraut, dass er in der
Auseinandersetzung mit dem Gemeinderat und mit dem Stadtplanungsamt die Interessen des Investors gut
vertritt.“
14 „Wie sehen die Städte aus, für die Gesellschaft, die wir uns wünschen?“
98
permissible floor space of an unbuilt plot in the initial phases of design through a smart
interpretation of zoning and planning laws. The additional floor spaces will increase the value
of the land, which is an incentive for the resale of the property. Het states that “the new owner
will do the same job with a new architect”. According to Becker, this causes a chain reaction
with an upward speculation of the value of the land value. In the end, the built-up architecture
has to compensate for the overall increased costs of the project, “each resale costs quality of
architecture”. He concludes that the described speculative chain is only one of many points in
the Planning and Construction process that need to be improved (Friedrich, 2017c).
UIssues:U Architects and real estate developers have different questions to architecture (D 31).
Speculation mechanisms of the real estate sector obstruct architectural quality (D 32).
72TUEs ist einfacher, die gemischte Stadt zu bauen, als gemischt genutzte Gebäude, pages 38-39
(Friedrich and Brensing, 2017a)
The article is an interview of the journalists Jan Friedrich and Christian Brensing with Martin
Rodeck. Rodeck is the managing director of the German branch of the Dutch Real Estate
Developer OVG. Rodeck states that architects and engineers are part of the real estate sector,
just as owners, investors, developers, construction companies and lawyers are. The journal
counters that there are architects who do not feel themselves a part of this group, and who refer
to the architecture produced by the sector with the vilifying term “Investorenarchitektur”. On
this term Rodeck counters that the sector should gain respect for what they build, given the
financial risks that are involved. He admits that some of the projects that are built by the sector
are of mediocre quality, but he also states: “There are also projects where the architect has
asserted her*himself as an artist, and of which I am happy that they are not mine” P14F
15
P (Friedrich
and Brensing, 2017a).
UIssuesU: Architects are reluctant to engage with real estate clients (D 33). The real estate sector
is missing recognition of commercial interests by architects (D 34). Real estate developer has
architectural preferences (D 35).
72TUSozio-ökonomischer Hedonismus, pages 40-43 (Brensing, 2017b)
The article presents a discussion on the real estate fair MIPIM, which the journalist Christian
Brensing typifies as the “Summit party of totally commercialized architecture” P15F
16
P. Brensing
references the philosopher German Theodor Adorno (1903-1969) and his famous book
Dialectics of Enlightenment, originally published in 1947P16F
17
P, which Adorno wrote together with
the philosopher Max Horkheimer (1895-1973). In their book the philosophers present (amongst
others) a dialectic analysis of the powers of capital and technology, and conclude that “terror
and civilisation are inseparable” (Tar, 1975). Brensing suggests that architects need to “cultivate
a watchful attitude towards the MIPIM as defined by Adorno”P17F
18
P (Brensing, 2017b).
UIssueU: Architecture withdraws into abstract philosophy (D 36).
15 “Es gibt aber genauso Projekte, in denen sich erkennbar der Architekt als Künstler verwirklicht hat, bei denen
ich wiederum sagen würde: ‘Zum Glück ist es nicht meins’”
16 „Das Gipfelfest der total kommerzialisierten Architektur“.
17 An english translation was first published in 1975.
18 „Wie man als Architekt – im Sinne Adornos – der MIPIM gegenüber eine Wachsame Haltung kultiviert, […]“
99
Bauwelt - Oktober 2019
72TUDie Frage ist doch, ob man zusammen Architektur erschaffen kann, pages 12-15
The article is an interview between the journalists Jan Friedrich and Nadine Heinich with the
architects Helga Blockdorf, Andreas Kreft and Clemens Nuyken, and the developers Christian
Meister and Tobias Sauerbier. The architects are all owners of their firm or senior partners. The
developers are both on the management boards of large nationally and internationally operating
real estate developers. All interviewed architects and developers are in their forties.
Some of the interviewed architects were participants at a speed-dating event between
developers and architects at the ‘Architecture Matters’ conference in April 2019 that was
organised by Nadine Heinich. Neidich states that some architects declined the invitation to meet
the developers by arguing that they preferred – as she paraphrased - “to be artists”P18F
19
P. The
architect Nuyken reacts to this statement by confirming that at least some young architects do
not want to be involved with ‘Investorenarchitektur’ and adds that the architect is “not a
salesperson that goes from door to door but would like to recommend her*himself by her*his
buildings”.
On the question if the developers sometimes would prefer to work without architects, the
developer Thomas Sauerbier answers that this is not something he would prefer. Nevertheless,
he adds that certain architectural offices have attitudes with which one cannot deal with, nor
would be willing to deal with. Sauerbier states “After all, it’s a relationship between a client
[the developer] and someone providing a service [the architect], one should accept this”P19F
20
P,
adding “as architect one should protect and preserve one's principles and positions, but at the
same time one should also be able to rethink these and in this sense cooperate [with the client]”P20F
21
P
(Friedrich and Heinich, 2019).
UIssues:U Architects are reluctant to engage with real estate clients (D 37). Some architects prefer
to emphasize artistic aspects (D 38). Real Estate client sees architectural principles as exclusive
to the architect (D 39).
Bkult.de - 2013
UBrauchen wir mehr Investorenarchitektur? (Gutzmer et al., 2013)
The online discussion platform www.bkult.de was an initiative of the architecture and urban
design publishing house Ruby Press from Berlin. In 2012, 2013 and 2014, it presented 34
debates on topics related to Baukultur. Every 4 weeks it presented a new debate. Each debate
was accompanied by a question, to which the invited contributors could react with yes, no or
neither yes or no. In July and August of 2013, a debate was initiated on the question “Brauchen
wir mehr Investorenarchitektur? [do we need more architecture by real estate investors]?”. The
debate contained 42 reactions from contributors with a background in architecture, journalism,
and education. Only one contributor had an indirect background in real estate. None of the
invited respondents from the real estate sector participated in the discussion. Of the respondents
19 „ich bin lieber Künstler“
20 „Schließlich ist es ein Auftragnehmer-Auftraggeber-Verhältnis. Das muss man akzeptieren“.
21 „[…] als Architekt muss man einen Weg finden, seine Haltung zu den Dingen zu wahren, gleichzeitig aber auch
zum Umdenken in der Sache bereit sein und in diesem Sinne mitarbeiten“.
100
that voted yes or no 79% of the respondents voted with no, and 21% of the respondents voted
yes. The online debate was edited by the architectural journalist Alexander Gutzmer (Gutzmer
et al., 2013). Most of the contributions suggested that architecture by real estate investors should
be guided by urban planning and design policies. A Selection of the contributions is presented
in Table 18 below.
Contributor Vote Background/
Profession
Issue
Christoph
In
g
enhoven
Yes
Architecture Real estate investors are not cold capitalists but
should be
g
uided (D 40).
Ivo Bozic No Journalist Real estate investments should be guided by
urban plannin
g
and desi
g
n policies (D 41).
Ursula Baus No Journalist Real estate is represented by firms rather than by
individuals (D 42).
Kristin Wellner Neither
yes or
no
Education (Real Estate
chair in Architecture)
There is a problem with user representation and
architectural identification in real estate projects
(D 43).
Sven Silcher No Architecture More focus should be put on better processes of
all participants in architecture (D 44).
Christoph Roedig No Architecture Instruments for guidance of architectural quality
are missin
g
(D 45).
Volker Eich Yes Architecture Architecture can only be successful if it
represents a shared value of the client, architect
and public (D 46).
Dieter Hoffmann-
Axthelm
Neither
yes or
no
Architecture Real estate investments should be guided by
urban planning and design policies (D 47).
Florian Fischer Neither
yes or
no
Architecture Real estate investments should be guided by
urban planning and design policies (D 48).
Kristin Ring Yes Architecture Organise development processes in such a way
that involves the real estate sector in all
architectural questions (D 49).
Calle Petzinka No Architecture Real estate investments should be guided by
urban plannin
g
and desi
g
n policies (D 50).
Florian Schmidt No Sociology Instruments for guidance of architecture should
be redefined, based on broad support from
societ
y
(D 51).
Table 18 Selection of contributions in the online debate Brauchen wir mehr
Investorenarchitektur? reduced to the main issue of the contribution (Gutzmer et al., 2013)
Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung am Sonntag 2017
UEintönige Neubauten (Oberhuber, 2017)
In the article, the journalist Nadine Oberhuber discusses the many monotonous, large-scale
building blocks that recently have risen in many German cities. She wonders what architects
think of the rationalistic and monotonous architectural designs and refers to the architecture of
the 1920’ies and 1930’ies that abolished all decorative elements and might have set out the
directions for the current rationalistic thinking in architectural design. According to Oberhuber,
this movement has evolved into the characterless architectural style that is currently filling
German cities.
Oberhuber also refers to the Bkult discussion (Gutzmer et al., 2013) stating that the vast
majority of respondents voted against more Investorenarchitektur. She also mentions that those
101
respondents who gave a positive vote only voted positive because of the importance of the real
estate sector in national building production.
She furthermore refers to the architecture journalist Niklas Maak, who states that the building
sector is going through a phase of ‘radical economization’. Oberhuber also asked the architect
and architectural historian Werner Durth, who states that the foundations of architecture should
be firmness [Beständigkeit], utility [Gebrauchsfähigkeit] and beauty [Schönheit]P21F
22
P. Oberhuber
continues to state that the German Federal Association of Baukultur (Bundesstiftung Baukultur)
admits that the building sector puts financial return above anything else.
Then Oberhuber doubted that the current rationalist style is something one ‘simply gets used
to’, as one also got used to other architectural styles from the past. She refers to Werner Durth,
who states that in the end judgement of architectural beauty is subjective and therefore cannot
be defined. Oberhuber then puts Durth’s position into contrast with results from a research
project on architectural beauty by finance professor Friedrich Thießen (TU Chemnitz).
According to Thießen, 95% of the respondents preferred the eclectic architectural styles and
appearance of the large 19th-century urban expansion areas present in many German cities, the
so-called Gründerzeit areas. Oberhuber also states that Thießen found out that most of the
respondents are willing to pay up to double as much for this type of architecture as they would
for projects from a different style or period.
Finally, Oberhuber doubts if the architecture of the 19th century should be taken as a
Benchmark for the 21st century but concludes that the pleasing effects and internal qualities of
the architecture from this time should be taken as food for thought in contemporary architectural
education. (Oberhuber, 2017). P22F
23
UIssuesU: Contemporary architecture by real estate investors should take an example of 19th-
century architecture (D 52). The Real Estate sector dominates architectural design (D 53).
22 The foundations mentioned by Wernder Durth are in line with the Vitruvian principles of architecture; firmess,
uitlity and attractiveness. Oberhuber does not mention this in her article.
23 The article also mentions this dissertation project. My remarks on Investorenarchitektur mentioned by
Oberhuber have been left out of consideration in this reduction.
102
Figure 13 The Article „Eintönige Neubauten“ with a picture of the Europa-Allee in Frankfurt
am Main. Photo by Frank Röth (Oberhuber, 2017).
German Architects – Quo Vadis – 2013
On the occasion of participation in an annual networking event of German Real Estate leaders
Quo Vadis in 2013, the architecture publicist Ursula Baus published a series of 3 articles on the
architecture platform www.german-architects.com. Quo Vadis is an initiative of Bernd Heuer,
owner and founder of Heuer Dialog. Heuer Dialog is a networking organisation with a focus
on the real estate sector in German-speaking countries. Furthermore, Heuer Dialog is the editor
of the German Real Estate Newspaper Immobilienzeitung. He also was the founding partner of
the first MIPIM real estate fair (Friedrich and Brensing, 2017a).
She reports:
“from a world where hardly anyone speaks about architecture, but decisions are made on
architecture
P23F
24
P
” and from an event where architects are according to her absent because “[…],
they seldomly dare to enter into the real estate lion’s den
P24F
25
P
” (Baus, 2013a).
72TU
Was Immobilie und Architektur unterscheidet (Baus, 2013a)
In the first article titled “Was Immobilie und Architektur unterscheidet” she observes the
separation of the worlds of architecture and real estate, stating that in real estate economic and
financial arguments have a higher value than those of architecture and city planning. She also
concluded that the sector has an inward focus, considering less about common values of
architecture and city planning. Nevertheless, she emphasises that the sector has a large
24 „[…], in der von Architektur kaum die Rede ist, aber über Architektur entschieden wird“.
25 „[…], sie trauen sich selten ins Gehege der Immobilienwirtschaftslöwen“.
103
sensibility for political processes since many if not all its projects are highly dependent on
public decision-makers in the field of construction and city planning. She laments the absence
of architects, who only seem to involve themselves reluctantly (if at all) to secure assignments
for their offices rather than to engage in a discussion on architecture and city planning. She
concludes that for successful architecture both in terms of commercial and architectural success
a balance between the interest in architectural design, systemic economic imperatives and city
planning is necessary (Baus, 2013a).
UIssueU: Architecture and real estate are in separate worlds (D 54). Architects are reluctant to
engage in the world of real estate (D 55).
72TUWer die Immobilie zahlt und macht (Baus, 2013b)
In the second article with the title “Wer die Immobilie zahlt und macht” she takes a closer look
at the participants involved. She separates the participants into a group that is primarily
involved, and a group that is secondarily involved. The first group consists of bankers,
investors, wealthy investing citizens, developers, and politicians. The second group consists of
construction engineers, architects, and real estate agents. She laments that processes between
the two groups are not transparent enough. She characterises bankers and investors as “homo
economicus”, and politicians as “modern machiavellists” that put the means to achieve their
political goals concerning city planning above moral considerations. According to the author,
the group of architects and engineers limits itself to that of the “homo technicalus”, their
philosophical or societal contribution concerning the common good of architecture and city
planning seldomly comes to the forefront. She highlights that in most architectural education
the emphasis is put on cultural elements of architecture, neglecting elements of economy,
finance, and organisation. Although she says this might be a cause for the general allegation
that architects are simply not able to effectively cooperate with the world of real estate, she also
mentions that in practice many architects have repositioned themselves in continuing real estate
education programs and are currently actively servicing the real estate sector. She concludes
that the real estate sector cannot function without the contribution of architects, and therefore
sees a high responsibility towards the architectural sector concerning the disputable quality of
the properties around the globe for which the real estate sector is responsible (Baus, 2013b).
UIssuesU: Real Estate sector is primarily driven by commercial interests (D 56). Architects need
to educate themselves on economic and financial topics (D 57).
72TUWo Architektur keine Immobilie sein darf. (Baus, 2013c)
In the final article titled “Wo Architektur keine Immobilie sein darf” she deliberates on
systematic issues that according to her cause the difficult relationship between architecture and
the real estate sector. She highlights that where architecture might be a return-driving
commodity for the real estate sector on the one hand it is also a common good for our societies
that must ensure “affordable housing […], nurseries, schools, universities, town-halls, courts of
justice and educational facilitiesP25F
26
P”. She laments that the market logic that is driving the real
estate sector has overtaken architecture and calls, drawing from Michael Sandel (Sandel 2013),
for a renegotiation on where capitalist market logic is allowed to dominate architecture and
where not. She continues to highlight that architectural education is to such an extent permeated
by an ideology that it blocks itself in a general, inclusive approach as it is described with the
26“bezahlbarer Wohnraum […], Kita, Schule, Hochschule, Rathaus, Gericht oder Bildungseinrichting“.
104
term Baukultur. Finally, she states that architecture is increasingly being polarised between a
return-bringing investment vehicle on the one hand and expensive tax-consuming projects of
architectural prestige on the other. She concludes with the statement that above all architecture
should guarantee “the basic need of housing and an amiable backdrop for human existence26F27”
(Baus, 2013c).
UIssuesU: Architecture has polarised between projects driven by financial return and prestige
design on the other (D 58). The everyday aspect of quality in architecture is lost (D59).
Immobilienmanager
72TUInvestorenarchitektur, eine schwierige ehe, 2016 (Hardebusch, 2016)
The author of the article Christoph Hardebusch is managing director at Rueckerconsult, a
German real estate communications consultancy firm. At the time of writing the article, he was
responsible editor of the magazine Immobilienmanager.
For the article, the author spoke with 3 leaders in German real estate development and
investment (Thomas Hohwieler of Strabag Real Estate, Markus Wiedemann of Art-Invest and
Robert Bambach of Commerz Real) and one architect (Andreas Sattler). In the article, the
advantages and disadvantages of architectural price competition are discussed. According to
Hardenbusch architectural design competitions are a focal point in discussion on architectural
quality.
Hardenbusch states that many developers have a high appreciation for architectural
competitions, which he illustrates with a statement of a developer: ‘Price competitions enable
citizens and municipalities to articulate themselves. With the help of price competitions, it is
easier to arrange a wide consensus [on a design]’. Hardebusch also mentions that design
competitions are an economic risk for architecture firms, that is difficult to grasp. The work on
design competitions requires a substantial investment of work hours for employees and other
additional investments such as visualisations and models, of which an appropriate remuneration
is unclear or absent. The architect, as stated by Hardebusch, therefore declines to participate on
so open competitions without financial compensation, and states only to participate in
competitions by invitation that include financial compensation for every submission.
According to Hardebusch developers do not see partial compensation for price competitions as
problematic: ‘In the end they also make their [property, Ed.] acquisitions at their own risk’.P27F
28
Hardebusch further mentions that many architects have difficulty accepting that even after
winning a design competition, the final assignment is granted often to another architectural
firm. The architect therefore wishes to include a paragraph in calls for competitions, that
guarantee the assignment to the winning architecture firm. On this point one developer counters
that they would like to remain flexible and have to freedom to also assign the second or third
architectural office in line and as such secure ‘that all necessary requirements of a design can
also be met’P28F
29
P. For this reason, this developer normally only assigns the winning architectural
office for the design phases up to the planning application and leaves it up to the construction
company if the architect also is assigned for the final and construction design phases. If a third
27 “[…] außerdem das Grundbedürfnis des Wohnens garantieren und im öffentlichen Raum einen liebenswerten
Rahmen für das menschliche Dasein bieten“.
28 “Schließlich tätigen sie auch ihre für die Akquisition erforderlichen Summen auf eigenes Risiko.”
29 “[…] sämtliche für uns maßgebliche Anforderungen für eine Planung auch erfüllt werden können”
105
party is assigned for the final and construction design phases, the architect responsible for the
initial design will be assigned with ‘artistic management’P29F
30
P of the final and construction design
phase.
Hardebusch adds that it might not be the best idea if one architect is responsible for one design
phase, calling upon a statement of one developer that there are generally three types of
architectural offices: those with high competency in design, those who are competent in both
design and realisation and those that have specialised on realisation only. According to this
developer also the technical competencies of architectural offices are extremely important. If
this fails ‘the client most likely will pay the price’P30F
31
P.
Another developer laments the problem of ‘optical tricks’ in the renderings that are presented
in architectural competitions. The fact that these renderings do not always meet reality is often
overlooked by jury members who are not architectural or technical laymen. According to
Hardebusch, these unrealistic renderings lead to what is scolded Investorenarchitektur.
The article closes with a discussion on the quality of architecture. According to the developers
cited by Hardebusch, it is difficult to appreciate the added value of ‘better’ architecture at the
beginning of a project. Nevertheless, on ‘core-locations’ institutional investors prefer high-end
buildings that can develop into brands, stating: ‘And this brand should be more than just an
empty marketing envelope’P31F
32
P. According to one of the developers interviewed by Hardebusch,
the architectural design should be of all times [zeitlos], which means: ‘clearly organised
architecture with orthogonal structures and without playfulness. It should not be possible to
recognise the from which time or epoch the building origins’.
Finally, Hardebusch closes the article with the statement of a developer that ‘Finally, and this
cannot be neglected by either architects, cities and especially not the developers or investors,
the maximum achievable market rents at a certain location decides how much money can be
spent on a building’P32F
33
P. (Hardebusch, 2016)
UIssueU: The real estate sector understands architecture primarily as artistic design, differentiating
between artistic, technical, and operational competencies (D 60).
72TUGewerbeimmobilien, Baukultur und Instagram, 2021 (Beyerle, 2021)
The article is a contribution of Prof. Dr. Thomas Beyerle, who is the head of research at Catella
Project Management, a large European developer and investment manager. Furthermore, Mr.
Beyerle is also a professor of Real Estate and Real Estate Research at the University of Applied
Sciences in Biberach (DE).
In the article Beyerle questions who is to decide what ‘Bau- oder Gebäudekultur’ is, and if it
can be given a price tag. To answer the question Beyerle states: ‘We have by no means asked
the Feuilleton (too long-winded) or respected architects (too much fundamentalist - when their
buildings are concerned) but have asked the youthful swarm instead.’ To this end a review of
the 20 most posted buildings in three categories was made. The study does not present exact
30 „künstlerische Oberleitung“.
31 „Ist diese nicht gegeben, bekommen Sie als Auftraggeber mit hoher Wahrscheinlichkeit später die Quittung
dafür.“
32 “Und diese Marke darf nicht einfach nur aus einer leeren Marketinghülle bestehen”
33 “Und letztlich, daran kommen weder Architekten noch Städte und vor allem weder Entwickler noch Investoren
vorbei, entscheidet die am jeweiligen Ort erzielbare Miete darüber, wie viel man ausgeben kann.”
106
information on how the data was collected and how many posts were analysed in which
timeframe but is summarised in a graphic presentation (Figure 14). The three categories are the
Top 20 of High-Rise Buildings in Europe; the Top 20 of Department Stores and Shopping
Centers in Germany and thirdly the Top 20 of commercial real estate in Frankfurt am Main.
The buildings at the highest position in the score list received more than 60.000 posts on
Instagram, and the buildings with the lowest had less than 10.000 posts on Instagram.
Figure 14 Gewerbeimmobilien, Baukultur und Instagram. Graphic presentation referred to in
Beyerle (2021). Source Graph: https://www.catella.com/globalassets/global/mix-germany-
corporate-finance/catella_infografik_instagram_1_2021.pdf , accessed on 05 April 2023.
Beyerle concludes that the real estate sector lacks buildings that score high on social media. He
states that in Real Estate education visibility is compulsory for the correct branding and naming
of buildings and the financial values that can be increased with it. He pleads that in advance of
the actual naming of a building, one should think about which projections [in the sense of
imaginative power, Ed.]
P33F
34
P
, aspects and emotions are associated with the name of the building
at the target groups. Beyerle put this in relation to the accusative terminology of 'faceless
Investorenarchitektur' that according to Beyerle can be heard often in the selection processes
of architects, at tenders or communication pitches. The exact relation between the use of the
term Investorenarchitektur and the triggering of emotions through the naming and branding of
buildings is not specified. Beyerle however finishes the article stating that aspects, imaginative
power, and potential to trigger emotions that are associated with the chosen name are
34 Here the German Term „Außenwirkung“ has been used.
107
‘Especially [important] because the insta-youngsters of today can be the users of tomorrow’
P34F
35
P
.
(Beyerle, 2021)
U
Issue
U
: Architecture is primarily understood as a marketing tool (D 61).
New York Times, 1982
U
Architecture View; Architect vs. Developer: A Curious Dynamic (Goldberger, 1982)
The journalist Paul Goldberger reports from a Symposium titled ‘New York’s Hidden
Designers: The Developers’ organised by the Architectural League of New York, the event was
co-sponsored by the Museum of Modern Art.
In the event developers
P35F
36
P
that according to Golberg showed interest in architecture were invited
to a panel moderated by Suzanne Stephens, at the time of the article moderator of the magazine
Skyline and currently adjunct professor of Architecture at Barnard College (Columbia
University, New York). The audience mainly consisted of architects.
Goldberg reports that after the panellist initially praised the importance of architecture one of
the developers, Melvyn Kaufmann stated:
„'I am hard put to see any reasonably good architecture in the city of New York in the
last 50 years. Form, shape, size - sheer nonsense. A city like New York has nothing to do
with architecture - architecture is totally invisible. People cannot see architecture. The
only people who have time for architecture are the developers, the architects, and the
press.'' (Goldberger, 1982)
According to Goldberger Kaufman was known for “routine office towers […] fancied up with
lively and bright public spaces – his way of ‘apologizing’ to the public” (Figure 15).
Figure 15 'routine office towers' by developer Kaufman as mentioned by Goldberger: 747 Third
Av.; 127 John Street; 77 Water Street, Manhattan New York City. Source: Google Streetview
accessed 06 April 2023
35"Zumal die lnsta-Jünger von heute die Nutzer oder Nachfrager von morgen sein können.”
36 The developers present in the panel were: Charles Shaw (co-developer Museum of Modern Art), George Klein,
Donald Trump, Harry Macklowe, Melvyn Kaufman.
108
According to Goldberger ‘what Kaufman was doing, in effect, was challenging both architects
and his fellow developers to prove that ‘serious’ works of architecture could bring any more
pleasure and quality to the cityscape’ than the ‘relaxed and entertaining’ buildings Kaufman
provides.
Goldberger comments that the kind of superficial but pleasurable design advocated by Kaufman
is ‘undoubtedly superior to the attempts at more profound architecture that fall flat on their
faces’. Nevertheless, Goldberger states that this attitude showcases ‘cynicism and defeatism’
towards the possibility of serious architecture. According to Goldberger ‘it comes down to a
battle not between architects and developers, but between developers who seem to want to
attempt to further a kind of art and those who do not’.
On the other developers present in the panel Goldberger reports that for the developer Donald
Trump that
“the building’s shape, size, location and general style were questions of marketing and
salesmanship”. On the developer, Harry Macklowe Goldberger reports “[…] Harry
Macklowe talked similarly of real-estate development in terms of process as much as of
product, though he did at one point speak of the relationship between a builder and his
architect as "like a marriage - there has to be an understanding and a rapport.".
(Goldberger, 1982)
Furthermore, Golderberger states
“Architecture is not a single, simple scale of values; it is not a quantifiable thing - one
cannot rate a building as 98 percent architecturally valid, or 37 percent, or 49 percent.
Each and every building is a product of numerous forces - economic, social, cultural,
political, functional, aesthetic - and must be evaluated in terms of how well it has
responded to all of these forces. It is not a pure object, whether its design was created by
a famous architect or taken out of a file cabinet.” (Goldberger, 1982)
UIssueU: The quality of architecture depends on the willingness of the developers to engage in all
aspects of architecture, not just the economic or financial (D 62).
Neue Zürcher Zeitung, 2014
28TUNoch (k)eine Langeweile? (Seibold-Bultmann, 2014)
The author Ursula Siebold-Bultmann states that the built environment is increasingly dominated
by architecture that is primarily driven by financial return. She observes that real estate and the
architectural sector are increasingly drifting apart, withdrawing into their own circles. She calls
for a larger debate on the relationship between architecture and the real estate sector and refers
to the theme issue of Archithese (Himmelreich et al., 2014) and publications of Ursula Baus in
German Architects (Baus, 2013a, 2013b, 2013c), which are also reviewed in this dissertation.
She observes that architecture produced by the real estate sector often shows aesthetic deficits,
and calls for a larger investigation into the reasons behind that. According to Seibold Bultmann
architectural aesthetics of projects by real estate investors only seem to express an interest in
financial return (Seibold-Bultmann, 2014).
UIssuesU: Architecture and the real estate sector are drifting apart (D 63). Real estate projects are
recognisable in aesthetics that express a single focus on financial return (D 64).
109
NRC Handelsblad
UArchitect Nanne de Ru: „Een goed gebouw zonder goede Opdrachtgevers bestaat niet”.
(Hulsman, 2021)
The article is an interview by the Dutch architecture journalist Bernhard Hulsman with the
Dutch architect Nanne de Ru. De Ru founded his architecture office Powerhouse in 2005. In
2015 he co-founded the Real Estate Developer, RED.
On the opening of one the latest projects that resulted out of the cooperation of his companies
Powerhouse and RED - Floating Office in Rotterdam – the architect states that:
„Every iconic building that I know, from Berlage’s Stock Exchange in Amsterdam to the
Seagram Building by Mies van der Rohe in New York, had an outspokenly visionary client
that had as much influence on the design of the building as the architect. A good building
without a good client does not exist“. (Hulsman, 2021)
He comments that neoliberalism and globalisation have led to the situation that ‘also in the
Netherlands architecture primarily became an object of investment’, which he illustrates with
an anecdote: After winning a design competition for a building of higher education, the architect
was expecting to be briefed by the institute’s management board on their view on education
and their ideas about a possible translation of that into architecture. Instead, he met with
leadership of the institute’s real estate and finance departments and found himself in meetings
that for in majority covered discussions about square meters and money. According to De Ru:
“We were dealing with spreadsheet architecture, that is mainly concerned with numbers and
return”P36F
37
P. De Ru states that this was an eye-opening experience for him. He realised that to
build up a portfolio of projects that could keep track with a ‘supercool’ and diverse and
innovating portfolio as that of the architect Eero Saarinen, ‘he would need to occupy himself
also with financing and cash flows,[…], and become developer’P37F
38
P. (Hulsman, 2021)
UIssues:U Clients evaluate architecture on financial and economic aspects only (D 65).
Architecture needs to engage in financial and economic issues (D 66).
4.3.2 78BSummary of Issues in the Debate on the Relationship of Architecture and Real Estate.
The phenomenological analysis of the debate on the relationship between architecture and real
estate has resulted in 66 issues. Again, these issues are clustered into themes and have resulted
in the 9 themes presented in Table 19. The results of the issues and their individual theme
allocation are presented in Table 16.
37 „We kregen te maken met spreadsheet-architectuur waarin het vooral gaat om getallen en rendement“.
38 Dan moet ik me ook met de financiering en geldstromen bezighouden […] en dus ontwikkelaar worden.”
110
Theme cluster Number of Issues
Aesthetic problems 2
A
g
enc
y
18
Qualit
y
Collateral in Real Estate 12
Competenc
y
6
Idios
y
ncras
y
11
Missin
g
Aspiratio
n
2
Plannin
g
Process 10
Theor
y
Crisis 5
Table 19 Theme clusters in the debate on the relationship of architecture and real estate
In the debate on the relationship between architecture and real estate, the largest clusters are
those indicated with the theme Agency (19 issues). In the cluster of Agency are all the issues
collected that describe situations where architecture and real estate are described as ‘worlds
apart’ (Akin and Eberhard, 1996, pp. 5–6) in which design agents and clients have different
interests in architecture and some cases also do not want to engage into the interest of each
other, for instance there where it is stated that architects do not want to engage in money issues.
Within the theme of Idiosyncrasy (16 issues), the issues are clustered where the authors
experienced architectural quality as something else than the holistic complexity that was
defined at the beginning of the thesis. Those are the issues where architecture is reduced to
façade design or is understood primarily as an artistic contribution to building design. Also, the
instances where the authors reduced architecture to a marketing tool for the commercial success
of the building are clustered into this theme.
In the cluster Quality Collateral in Real Estate, 12 issues are clustered that describe the priority
focus of the commercial real estate sector on technical and economic dimensions of
architectural quality, as is already concluded in Chapter 4.1.2. Some contributions express
criticism of capitalist mechanisms that are present in the motivation of commercial real estate
investors.
In the cluster Planning Process, 10 issues are collected that cover contributions where the
authors experienced that the problematic relationship between architecture and real estate
originated in misguided planning processes. The authors of these articles see the responsibility
for architectural quality outside the relation of the design agent and the real estate clients and
call for governance tools that guide architectural quality. As such these contributions express
distrust in the competency of design agents and commercial real estate clients.
The cluster of Competency, which collects competency issues both within the architectural as
well as the real estate sector, contains 5 issues. The issues refer to competency hiatus concerning
the full spectrum of architectural quality in all its interacting dimensions at both design agents
as well as commercial real estate clients.
Also, the cluster of Theory Crisis (5 issues), similarly as stated in chapter 4.1.2 the issues
collected in the theme of Theory Crisis relate to problems in the theoretical foundations of
architecture. Architectural theory, as far as it does not express itself in unprecise philosophical
terms or calls upon schools of philosophy that are scientifically highly disputable (Sokal and
Bricmont, 1998), does not seem to be able to provide pragmatic answers to contemporary
questions of building design that address all quality dimensions of architecture.
111
Finally, 2 issues in the analysis of the debate on the relationship between architecture and real
estate were clustered as describing Aesthetic problems and another 2 issues were allocated to
the theme of Missing Aspiration.
112
Reference Nr. Issue Theme
Himmelreich et al.
(2014)
D 01 Architecture and Real Estate are worlds apar
t
. A
g
enc
y
D 02 Contemporary architecture lacks a theoretical foundation
that can provide answers to how to deal with architecture
driven b
y
commercial interests
Theory crisis
Kaltenbrunner (2014) D 03 Architecture is reduced to marketin
g
instrument. Idios
y
ncras
y
D 04 Architecture has withdrawn in unprecise philosophical
terms, unable to
g
ive pra
g
matical answers
Theory crisis
Löffler (2014) D 05 Architecture is not driven by economic rationality only, it
is as much the result of the
p
ersonal preference of clients
Agency
Himmelreich (2014) D 06 Real estate clients prioritize commercial interests in
architecture.
Quality
collateral to
RE
D 07 Architects think real estate clients are not interested in the
social and cultural aspects of architecture.
Agency
Frassoldati et al. (2018) D 08 Architectural (academic) community sees money as a
p
roblematic manner.
Agency
D 09 Architectural (academic) community is hesitant to engage
with the sub
j
ect of mone
y
Agency
Till (2018) D 10 Architectural (academic) community sees money as a
p
roblematic manner.
Agency
D 11 Architecture is dominated by spreadsheets. Quality
collateral to
RE
D 12 Architects no longer control the process of design and
construction
Agency
Torisson (2018) D 13 Architecture is instrumentalized as a marketing tool for
commercial purposes
Idiosyncrasy
Gough (2018) D 14 Architecture is dominated by capitalism Quality
collateral to
RE
D 15 Contemporary architecture lacks a theoretical foundation
that can provide answers to how to deal with architecture
driven b
y
commercial interes
t
s.
Theory crisis
D 16 Architecture has withdrawn in unprecise philosophical
terms, unable to
g
ive
p
ra
g
matic answers.
Theory crisis
Groth (2018) D 17 Remuneration issues withhold architects from sharing
social and cultural aspects of design and the public good
of architecture with clients.
Agency
Dodd (2018) D 18 Architecture has been reduced to a form given to real
estate.
Idiosyncrasy
Martin et al. (2015a) D 19 Architecture has been reduced to a form given to real
estate.
Idiosyncrasy
Moore and Schindler
(2015)
D 20 The domination of architecture by the real estate sector
requires political answers.
Planning
Process
Martin (2015) D 21 Architectural design is not an external - optional - design
feature, it is inherent to an
y
construction activit
y
.
Idiosyncrasy
Kähler (2005) D 22 Cliché that good architecture can only be realised with
non-commercial motives.
Idiosyncrasy
Escher (2017) D 23 The real estate sector has instrumentalized architecture for
commercial purposes.
Quality
collateral to
RE
Friedrich and Brensing
(2017b)
D 24 The Real Estate sector dominates architectural desi
g
n. A
g
enc
y
D 25 Architecture is understood as an external desi
g
n feature. Idios
y
ncras
y
D 26 Architects have lost the competence to develop efficient
floor plans.
Competency
D 27 Architects are understood as artists. Idios
y
ncras
y
Brensing (2017a)
D 28 Competent urban design should secure architectural
qualit
y
Planning
Process
113
Reference Nr. Issue Theme
D 29 As middleman real estate developers do not identify with
the architecture of the buildin
g
s as users do
Missing
aspiration
D 30 Real estate instrumentalizes architecture for financial
return
Idiosyncrasy
Friedrich (2017c) D 31 Architects and real estate developers have different
questions to architecture
Agency
D 32 Speculation mechanisms of the real estate sector obstruct
architectural quality.
Quality
collateral to
RE
Friedrich and Brensing
(2017a)
D 33 Architects are reluctant to en
g
a
g
e with real estate clients. A
g
enc
y
D 34 The real estate sector misses the recognition of
commercial interests b
y
architects
Agency
D 35 Real estate developer has architectural preferences. Competenc
y
Brensin
g
(2017b) D 36 Architecture withdraws into abstract philosoph
y
Theor
y
crisis
Friedrich and Heinich
(2019)
D 37 Architects are reluctant to en
g
a
g
e with real estate clients. A
g
enc
y
D 38 Some architects prefer to emphasize artistic aspects Idios
y
ncras
y
D 39 Real Estate client sees architectural principles as
exclusive to the architec
t
Idiosyncrasy
Gutzmer et al. (2013) D 40 Real estate investors are not cold capitalists but should be
g
uided.
Competency
D 41 Real estate investments should be guided by urban
p
lannin
g
and desi
g
n policies.
Planning
Process
D 42 Real estate is represented by firms rather than by
individuals.
Commitment
D 43 There is a problem with user representation and
architectural identification in real estate pro
j
ects.
Competency
D 44 More focus should be put on better processes of all
p
articipants in architecture.
Planning
Process
D 45 Instruments for guidance of architectural quality are
missin
g
Planning
Process
D 46 Architecture can only be successful if it represents a
shared value of the client, architect and the public.
Quality
collateral to
RE
D 47 Real estate investments should be guided by urban
p
lannin
g
and desi
g
n policies.
Planning
Process
D 48 Real estate investments should be guided by urban
p
lannin
g
and desi
g
n policies.
Planning
Process
D 49 Organise development processes in such a way that
involves the real estate sector in all architectural questions
Planning
Process
D 50 Real estate investments should be guided by urban
p
lannin
g
and desi
g
n policies.
Planning
Process
D 51 Instruments for guidance of architecture should be
redefined, based on broad support from societ
y
Planning
Process
Oberhuber (2017) D 52 Contemporary architecture by real estate investors should
take an example of 19th-centur
y
architecture.
Aesthetic
p
roblems
D 53 The Real Estate sector dominates architectural desi
g
n. A
g
enc
y
Baus (2013a) D 54 Architecture and real estate are in separate worlds. A
g
enc
y
D 55 Architects are reluctant to engage in the world of real
estate
Agency
Baus (2013b) D 56 The Real Estate sector is primarily driven by commercial
interests
Quality
collateral to
RE
D 57 Architects need to educate themselves on economic and
financial topics
Competency
Baus (2013c) D 58 Architecture has polarised between projects driven by
financial return and presti
g
e desi
g
n on the other.
Idiosyncrasy
D 59 The everyday aspect of quality in architecture is lost. Missing
aspiration
114
Reference Nr. Issue Theme
Hardebusch (2016) D 60 The real estate sector understands architecture primarily
as artistic design, differentiating between artistic,
technical and operational competencies.
Idiosyncrasy
Be
y
erle (2021) D 61 Architecture is primaril
y
understood as a marketin
g
tool. Idios
y
ncras
y
Goldberger (1982) D 62 The quality of architecture depends on the willingness of
the developers to engage in all aspects of architecture, not
j
ust the economic or financial.
Quality
collateral to
RE
Seibold-Bultmann
(2014)
D 63 Architecture and the real estate sector are driftin
g
apart. A
g
enc
y
D 64 Real estate projects are recognisable in an aesthetics that
expresses a sin
g
le focus on financial return
Aesthetic
p
roblems
Hulsman (2021) D 65 Clients evaluate architecture on financial and economic
aspects only.
Quality
collateral to
RE
D 66 Architecture needs to engage in financial and economic
issues.
Competency
Table 20 Summary of 66 issues of publications covering the debate on the relationship of
architecture and real estate
4.4. 34BConclusion
As set out in Table 21, the phenomenological analysis of the publications using the term
Investorenarchitektur, and the debate on the relationship between architecture and real estate
have resulted in 158 units of meaning divided into 8 themes. The analysis provided insight into
the problems of the relationship between architecture and real estate. Some of those issues
concern the body of architecture, some of the issues concern the body of the real estate sector,
and some of the issues concern both the real estate sector as well as the architectural sector. The
summaries provided in the chapters 4.1.2, 4.2.2 and 4.3.2 already highlighted some problems
in the relationship between architecture and real estate, that complicate a management strategy
for architectural quality in commercial real estate. In the following, the themes are further
explicated on their tactic implications in the management strategy for architectural quality in
commercial real estate.
115
Theme / Topic Count Units of Meaning and Issues
Aesthetic problems 8 A 6, 10, 26, 27, 63, 66
D 52, 64
Agency 23 A 3, 30, 36, 51
D 1, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 17, 31, 33, 34, 37, 39, 40, 42, 53, 54, 55, 63
Competency 17 A 1, 5, 41, 54 ,56, 57, 59, 61, 62, 67, 72
D 26, 35, 40, 43, 57, 66
Idiosyncrasy 6 A 22, 31, 32, 37, 42, 73
R 1, 2
D 3, 13, 18, 19, 21, 22, 25, 27, 38, 58, 61,
Missing aspiration 26 A 7, 9, 15, 16, 17, 23 ,38, 40, 43, 44, 45, 46, 49, 60, 64, 71, 78, 80
D 29, 59
R 2, 5, 8, 9, 11, 13
Planning Process
10 D 20, 28, 41, 44, 45, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51
Quality collateral to RE 43 A 4, 8, 11, 12, 13, 14, 19, 20, 21, 24, 25, 28, 29, 33, 34, 39, 47, 50, 52,
53, 55, 58, 68, 70, 74, 75, 76, 77, 79
D 6, 11, 14, 23, 24, 30, 32, 46, 56, 60, 62, 65
R 4, 6
Theory crisis 12 A 2, 18, 35, 48, 65
D 2, 4, 15, 16, 36
R 7, 10
Table 21 Synthesis of themes, units of meaning of Investorenarchitektur, and issues in the
publications covering the polemic relationship between architecture and real estate
4.4.1 79BAesthetics, Missing Aspiration, Idiosyncrasy, and Quality Collateral
The problems described in the theme’s aesthetics, missing aspiration, idiosyncrasy, and quality
collateral relate to the cultural, social, and aesthetic dimensions of quality. They demonstrate a
neglect to integrate these dimensions in the holistic sum of architectural quality, and as such
relate to the product of architecture. Both architects and real estate clients must acknowledge
that architecture is in the first place ‘about making environments for people, with people, [that]
will always have an ethical dimension’ (Samuel, 2018, p. 19) and as such a cultural and social
activity that is relevant to the public good. Because in commercial real estate, the user does not
have a direct representation at the design table, the debate and exchange on those cultural,
social, and aesthetic values has become a shared responsibility of the client and architect (See
also chapter 3.2).
“Architects and clients should both meet the end-users’ needs for a well-designed space
[…]. The assignment should result in surroundings utilized by people.”(Rönn, 2011,
p. 242)
To accommodate the cultural, social, and aesthetic requirements, embedded within its technical
and economic restraints, cooperation and exchange on those values between the client and
designer is essential. A good design requires an elaborated interest of clients in the aesthetic,
cultural and social values of architecture and an equally elaborated interest of architects in
financial and technical issues (Bernstein, 2014, p. 17). Although short-term functionality,
affordability and availability of spaces might be the most important criteria for a successfully
functioning real estate system (Geltner et al., 2007, p. 25), as social, cultural and aesthetic
artefacts buildings have rather a long-term focus that tends to survive the duration of many
economic cycles (Oberhuber, 2017). The integrated approach of the ‘social, economic, physical,
technical, symbolic, functional, cultural, etc., properties’ (Fattinnanzi and Micelli, 2019, p. 7)
116
of architecture, instead of a concentration on use and functionality to accommodate short-term
economic goals (Groth, 2018, p. 119; Swiss Confederation, 2018, p. 11) will thus deliver
buildings that can holistically perform on quality throughout their entire life-cycle.
4.4.2 80BAgency, Competency, Planning Process and Theory Crisis
The theme groups of agency, competency, planning process and theory crisis all refer to
problems and frustrations in the professions concerned with the architecture of commercial real
estate, and as such the process of architecture. A good building requires a good architect and a
good client (Hulsman, 2021), but it seems that there is a ray of different understandings of what
a good client or a good architect should be able to deliver, or how this must be approached. In
the articles collected on the themes of agency, competency, planning process and theory crisis
a mutual understanding of all dimensions of architectural quality has not been clarified between
the design agent and client or is simply unknown.
The theme of agency reveals a set of problems that relate to representation issues and conflicts
of interest in the relationship between architecture and the real estate sector. These conflicts of
interest may indeed persist if the client and architectural agent stick to an understanding to be
operating within ‘different worlds’ (Akin and Eberhard, 1996, pp. 5–6; Baus, 2013a, p. 2),
defending and separating commercial interests from architectural interests and vice versa.
Furthermore, many design agents seem to concern ‘money as a problematic matter’ (Frassoldati
et al., 2018, pp. 5–6). An attitude that is both driven due to a lack of financial and management
education (Baus, 2013b, p. 3; Hawk, 1996, p. 22), or simply due to a persisting reluctance to
engage in commercial business processes (Baus, 2013a; Friedrich and Brensing, 2017a;
Friedrich and Heinich, 2019). For many architects, money is something one does not want to
be associated with (Friedrich and Brensing, 2017a; Friedrich and Heinich, 2019; Höllbacher,
2002). Unfortunately, it must be concluded that many architects experience money flows indeed
as something that ‘besmirches the image of architects as artists, floating above the concerns of
normal life’ (Till, 2018, p. 15).
Many issues collected in the theme of competency relate to omissions in architectural education
concerning financial and managerial issues (Baus, 2013b; Denk, 2015a; Hulsman, 2021). This
concerns both the efficient management of project and client expectations as well as the
management of the own architecture office (Groth, 2018). Many architecture students ‘are not
trained in the social arts of working with clients and consultants, in negotiating a contract, in
real estate finance, or in working with regulatory agencies’ (Cuff, 1992, p. 66). This stiffens the
image of an architect as an artist rather than a generalist who can support the client as an expert
for the organisation, structuring and design of the complex system of architectural quality.
Clients tend to believe that architects are ‘anti-business, as well as badly managed. They feel
architecture is filled with ‘creative people’ who cannot perform’ (Hawk, 1996, p. 23). As a
result, clients – who for their part often lack an education in design (Hawk, 1996, p. 22) - tend
to cut out the more quantifiable and manageable parts of the design assignment such as the
setup of efficient floor plans (Friedrich and Brensing, 2017b), to either forward them to
specialistic consultants or execute and manage them within their own organisations.
Consequently, the complexity of architectural quality is cut out and downgraded into various
components that operate in the ‘complicated’ or even ‘clear’ domains. However, this also leads
to the situation that it is no longer possible to efficiently address the architectural assignment in
a manner of holistically interacting dimensions. Or put otherwise, to achieve an interactive,
117
holistic architectural quality in a situation of cut-outs the manager would have to deal with
many design agents that represent many transactions, probably soon causing the operating point
to trespass the border of unacceptable workload. Furthermore, the persisting perception that
there is a difference between artistic architecture and architecture that fits the commercial
objective of real estate (Friedrich, 2017b) causes a general expectation that architecture by
commercial real estate investors can by definition not appeal to high level of quality (Adam,
2022; Bartetzky, 2008; Cieslik, 2020; DBZ, 2017, 2018a, 2018c, 2018d; Denk, 2015a;
Kasparek, 2021b; Stuttner, 2020; Wirsching, 2021).
The lack of trust that commercial real estate and architectural quality can be compatible, might
have led to a situation where architectural quality has become a criterion that is external to the
relationship of architect and commercial real estate client. The articles grouped around the
theme of planning process illustrate this phenomenon as they call for guidance of architectural
quality by external institutions or regulatory frameworks. An example of such guidance can be
found in the common practice of design competitions, as attempts to organise or secure an
objective approach to architectural quality. Apart from the observations that any quality
assessment consists of a conflict of objective and subjective positions (Rönn, 2011, p. 237),
design competitions bear the risk that architectural quality is externalised from the relationship
between architect and commercial real estate investor. From a managerial point of view,
architectural design competitions are welcomed as manageable tools and processes to outsource
their responsibility towards social, cultural and aesthetic values of architecture (Hardebusch,
2016). Externalising architectural quality as far as it is concerned with social, cultural and
aesthetic values into design competitions enables the commercial real estate investor to
incorporate broad consensus for her*his projects (Hardebusch, 2016, p. 2), but avoids personal
engagement in discussions and interactions on architectural quality that concerns all dimensions
of its complexity. Externalising architectural quality standards as is called for in the articles
grouped around the theme of planning processes therefore creates an incentive both for
architects and real estate developers to withdraw in either the aesthetic or technical and
economic dimensions of architectural quality, and thus invoke Trade-Offs, Procedural Drifts
and Domain Shifts as set out in chapter 3.4 that cause the system to collapse.
Finally, another phenomenon that describes frustration between the professions concerned with
architecture and commercial real estate is the issues grouped around the theme of theory crisis.
The authors of the articles have critique on the tendency of architects to withdraw in abstract
philosophy or experience that architects are unable to give pragmatic answers to architectural
questions. A qualified discussion on architectural theory exceeds the research scope of this
thesis and shall be addressed here. However, the issues aggregated in the theme of theory crisis
indicate that architecture seems to have lost the relatively clear and pragmatic theoretical
foundations that existed in pre-industrial times, only to have them replaced by vague, incorrect
theories (Sokal and Bricmont, 1998) and global application of modernistic design principles
(Wolfe, 2009).
4.4.3 81BDiscussion of Tactic Implications per Theme
From the phenomenological analysis of the term Investorenarchitektur and the debate on
architecture and real estate, the following implications can be concluded for tactic behaviour in
a management strategy of architectural quality in commercial real estate that is presented in
Figure 10 on page 49.
118
- Aesthetics: A discussion of architectural aesthetics is not in the scope of this
dissertation. However, in light of the holistic approach towards architecture, it must
be a topic that is at the forefront of discussions and exchanges between the design
agent and commercial real estate client. In doing so, neither the client nor the design
agent must externalise architectural aesthetics from the system of architectural
quality by claiming it as an ‘artistic taste’ (Friedrich and Brensing, 2017b, p. 25)
that lies fully in the responsibility of the design agent.
- Agency: Design agents and commercial real estate clients should align interests on
all dimensions of architectural quality. The cultural, social, aesthetic, technical or
economic dimensions of architecture do not form separable interest domains with
the exclusive expertise of either the client or design agent. There is only one interest
in architecture: A building that must simply ‘look right’ (Scruton, 2013, p. xix),
providing affordable functionality to imminent and future users at a budget that is
feasible for a successful real estate investment. In their services design agents must
compete on competency levels concerning the holistic architectural objective in all
its dimensions, and not on artistic reputation (Schulz-Eickhorst, 2002).
- Competency: Architectural quality describes a highly complex system, to operate in
this system both design agent and commercial real estate client need to acknowledge
the various complexity levels of architectural quality. Continued education and
awareness of all architectural dimensions need to be present at any stage in the
development or management of commercial real estate. Commercial real estate
clients must engage in discussions on the cultural, social, and aesthetic dimensions
of architecture. This requires knowledge of the long-term and cultural implications
of architecture and engagement and a positive attitude towards social, aesthetic, and
cultural dimensions of architecture. Design agents must engage in financial-
economic discussions to support the client in achieving a holistic architectural
objective and frame and prepare the cultural, social, and aesthetic dimensions of
architecture in technical and economic decisions. This requires training in, comfort
with and acceptance of financial and market mechanisms as described in the Real
Estate System and the imperative of real estate (see chapter 1.3.5)
- Missing Aspiration: The theme group of missing aspiration suggests that in the
design brief for the project, the complexity level of the individual components of
architecture has not been acknowledged or simply omitted. All architectural
dimensions represent values that need alignment between the design agent and the
commercial real estate client (Groat and Wang, 2013, p. 47). This alignment shall
not only be limited to the financial and technical dimensions of architectural quality
but must also explicitly address the ‘soft-non quantifiable qualities’ (Binnenkamp,
2016, p. 241) in the cultural, aesthetic and social dimensions of architecture (See
also Figure 3 on page 9).
- Idiosyncrasy: As in the theme group of Aesthetics, the theme group of idiosyncrasy
describes a misconception of architecture. Often this misconception consists out of
the highly subjective reduction of architectural quality to one or few of its
components that match the opportunistic interests of the design agent or commercial
real estate client. As such it corresponds to Garvin’s user-based definition of quality
that is set out in chapter 3.2.1 on page 31. To avoid an idiosyncratic approach to
architecture both design agent as well as commercial real estate must rather consider
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the transcendent meaning of architectural dimensions, and as such apply to Garvin’s
transcendent definition of quality (described on page 30).
- Planning Process: Cutting out complexity levels of the architectural assignment
through either design competitions, standardised floor plans or pre-designed
building typologies causes Domain Shifts, Trade-offs and Procedural Drifts
(Moriarty, 2022, p. 118) in the complex system of architectural quality. Commercial
real estate clients must take responsibility for architectural quality in all its
dimensions.
- Quality Collateral: The themes grouped in the quality collateral mostly describe
situations where only the economic and technical dimensions of architecture have
been considered in the interaction of architectural complexity. The tactical
implication concerning the theoretical framework presented in the conclusion of
chapter 3, is therefore straightforward: In the consideration of architectural quality,
all 5 dimensions must be included and addressed. This however requires awareness
and adequate attitude and engagement of the real estate manager for the cultural,
social, and aesthetic dimensions of architectural quality. Furthermore, all the tactic
implications listed in the other themes must be acknowledged and incorporated.
Recent developments in the regulatory framework for large real estate investors
operating in the member states countries of the European countries will provide an
incentive for commercial real estate to incorporate so-called ESG considerations
into their development and management strategies, and as such might also force
changes (Cloutier, 2022) in their attitude towards the cultural, social and aesthetic
dimensions of architectural quality.
- Theory Crisis: As set out above a qualified discussion on architectural theory
exceeds the research scope of this dissertation. However, tactically the suggestion
can be made that architectural quality is a relational quality (Bentivegna, 2019,
p. 26) that is dependent on the context and ‘the cultural values of the place’
(Architects Council of Europe, 2019, p. 2). It is therefore important that the
commercial real estate client formulates, personally or through the application of
preference management techniques (Arkesteijn et al., 2016; Binnenkamp, 2016), an
understanding of architecture concerning all its dimensions, that is set within the
cultural and social, relational context that surrounds the project, enabling her*him
to hold qualified discussions on architecture with design agents or formulate a
design brief that covers all aspects of architectural complexity.
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5. 14B Conclusion
The theoretical framework as concluded in Chapter 3 as well as the conclusions on the analysis
of the gap between architecture and real estate as presented in the phenomenological analysis
of Chapter 4 are combined in a simplified Planning, Organisation and Control Cycle (POC)
cycle. This POC cycle must primarily be understood as a tool to summarize the argument of
this dissertation. As such it is a blueprint for further research on the topic of the integration of
the holistic architectural objective and real estate management and an invitation to any reader
to engage in the topic of architectural quality, in all its dimensions, including the economic one.
In assessing the conclusion of this dissertation, the reader is advised to refer to the theoretical
framework presented in Figure 10 on page 49 and the list of tactic implications concluded in
chapter 4.4.3 and starting on page 117.
After some introducing comments on simplicity in complexity, a classic POC cycle for
commercial real estate development will be further specified by the phase model for
commercial real estate development as developed by Schulte and Bone-Winkel (Schulte, 2008).
Thereafter this POC model is extended towards a POC Model for architectural quality in
commercial real estate that includes the findings of this dissertation.
5.1. 35BSimplicity in Complexity
The management scholar John G. Hutchinson (Columbia University, NY) mentioned in his
article ‘Basic Management Process’ the following on a POC (Planning Organisation and
Control) cycle:
„Deceptively simple in concept, the P-O-C cycle quickly becomes intricate and
demanding when applied in an organizational setting. (Hutchinson, 1971, p. 19)“
The architecture scholar Dana Cuff (UCLA, CF) stated similarly on architectural practice:
“At one level, what goes on is quite simple: architectural practice is the everyday world
of work where architecture takes shape. It transpires both inside and outside the office
and involves numerous individuals who perform the various tasks required to build
buildings. But in actuality, what goes on is not at all simple. (Cuff, 1992, p. 1)“
Finally, the social scientist Herbert Simon mentioned the management of complex systems:
"The central task […] is to make the wonderful commonplace: to show that complexity,
correctly viewed, is only a mask for simplicity; to find pattern hidden in apparent chaos".
(Simon, 1969, p. 1)
And
"To design […] a complex structure, one powerful technique is to discover viable ways
of decomposing it into semi-independent components corresponding to its many
functional parts. The design of each component can then be carried out with some degree
of independence of the design of others, since each will affect the others largely through
its function and independently of the details of the mechanisms that accomplish the
function." (Simon, 1988, p. 75)
In addition, Hutchinson summarized the basic management process as follows:
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In business firms, the major administrative tasks revolve around the functions of finance,
production and marketing. Every business firm makes goods or provides services, sells
these goods or services, and raises the funds needed to support its producing and selling
activities. The manager's job is to insure that these fundamental activities are planned,
coordinated, organized, and controlled. (Hutchinson, 1971, p. 19)
Consequently, I aim to provide a management strategy for architectural quality, that remains
conceptually simple but allows strategic and tactic development of architectural quality in
commercial real estate in all its complexity, nevertheless recognisable in its dimensions, parts,
and components.
5.2. 36BPOC cycle in classic commercial real estate
As a general organizing principle for commercial real estate development, the phase model (See
Figure 16) as developed by Schulte and Bone Winkel has been adopted as a classic management
model for commercial real estate (Schulte and Bone-Winkel, 2008, p. 36). The POC-related
activities have been projected on this phase model.
Planning
Project Initiation Phase
Securing property rights to the project site and future users
Project Marketing
Sales
Site Opportunity
seeks
Capital and Project
Opportunit
y
Project Opportunity
seeks
Site and Capital
Capital seeks
Site and Project
Opportunity
Description of functions and space requirement
Simple Costs and Benefits Analysis
Organisation
Project Conception Phase
Investment
Feasibility Analysis
Market
Anal
y
sis
Site
Anal
y
sis
Utility
Anal
y
sis
Competition
Anal
y
sis
Risk
Anal
y
sis
Investment and Development Calculation
Project Establishment Phase
Leasing
Control
Decision to
Invest Contracting Stakeholder
management
Planning
Permission
Desi
g
ns
Project Realisation & Project Management
Commercial Project
Management Controlling
Technical Project
Management
(Deadlines, costs,
qualities)
Figure 16 Phasing model for commercial real estate development with a projection of POC
cycle, adapted from Schulte and Bone-Winkel (Schulte 2008, p. 36)
The model proposed by Schulte and Bone-Winkel (Schulte, 2008) consists of 4 consecutive
phases and the marketing activity that encompasses all phases. This conglomerate of 5 activities
describes the general ‘functions of finance, production and marketing’ (Hutchinson, 1971,
p. 19) in commercial real estate.
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The Project Marketing Phase describes the marketing activity that frames all 4 consecutive
phases described below. In its essence, it describes the acquisition and contracting of debt and
equity (investors) on the Capital and Asset markets as described in the Real Estate System (See
also chapter 3.1 and Figure 6), as well as the acquisition and contracting of tenants (or owner-
occupied users) for the project on the Space Market as described in the Real Estate System
(Schulte and Bone-Winkel, 2008, p. 54).
In the phase of Project Initiation, the dynamics of capital, Product Opportunity and Site
Opportunity describe the dynamics of capital markets, local and national economies and the
assessment of the status and dynamics of the Space and Asset Markets as described in Geltner’s
Real Estate System. The project opportunity that resolves from this initial phase corresponds
with the space-producing activity of the Development Industry in the Real Estate System. The
dynamic analysis of site opportunity, project opportunity and capital results in the conceptual
formulation of a project, which according to the diagram is primarily concerned with a
description of functions and their spatial requirements. This spatial-functional description is
then subject to a simple cost-benefit analysis, where possible cash flows (benefits) from the
projected utility are capitalised and set against the sum of the purchase price of the site,
developers' profit margin and construction costs benchmarks (costs). As such the project
initiation phase is mainly focussing on the technical and economic dimensions of architectural
quality (see also chapter 1.3.3). Schulte and Bone-Winkel do refer to the influence of ‘other
institutions such as city planners, heritage protecting agencies, political institutions, architects,
real estate agents, surveyors, construction companies, interest-groups and initiatives’ (Schulte
and Bone-Winkel, 2008, p. 38) in this phase of the development, but mainly define them as
possible conflicts of interest with the commercial objective of the real estate development
(Schulte and Bone-Winkel, 2008, p. 39).
Upon conclusion of the Project Initiation Phase, Schulte and Bone-Winkel describe the
initiation of the Project Conception Phase, with the feasibility Analysis as its key element. As
components of a feasibility analysis, they describe the Market Analysis – encompassing an
analysis of the status and dynamics of Asset and Space Markets as described in the Real Estate
System in chapter 3.1, the Site Analysis which covers the analysis of the status and dynamics of
local and national economics as described in the Real Estate System concerning the project site,
completed with a geographical analysis and a infrastructural analysis as ‘hard factors’ and a
sociodemographic analysis and analysis of the image of the site as ‘soft factors’ (Muncke et al.,
2008, p. 148). As such the social and cultural context of the site, and with that the social and
cultural dimensions of architectural quality, seem to be addressed. Furthermore, Schulte and
Bone-Winkel mention a Utility Analysis, that should be set up from a ‘fact-oriented set-up,
coined by experience, and visionary interpretation of the array of information available for the
project’ (Bone-Winkel et al., 2008, p. 126) and as such refers to a task that seems to be similarly
complex as the assumptions for the complexity of architectural quality as described in Chapter
1.3. Finally, they complete the feasibility analysis with an analysis of competing functions and
projects near the project site as well as a risk analysis that covers the various risks for the
investment of the capital necessary for the project. Schulte and Bone-Winkel describe the
following risks as relevant to the capital investment in commercial real estate; development risk
(i.e., costs, time, quality), valuation risk (i.e., dynamics of asset, space and capital markets),
income risk (i.e., vacancy upon completion or fall out of projected or existing tenants), sales
risk (i.e., dynamics of capital and asset market), appreciation risk (i.e., changed user
requirements to projected utility).
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Whereas the Project Initiation Phase and the Project Conception Phase can be allocated to the
planning activity of the POC cycle, the Project Establishment Phase covers the organisation
step in the POC cycle. Based on the information obtained in the previous planning and analysis
steps, the commercial real estate project will now come into a decisive stage. After the real
estate firm has decided to invest, the manager will start contracting the various expertise and
services that she*he requires for the execution of the project. This also includes setting up
arrangements or formal agreements with the various stakeholders involved in the project. In the
project establishment phase, typically a design agent is assigned to prepare the designs to obtain
building permission from local authorities.
Once the planning permission is available and the developer can secure financing in the phase
of Project Marketing, the project moves into the final phase of project realisation and project
management. In this phase, Schulte and Bone-Winkel differentiate between commercial and
technical project management as well as controlling activities.
5.3. 37BPOC cycle for architectural quality commercial real estate
Having understood the POC dimensions of commercial real estate in the 5-phase model as
suggested by Schulte and Bone Winkel, I shall now integrate the findings of this dissertation
into the model as described above, and as such formulate the management strategy for
architectural quality in commercial real estate. To do so, I will start with the allocation of the
various strategic and tactic elements concluded in Chapter 3 and 4 in the POC cycle and then
finally suggest an adaptation of Schulte and Bone-Winkels phase model in Chapter 5.3.4.
5.3.1 82BPlanning for Architectural Quality in CRE
According to the real estate imperative set out in Chapter 1.3.5 the primary objective for any
commercial real estate project is to establish private property rights that can be traded on the
asset and space markets. Architectural quality in commercial real estate therefore always
operates as collateral to the investment activity, this however does not mean that it can be
neglected. Therefore, architectural quality in commercial real estate must always be planned
from the perspective of the three applicable quality definitions as defined by Garvin (See
chapter 3.2)
Through application of the value-based definition of quality the price of a real
estate investment is set through the appreciation of potential cash flows that the
exchange of private property rights provides. The value of these cash flows is
primarily assessed in the dynamics of asset, space market and capital markets as
described in the Real Estate System. As such the value equals the total
development cost and thus investment capital available for the project.
UTacticallyU this means that the manager will study various functions that are from
an economic and regulatory point of view feasible on the site. As social, cultural,
and aesthetic dimensions can have a significant influence on the financial value
of a project, the commercial client must consider this dimension and share this
value assessment with the design agent.
Then in a second step, through the application of the manufacturing-based
definition of quality a design agent trusted by the commercial real estate manager
will assess variations and possibilities for a functional design. She*he will reflect
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on the technical possibilities of the various functions that are feasible within the
given budget, while simultaneously integrating the aesthetic, social and cultural
dimensions of architecture.
U
Tactically
U
this means that the manager and design agent must develop an attitude
and atmosphere where economic and technical arguments can be exchanged
against the backdrop of a shared understanding of aesthetic, social and cultural
dimensions of architecture.
In doing so the client and design agent shall agree on architectural quality in the
transcendent definition, where quality is recognised through experience and
exchange.
U
Tactically
U
this means that both design agent and client refrain from pushing the
aesthetic, cultural and social dimensions of architecture into an undisputable
artistic accomplishment that as such from a management point of view operates
in the Clear Domain. Architectural quality, especially the aesthetic, social and
cultural dimensions requires and deserves as an ‘essentially contested concept’
(Rönn, 2011, pp. 237–238) endless dispute and consequently from a
management point of view should be operating in the complex domain.
The planning of architectural quality in the value-based, manufacturing-based, and transcendent
definitions therefore can be summarized in Figure 17 below.
Figure 17 Quality definition approaches in architectural Quality of Commercial Real Estate.
Graph by Author
In Figure 17 the commercial client that is driven by the value-based definition of quality and
the design agent that provides expertise for the manufacturing-based definition of quality meet
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in a mutual understanding of architectural quality in the transcendent definition of quality. In
doing so, it can also be concluded that concerning the Dynamic Safety Model that is integrated
into the theoretical framework of Figure 10, the value-based definition of quality defines the
boundary of economic failure, and the manufacturing-based definition the boundary of
unacceptable performance. These boundaries however need to be planned within the
transcendent definition of architectural quality, to avoid the operating point of perfectly
interacting architectural quality (the red point in Figure 10) wanders outside of the operating
area of the Dynamic Safety Model. Furthermore, it shall be concluded that if the client and
design agent agree on a transcendent definition of architectural quality – one that is clearly
captured with economic failure and unacceptable performance boundaries - the phenomena
grouped in the themes of Aesthetics, Missing Aspiration, Idiosyncrasy and Quality Collateral
can be avoided.
5.3.2 83BOrganisation of Architectural Quality in CRE
In the organisation of the complexity of architectural quality, an interesting paradox appears. It
is a natural tendency in economic processes to cut out specialisations (Hutchinson, 1971, p. 19)
of a system that is operating in the complex domain and slice it down to work packages in
smaller manageable parts that operate in the complicated or clear domains. This classic
‘division of labour’ behaviour (Kräkel, 2015, p. 1) however, leads as we have seen in the
conclusion of chapter 3.4, to trade-offs, procedural drifts or domain shifts of components and
subsystems in the complex system of architectural quality. Systems, such as architectural
quality, that thrive by the complex interaction of all their dimensions, therefore, easily suffer
from an over-simplification that cannot do justice to the overall holistic complexity of the
system. Architectural quality is complex in most of its dimensions and therefore needs to be
treated accordingly. In other words, any simplification of particularly the aesthetic, cultural and
social dimensions will cause the system to fail. In terms of organising architectural quality, the
conclusion is not to cut architectural quality up according to the various parts of the building
(i.e., façade design, standardized floorplans and building typologies), but to organise and cut
the work packages into manageable parts according to the three definitions of quality. In such
an organisation the complexity levels of each single part remain intact and can be coordinated
with the subsequent management approaches (See Table 10), while respecting their complexity
domains. While work packages related to the central and coordinating transcendent definition
of quality (See Figure 17) remain with senior management positions, it should be possible to
delegate smaller packages of the complex architectural quality to more pragmatic management
levels, or service partners that apply a value-based and manufacturing-based definition to
architectural quality.
Finally, in chapter 4.4.2 we concluded the current issues that relate to the process of
architecture. To adequately address the issues described under the themes of agency,
competency, planning process and theory crisis, it will be important that planning and
organisation activities related to these problems are added to the phase model of Schulte and
Bone-Winkel. In specific this would be (See also Figure 18):
Agency. To avoid agency issues client and design agent should agree on a fee
structure that eliminates conflicts of interest and stimulates mutual participation
in the benefit of architectural quality in its full complexity. As in commercial
real estate this is primarily expressed in an optimal risk and return profile of the
126
projected real estate investment, a solution could be to participate the design
agent in the benefits (and risks) of the economic objective of the project instead
of expressing the fees as a percentage of construction, as is currently the praxis
(Deamer, 2014, p. 34). If a design agent and commercial real estate manager
would agree on a fee structure that is dependent on the profit margin of a project
(Deamer, 2014, p. 39), there would be a clear alignment of economic interest. It
would also provide a clear benchmark for the boundary of unacceptable
workload in the Dynamic Safety Model that is drawn up in Figure 10. Based on
ambition levels set in the transcendent definition of architectural quality client
and design agent can agree on a fee base that defines the border of unacceptable
workload.
Competency. In a complex system such as that of architectural quality, it is both
from an economic as well as a managerial point of view necessary to cut the
management of the overall holistic objective into manageable work packages
and components. As stated before, the complexity levels of these work packages
must remain intact up and to the smallest level. Therefore, also in delegated
functions, all dimensions of architectural quality should be acknowledged and
part of the professional profile of the function or manager participating in the
system of architectural complexity. It should be noted that this knowledge
competency of the ‘architectural collateral’ is a feature that can exist next to the
specific expertise of the function or manager. To engage managers and functions
present in the system to all dimensions of architectural quality, next to the
dimension of their expertise, an ‘architectural mission statement’ could be issued
by senior management in the transcendent definition of architectural quality that
frames the value-based definition and manufacturing-based definition of
architectural quality. An ‘architectural mission statement’ formulated by the
commercial real estate manager would also provide a suited platform for the
design agent to formulate a ‘design value metric […] system to measure the
increase in building or investment value as a result of the architect’s
participation’ (Gray, 2014, p. 148). This would then enable all functions and
managers in the system to adhere to the overall complexity objective from the
perspective of their expertise.
Planning process. As set out before, the externalisation of architectural quality
assurance through design competitions introduces domain shifts, trade-offs and
procedural drifts and should be avoided if commercial client and design agent
are not bound to governance tools that prescribe design competitions. However,
as is the case in the development of sites owned by municipalities or other public
institutions, public tenders are inevitable. In these cases, the design competition
should always be issued as a tender of development teams in which design agents
and commercial real estate managers jointly submit a pitch, translated into an
‘architectural mission statement’. Where necessary the municipality or public
institution can predefine quality levels for the tender in conceptual quality
frameworks or by applying design coding (i.e., Konzeptvergabe in a German
context) (Carmona, 2009).
Theory Crisis. A theoretical understanding of architecture is outside of the scope
of this dissertation. However, the ‘architectural mission statement’ could provide
clarity on the theoretical base of the aspired architectural quality levels.
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Nevertheless, repositioning the theoretical foundations of architecture is a
pressing issue that requires a re-evaluation of aspects of pragmatism and
craftsmanship in contemporary architecture instead of meandering through
unprecise, confusing and highly disputable philosophical positions (Sokal and
Bricmont, 1998) and an exaggerated global devotion to modernistic design
principles (Wolfe, 2009).
Consequently, two elements that can tackle the organisational problems that are described in
the theme groups of agency, competency and planning process are to be added to the 5-phase
model of Schulte and Bone-Winkel. The ‘Architectural Mission Statement’ is a document or
activity where all 5 dimensions of architectural quality are aligned, and secondly, the adaptation
of a profit-based fee model, see also Figure 18 below.
Transcendent Definition of Quality
Coordinating function
Senior Management
Senior Design Agent
(1) Formulation of ‘Architectural Mission Statement’ including all dimensions of
architecture.
Value-Based Definition of Quality
Project Management (client)
Project Design Agent
Definition of profit levels (already part of 5
phase model in Figure 16)
Manufacturing-Based Definition of
Quality
Project Management (client)
Project Design Agent
(2) Fee structure based on percentage to
profit instead of percentage to
construction costs.
Figure 18 Workpackages to be included in the 5-phase model of Schulte and Bone-Winkel.
Graph by Author.
5.3.3 84BControl of Architectural Quality in Real Estate
The allocation and organisation of the Planning and Organisational activities in the three
applicable quality definitions now give way to ‘leadership and control activities’ (Hutchinson,
1971, p. 20). As we have set out in many instances before, the overall objective of architectural
quality is to create a whole that ‘is more than the sum of its parts’ (Simon, 1962, p. 469), where
individual elements and components of this holistic total nevertheless remain identifiable and
manageable. As we have seen before, informational systems (see chapter 3.4) are at the root of
sociotechnical systems that describe architectural quality. The many information levels and data
elements that are attributed to the various dimensions of architectural quality in its various
quality concepts all need to be brought together in some way or another into the architectural
whole of a building design. This requirement makes the use of Building Information Models
(BIM) inevitable for the controlling of architectural quality in commercial real estate. The BIM
model not only provides an integrated control system for the commercial real estate client but
also provides an excellent tool for the design agent to participate in and communicate on all the
128
various dimensions of architectural quality in commercial real estate, including the economic
and financial ones, (Bernstein, 2014, p. 18; Deamer, 2014, p. 39; Gehry, 2014, p. 67).
5.3.4 85BPOC cycle in 5-Phase model
The POC model of Schulte-Bone Winkel can now be further extended with the POC activities
for architectural quality in commercial real estate in Figure 19 below. The new elements are
marked in yellow and underlined text.
Planning
Project Initiation Phase
Securing property rights to the project site and future users
Project Marketing
Sales
Value-Based-Definition
Site Opportunity
seeks
Capital and Project
Opportunit
y
Project Opportunity
seeks
Site and Capital
Capital seeks
Site and Project
Opportunity
Transcendent based definition
Description of functions and space requirement
UMission statement for architectural quality
UWhere possible Set Up of BIM Model
Simple Costs and Benefits Analysis
Organisation
Project Conception Phase
Investment
Transcendent based definition
Manufacturing based definition - Value Based-Definition
UMission statement for architectural quality
Feasibility Analysis
Market
Anal
y
sis
Site
Anal
y
sis
Utility
Anal
y
sis
Competition
Anal
y
sis
Risk
Anal
y
sis
Investment and Development Calculation
Project Establishment Phase
Leasing
Manufacturing based definition
USet up of BIM Model
Control
Decision to
Invest
Contracting
Uprofit-based fee
structures
Stakeholder
management
Planning
Permission
Designs
Project Realisation & Project Management
BIM Model
For control and continued communication
Commercial Project
Management Controlling
Technical Project
Management
(Deadlines, costs,
qualities)
Figure 19 Suggestion for management model for architectural quality in commercial real estate
based on 5 phase model of Schulte and Bone-Winkel (Schulte and Bone-Winkel, 2008)
129
5.4. 38BConclusion and Recommendations
5.4.1 86BConclusion
The research of a management strategy for architectural quality in commercial real estate has
resulted in the formulation of three key elements for a management strategy for architectural
quality in commercial real estate. Through the adaptation of the suggested Mission Statement
in the Planning of architectural quality, the incorporation of the concept of profit-based fees in
the Organisation of architectural quality, and the adaptation of BIM models as tools for Control
of architectural quality, the manager shall be able to address all elements of the research
problem described in chapter 1.3 of this dissertation. These three elements can be integrated
into existing management models such as the 5 phase model formulated by Schulte and Bone-
Winkel (See Figure 19), and as such provide the blueprint for ‘a new approach to feasibility
studies in the construction sector’ that is called upon by the German Federal Republic
concerning the EU initiative of the New European Bauhaus (See research objective in chapter
1.4). If applied correctly the three elements will also fulfil the efficiency, consistency,
sufficiency, and resilience requirements that the German Federal Republic is seeking for.
Mission Statement of Architectural Quality
The formulation of a mission statement of architectural quality will be a tool to collect guiding
the criteria of architectural quality in its transcendent, value-based, and manufacturing-based
definition. In the mission statement, reflection is given on all 5 quality dimensions of
architectural complexity in light of their interacting complexity. As such the mission statement
answers to the architectural complexity formulated in chapter 1.3.1, the individual dimensions
of architecture formulated in 1.3.3 as well provides a document that is the discussion base for
the evaluation of architectural quality as mentioned in chapter 1.3.4. Furthermore, it provides
a document where the commercial real estate manager can report on her*his professional
responsibility towards individual users (consumers) but also society in general concerning
general cultural and human objectives of architecture as described in 1.3.2. Also, the mission
statement is a good platform in which the manager can formulate and execute her*his personal
satisfaction toward architectural quality, within the freedom of her*his managerial discretion.
Finally, the mission statement can adhere through the inclusion of the value-based definition of
quality to the real estate imperative described in 1.3.5.
The formulation of a mission statement that concerns the full spectrum of architectural quality,
therefore will tackle the problems and issues resulting in the themes of aesthetics, missing
aspiration, idiosyncrasy, and quality collateral that have resulted from the phenomenological
analysis of Investorenarchitektur and the general debate on the relationship between
architecture and real estate. Furthermore, will give guidance to the operating point of
architectural quality as defined in the theoretical framework for architectural quality in
commercial real estate (see Figure 10).
Profit-based fee structures
The process and organisation-related problems that resulted in the themes of agency,
competency, planning process and theory crisis can except for the theme of theory crisis be
solved through the introduction of profit-based free structures (Deamer, 2014, p. 39) for
essential design agents, such as architects. This will engage the design agent in the overall
objective of economic efficiency of a project and will provide an incentive for cost reductions
130
in the manufacturing-based definition of quality and general creativity of the design agent to
interact the technical and economic dimensions with the aesthetic, cultural and social
dimensions. It will demotivate the design agent to withdraw into the realm of artistic
independence, and express architectural quality concerning aesthetics, cultural and social
dimensions as cost-increasing quality items. Similarly, it will encourage the commercial real
estate client to engage in the holistic architectural solutions that the design agent proposes, and
jointly seek for the optimal interacting point of architectural dimensions as described in the
statement of the research problem of this dissertation in Figure 1.
BIM Application
Finally, the large amounts of information that are required to operate sociotechnical systems as
described with architecture (See Figure 7), make the application of Building Information
Models indispensable in the Control of architectural quality of commercial real estate.
5.4.2 87BRecommendations
Finally, I shall conclude the dissertation with the formulation of several recommendations in
architectural and real estate research and education.
The formulation of a Mission Statement of Architectural Quality requires further
research as part of general real estate management procedures and ESG-related
reporting obligations. Also, further reflection is needed on the possible role and
function of such a statement in formal and informal governance procedures. Finally,
further research should address the mission statement as a service that can be
provided by architects in the early stages of development and project initiation. If
architects acquire sufficient knowledge in the financial dimensions of real estate, the
mission statement could be a highly valuable service to any commercial real estate
client in the early stage of investment or development.
The general percentage-of-construction-based fee for design agents is still part of
generally accepted practice in Germany. Further research would be required to
assess the implications of a profit-based fee structure on the internal operations of
architectural offices. Also, reflection needs to be given on the fiscal and regulatory
implications of such fee structures for registered architects. Finally, the title
registration policies of architects and their role in the building permit application
processes would need to be reflected concerning fees depending on profit.
In tenders for development projects with high architectural quality ambitions, first
experiences with concept-based [Konzeptvergabe] tenders are now available. The
results of these tenders need to be analysed further on the dynamics of client and
architectural agent. This analysis will not only provide further knowledge on the
correct formulation and application of concept tenders but also on the issue of design
competitions and the formulation of ‘architectural mission statements’ as mentioned
in this dissertation.
To close the apparent knowledge gaps present in the architectural profession in
economic and financial aspects of architecture, the economic dimensions of
architecture must be addressed in education both in terms of value and not only in
terms of costs, as perhaps is currently the tendency in architectural education
practice.
131
To close the apparent knowledge gap present in the real estate profession on the
cultural, social, and aesthetic dimensions of the built environment, sensibility, and
education in these topics in real estate management and other real estate finance-
related education programs is essential. However, as this cannot include a full
architectural training program, further research is required on how the cultural,
social, and aesthetic dimensions of architecture can sensibly be integrated into real
estate (master) programs. The development of a real estate client vision on these
topics could be a route.
Finally, this dissertation shall close with an urgent call to real estate and architectural academics
to jointly redefine the theoretical foundations of building practice and architecture. There are
countless libraries full of books and theories on managerial behaviour and ethical components
in general industry, production, and services. However, few exist on the managerial behaviour
of real estate managers. Given the high cultural and social impact of building practice for
humanity, this is at least remarkable. Similarly, architectural education urgently needs a
reformulation of architectural foundations concerning its pragmatic aspects, aspects of
craftsmanship and the architect as mediator of building design and construction processes. The
confusion that is caused by unprecise philosophical statements (Sokal and Bricmont, 1998),
misinterpretations as art instead of architecture (Friedrich, 2017b, p. 8), alarming levels of
inequality within the profession (Dodd, 2018, p. 229; Groth, 2018, p. 120) and ego-centric
behaviour of the architectural profession (Hawk, 1996, p. 23) need to be at the forefront of
reforms of research and education in perhaps one of the most essential sciences of humanity:
Architecture.
X
9BAppendix
Visual presentations of Investorenarchitektur
In the following various buildings are presented that were part of two publications in the
German magazine Bauwelt. In the publications the projects were classified by the authors with
the German term Investorenarchitektur.
July 2014: Stuttgart im Bild.
"Stuttgart, die Architekten-Stadt? Es ist bitter, aber wahr: Stuttgart ist gegenwärtig eine
Architekturfotografenstadt, ambitionierte Architekten hingegen – Ausnahmen bestätigen
die Regel – haben hier selten eine Chance gegen die mediokre bis lausige
Investorenarchitektur." (Baus, 2014, p. 4)
"Etwa jene, die die Banalität der innerstädtisch flächendeckenden Investorenarchitektur
der letzten Jahre zeigen (David Franck), in denen die Dominanz des Verkehrs ins Auge
springt (Wolfram Janzer, Jürgen Pollak) oder beim unerlässlichen Thema Stuttgart 21
(Andreas Menke)." (Baus, 2014, p. 4)
The article discusses an exhibition of architectural photography in the Weißenhofgalerie in
Stuttgart (DE) in 2014. The word is used twice in the article. In the first instance it is used to
refer to mediocre architecture. In the second instance it is used to refer to the photos of trivial
('banal') inner-city architecture made by the photographer David Franck depicted below.
Figure A 1 Photo of a building referred to as ‘Investorenarchitektur’. Photographer David
Franck, https://www.davidfranck.de/. Copyright photo with photographer, used here with
permission from the photographer. Creative commons 4.0 licence does not apply to this
photo.
XI
Figure A 2 Photo of a building referred to as ‘Investorenarchitektur’. Photographer David
Franck, https://www.davidfranck.de/. Copyright photo with photographer, used here with
permission from the photographer. Creative commons 4.0 licence does not apply to this photo.
Figure A 3 Photo of a building referred to as ‘Investorenarchitektur’. Photographer David
Franck, https://www.davidfranck.de/. Copyright photo with photographer, used here with
permission from the photographer. Creative commons 4.0 licence does not apply to this photo.
XII
Figure A 4 Photo of a building referred to as ‘Investorenarchitektur’. Photographer David
Franck, https://www.davidfranck.de/. Copyright photo with photographer, used here with
permission from the photographer. Creative commons 4.0 licence does not apply to this photo.
Figure A 5 Photo of a building referred to as ‘Investorenarchitektur’. Photographer David
Franck, https://www.davidfranck.de/. Copyright photo with photographer, used here with
permission from the photographer. Creative commons 4.0 licence does not apply to this photo.
XIII
Figure A 6 Photo of a building referred to as ‘Investorenarchitektur’. Photographer David
Franck, https://www.davidfranck.de/. Copyright photo with photographer, used here with
permission from the photographer. Creative commons 4.0 licence does not apply to this photo.
Figure A 7 Photo of a building referred to as ‘Investorenarchitektur’. Photographer David
Franck, https://www.davidfranck.de/. Copyright photo with photographer, used here with
permission from the photographer. Creative commons 4.0 licence does not apply to this photo.
XIV
April 2019: 72TWas bleibt möglich?
"Die Randbebauungen des Parks am Gleisdreieck bedrängen das Berliner
Freiheitsgefühl und befördern zudem den Frust auf Investorenarchitektur." (Bruun Yde,
2019, p. 38)
The article discusses several projects that surround the Gleisdreieckpark in Berlin. The term
Investorenarchitektur is used to express a frustration about the fact that many projects are
closing the park off from its surrounding space. One of the projects is 'without doubt' put into
relation with commercial investors: the project Flottwellstrasse in the article 'ein Park mit
Folgen' (Bruun Yde, 2019; Crone, 2019). Photo’s of the project are depicted below.
Figure A 8 Project Flottwellstraße mentioned in Crone, 2019. View from Flottwellstraße/
Dennewitzstraße. Photo by author, 2023
XV
Figure A 9 Project Flottwellstraße mentioned in Crone, 2019. View from Gleisdreieckpark.
Photo by author, 2023
Figure A 10 Project Flottwellstraße mentioned in Crone, 2019. View from Gleisdreieckpark.
Photo by author, 2023
XVI
Figure A 11 Project Flottwellstraße mentioned in Crone, 2019. View from Flottwellstraße.
Photo by author, 2023
Figure A 12 Project Flottwellstraße mentioned in Crone, 2019. View from Gleisdreieckpark.
Photo by author, 2023
XVII
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