Document [original]

Procedia CIRP 40 ( 2016 ) 475 – 480

Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Peer-review under responsibility of the International Scientific Committee of the 13th Global Conference on Sustainable Manufacturing

doi: 10.1016/j.procir.2016.01.102

ScienceDirect

13th Global Conference on Sustainable Manufacturing - Decoupling Growth from Resource Use

Evaluating sustainable development from a child’s perspective - a proposal

of Sustainable Child Development Index (SCDI)

Ya-Ju Chang* and Matthias Finkbeiner

Chair of Sustainable Engineering, Department of Environmental Technology, Technische Universität Berlin, Straße des 17. Juni 135, 10623 Berlin, Germany

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +49-30-314-79564; fax: +49-30-314-25944. E-mail address: ya-ju.chang@tu-berlin.de

Abstract

In Social Life Cycle Assessment (SLCA), the UNEP guideline proposes the five stakeholder groups to investigate the corresponding social

issues from a whole-population perspective. Despite the relevance of children in inheriting and forming the society in the context of sustainable

development, children are neglected as a relevant stakeholder group. To consider children’s interests and influence in SLCA from a top-down

perspective, a literature review is conducted to identify relevant topics and gaps related to the assessment of child development. The results

categorize the main aspects of child development into six themes: health, education, safety, material condition, relationship, participation, and a

newly proposed theme environmental aspect. Furthermore, to address the existing gaps, the Sustainable Child Development Index (SCDI) is

proposed to consider relevant aspects of children development on an outcome and a context level, with regard to newly-proposed

environmental aspects.

Peer-review under responsibility of the International Scientific Committee of the 13th Global Conference on Sustainable Manufacturing.

Keywords: Child development; Social Life Cycle Assessment; Sustainable Child Development Index; Sustainability assessment; Sustainable development

1. Introduction

Sustainable development (SD) was defined as

“development that meets the needs of the present without

compromising the ability of future generations to meet their

own needs” by the Brundtland Commission [1]. This

definition considers intra- and inter-generational equity, and

also highlights the right for every human being, whether adult

or child (defined as aged under 18 [2,3]), to be granted the

opportunity to develop in freedom and in a well-balanced

society by satisfying basic needs and protecting the

environment [4–6]. The International Union for Conservation

of Nature Resource et al. [7] stated that “we have not inherited

the Earth from our parents; we have borrowed it from our

children”. This statement emphasizes the significant

relationship between inter-generational equity, children and

SD.

Among the existing sustainability assessment approaches,

Life cycle sustainability assessment (LCSA) method has

obtained increasing attention. LCSA combines life cycle

assessment (LCA), social LCA (SLCA) and life cycle costing

(LCC) to cover environmental, social and economic aspects

[8,9]. To assess social issues, the United Nations Environment

Programme (UNEP) [10] proposes five stakeholder groups for

SLCA: workers, consumers, local communities, value chain

actors and societies from a whole-population perspective.

Children are the stakeholders inheriting and forming the

society; however, despite the fact that children’s relevance in

the context of SD, they are ignored as a relevant stakeholder

group. Any sustainability assessment approach neglecting

children’s interests and their influence on SD is insufficient.

Thus, the stakeholder group children should be added to

LCSA or, for a simplified assessment, even replaces the

current five stakeholder groups, to acknowledge children’s

relevance for achieving inter-generational equity [11].

As the needs of children development (CD) and their

susceptibility to external factors are different from those of

adults, approaches for evaluating SD from a child perspective,

that is sustainable child development (SCD), need to be

developed independent of whole-population-oriented

assessments. The Child Development Index (CDI) [12,13] was

proposed by applying an integrated index to evaluate the

development of children with regard to health, education and

basic needs (nutrition). It owns very limited themes and does

(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Peer-review under responsibility of the International Scientifi c Committee of the 13th Global Conference on Sustainable Manufacturing

476 Ya-Ju Chang and Matthias Finkbeiner / Procedia CIRP 40 ( 2016 ) 475 – 480

not allow a comprehensive assessment of environmental and

resource-consumption aspects in the context of SD. A widely-

accepted, clearly-stated and comprehensive index system to

evaluate CD in the context of SD is still missing [11].

Hence, the objectives of this study are 1) to provide

overview of the different aspects addressed as well as the

existing gaps in existing CD studies, and 2) to propose the

Sustainable Child Development Index (SCDI) as a holistic

concept covering aspects of CD and addressing existing gaps

by considering regional conditions, interdependencies, and

environmental aspects. The preliminary SCDI framework

provides an innovative perspective to evaluate SD; the

adoption of SCDI to SLCA and other sustainability

assessment approaches are expected.

2. Reviewing themes related to sustainable development of

children

In this section, a literature review related to child rights,

CD and well-being is presented as a basis for identifying

relevant themes, subthemes, criteria and existing gaps. The

results are used as a basis to propose SCDI. As a first step, the

basic rights of children and underlying themes regarding SD

are identified and combined as a foundation for SCD. The

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) [14] serve as a

reference for ensuring that the rights and themes comply with

SD goals. As a next step, after defining the frame for SCD,

relevant themes, subthemes and criteria are identified based

on existing studies of CD and child well-being.

2.1. Basic rights and Millennium Development Goals

Children are born with basic rights [15]. The protection of

these basic rights needs to be considered as the core principles

of SCD. In 1989, the Convention on the Rights of the Child

(CRC) of the United Nations defined basic rights of children,

including the best interests of children, non-discrimination,

participation, survival and development [2,3]. The NGO Child

Right and You [15] further elaborated these rights by pointing

out relevant themes: the right to survival (to health, nutrition,

unpolluted environment, and access to clean drinking water

and sanitation), the right to development (to education,

parental and alternative care, leisure and recreation), the right

to protection (with birth registration and nationality, free from

exploitation, abuse and neglect), and the right to participation

(to express their concerns on child-related issues, and access

to media). All of these rights need to be considered as the

foundation of SCD [11].

Next, the MDGs are analyzed, to check if the identified

rights and themes reflect general SD goals. The UNDP stated

eight MDGs [16]: Eradicating extreme poverty and hunger;

achieving universal primary education; promoting gender

equality and empowering women; reducing child mortality;

improving maternal health; combating HIV/AIDS, malaria

and other diseases; ensuring environmental sustainability;

developing a global partnership for development. There are

many direct links between MDGs and the identified rights.

For example, eradicating extreme poverty and hunger,

reducing child mortality, and combating HIV/AIDS, malaria

and other diseases can directly link to the physical and mental

health of the rights to survival. Besides, ensuring

environmental sustainability means that children live without

the danger of environmental degradation. Achieving universal

primary education connects to the rights to development in

education. Those aspects clearly indicate that children are the

foundation of SD, and strongly support the rights and

principles claimed in CRC and MDGs: health, safety,

education and participation [11]. Based on the rights and

principles, the themes, subthemes and criteria related to SCD

are identified and classified correspondingly through a

literature review in the following section.

2.2. Identification of relevant themes, subthemes and criteria

for child development

This article focuses on studies that refer to overall aspects

of CD and well-being rather than ones with only specific

emphasis on single areas, like health or education. In total, 23

studies are selected as references from an academic,

organizational and governmental background, to identify

comprehensive set of themes, subthemes and criteria [11].

Based on the discussed rights and principles, a set of relevant

themes can be determined: health, safety, education and

participation. Moreover, by reviewing selected studies on CD

and well-being, two additional themes are identified:

relationships and economic status [11]. Subthemes and

according criteria associated with the themes are categorized

as well.

2.2.1. Health

According to the literature review, health is a theme of

high importance for CD. Without securing their health,

children have difficulties surviving and obtaining skills, and

this negatively affects future human capital. Risk behavior,

nutrition, child mortality, immunization coverage, eating and

physical activity and subjective health are identified as the six

most relevant subthemes [11].

x Behavior of children that puts their health at risk needs to

be evaluated. Tobacco and alcohol use are the two criteria

identified especially for children of school age. In addition,

adolescent fertility is also recognized as relevant, as it

could increase the risk of venereal disease.

x Sufficient nutrition is a basic need for children and their

physical development. Low birth weight, being overweight

and obesity, breastfeeding and being underweight are

identified as relevant criteria for the subtheme nutrition.

x Reducing child mortality was already suggested in the

MDGs and is frequently mentioned in the literature. To

determine child mortality, infant mortality and under-five

mortality are two commonly suggested criteria.

x Sufficient vaccination programs represent the quality of

health services to avoid particular communicable diseases

477

Ya-Ju Chang and Matthias Finkbeiner / Procedia CIRP 40 ( 2016 ) 475 – 480

in children. Full immunization, vaccinations for diphtheria

tetanus toxoid and pertussis and vaccinations for measles

are three criteria identified as relevant.

x Both physical activity and healthy diets help children to

strengthen their physiological function. Having breakfast

and eating fruits are two commonly recommended criteria.

x Apart from judging health from an objective perspective,

the subjective perspective is also relevant. Criteria such as

satisfaction and perceived quality of life relate to the

subjective health of children.

x Other subthemes, such as oral health, injury, mental health,

maternal health, health financing, water and sanitation,

child disability, chronic disease and hazardous pollutants,

are mentioned, but not frequently addressed in the

reviewed literature. HIV and malaria are rarely considered

though they are directly linked to the MDGs.

2.2.2. Education

Education is another theme of high relevance for SCD.

Learning values, behavior, knowledge, skills and

competencies, is a key pathway of SD [17], and important for

children to develop their capability to work and to elaborate

life. By means of the literature review, school attainment,

attendance of basic education, early childhood education and

advanced education (high schools and colleges) are the

subthemes with high priority for evaluating the educational

progress of children [11].

x The subtheme school attainment can be evaluated by

means of the criteria mathematical and reading literacy.

Higher literacies indicate that children may have better

performance and knowledge obtainment.

x Enrollment in primary school is identified as the criteria

most often used to assess if children obtain fundamental

knowledge.

x Early childhood education and advanced education are two

essential subthemes. Early childhood education is

important to attain day-to-day knowledge in the initial

phases of life. Advanced education refers to the attainment

of higher levels of knowledge for further development of

skills, which strengthens the position of children in the

employment market.

x Other subthemes mentioned as relevant for assessing the

theme education are transition to employment, parents’

education qualification, extra-curricular subjects and

public expenditure on education.

2.2.3. Safety

Children are fragile in the early life stage and need parents

and adults to care for and support them. Without appropriate

care arrangements, children can easily be exposed to dangers

and engage in delinquent behavior. Violence and crime, child

care arrangements and child abuse and punishment are

identified as the three major subthemes of safety [11].

x Violence in school and juvenile delinquency are identified

as the two main criteria for evaluating safety.

x Child abuse can cause physical and mental damage and,

consequently, has a negative effect on CD.

x Child care arrangement is relevant for ensuring the safety

of children. The identified criteria are formal care and

adult supervision after school.

x Governmental efforts to ensure child safety, like birth

registration, child labor, child marriage, and female genital

mutilation (FGM) are also concerned in literature.

2.2.4. Relationships

Relationships with family, peers and community are

identified as common subthemes in the literature for the

evaluation of CD. Effective relationships are important for

children with regard to their long-term emotional and

psychological development [18]. Communication between

parents and children, as well as family structure are the two

main criteria reflecting the family relationship, however, these

are typically based on subjective evaluations [11].

2.2.5. Economic Status

Economic status is another relevant theme for assessing

CD. The main subthemes are relative household income

poverty, household without job, material deprivation, risk

housing, hunger and food shortage, crowded household and

macroeconomic situation. If the income, material and housing

are not sufficient, CD can be restricted, possibly triggering the

early leave from school and possible crimes [11].

2.2.6. Participation

Participation is not widely discussed in most of the

reviewed literature, however, participation in public affairs

via voting, joining civic activities and engaging in media can

motivate children to defend their rights and become

responsible and active citizens [11].

Nevertheless, there are several potential subthemes that

have not been addressed in the reviewed literature, but that

might be of high importance for SCD. In the next section,

gaps of current SCD studies are discussed. Furthermore, based

on these gaps, additional subthemes are suggested for the

development of the SCDI [11].

2.3. Challenges of assessing child development

Through the literature review, several gaps were identified

with regard to the current analysis of CD. The heterogeneous

classification of subthemes and criteria, interdependency,

regional and societal bias in addressing certain aspects, the

limited subthemes and criteria and the lack of including

environmental aspects currently impede the implementation

of SCD [11].

478 Ya-Ju Chang and Matthias Finkbeiner / Procedia CIRP 40 ( 2016 ) 475 – 480

x Heterogeneous classification of relevant aspects: There is

currently no generally accepted classification scheme [19–

22], and the choice of themes, subthemes and criteria is

subjective and depends also on the availability of related

data [20,23].

x Interdependencies: An assessment of the dependencies

between different subthemes and criteria is missing [24].

Even though the SCDI framework is a first step towards a

standardized and explicit classification scheme, the

interdependencies between the criteria and subthemes

needs to be further investigated [11].

x Regional and societal bias: The identification of subthemes

and criteria is often based on the concerns of industrialized

countries. As a consequence, the criterion “overweight and

obesity” is associated with higher attention in the current

literature than the criterion “underweight”; malaria and

diarrheal disease, which are very critical to young children,

receive little attention in the reviewed literature as they

mainly occur in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. In

addition, some criteria are based on particular societal

preferences in evaluating CD. For example, the proportion

of children living in single-parent families and

stepfamilies, which is often used to negatively judge

family relationship; however, it could be arbitrary [18].

Similarly, child labor also usually leads to negative

impacts, like increasing health risks and deteriorating

school performance; however, some positive effects, like

the development of discipline, responsibility, self-

confidence, and economic supports to families (especially

important in some developing countries), may also occur

[25]. The evaluation framework needs to allow

customization and expansion for different regional

preferences for mitigating the bias [11].

x Limited subthemes and criteria: There are still some issues

may affect CD, but lack proper consideration in the

literature. Examples include vocational education, equality

in education, demographic structure, youth unemployment

or availability of media for children [11].

x Lack of including environmental aspects: Environmental

aspects are not addressed in CD research yet. For assessing

CD regional effects, regional issues related to the

exhaustion and scarcity of resource, like water

vulnerability and the use of renewable energy, should be

considered in SCD [11].

In the next section, the SCDI framework is outlined to

address the identified gaps and to support a more

comprehensive approach for the assessment of SCD.

3. Framework of Sustainable Child Development Index

Based on the results of literature review, a new concept,

the Sustainable Child Development Index (SCDI), is proposed.

It aims to provide a consistent and comprehensive assessment

of CD from a sustainability perspective and to address

existing gaps by identifying subthemes and criteria,

distinguishing between an outcome and context level,

considering regional conditions and including environmental

aspects.

The SCDI is structured as a two-level scheme, including an

outcome and a context level. Both levels rely on the six earlier

identified themes: health, education, safety, economic status,

relationships and participation as a foundation and include the

additional theme environment on the context level to come up

to the requirements of sustainability.

The framework distinguishes the subthemes and criteria in

two parts: outcomes of CD and contexts that have the

potential to influence the outcomes. The contextual subthemes

and criteria can affect CD, but this causal relationship is not

binding. For instance, growing up in a single-parent family

may, but does not necessarily have to increase the likelihood

of having negative effects on CD. This implies the contextual

subthemes and criteria are associated with the outcome of CD,

but should not be considered as direct measures of the

outcome [24]. In this sense, on the outcome level, the

subthemes showing children’s status and capability are

selected. For example, the subthemes nutrition, child

mortality, injury, subjective health, oral health, mental health,

chronic disease and disability are listed on the outcome level

of the theme health [11].

Furthermore, the additional theme environmental aspect is

added on the context level to bridge current CD to SD. Based

on the definitions of environment, resource accessibility is

identified as relevant and needs to be considered in the

development of the SCDI framework. Freshwater

vulnerability is proposed as a subtheme of the theme

environmental aspects due to the close relation to everyday

needs, the regional and local circumstances and the relevance

to maintaining freshwater access for achieving inter-

generational equity. The criterion hazardous pollutants is not

considered under the theme environment aspects, as it is

included under the theme health, in line with current literature.

In addition, new subthemes are proposed to strengthen the

comprehensiveness of the evaluation on the context level.

These subthemes include provision of vocational school,

equality in education, youth unemployment, availability of

media for children, fossil fuel energy consumption and

demographic structure. An overview of the outcome and

context level proposed in this work is provided in Figure 1

[11]. The new subthemes are described as follows.

x Vocational education (may include technical schools,

workshop schools, development agencies, etc. [17]) is

designed to prepare individuals for a vocation or a

specialized occupation and is directly linked with a

nation’s productivity, competitiveness and equality in

education. It affects quality of life of children and personal

development, attitudes and motivation [11].

x Equality in education is essential for all children. Gender

equality in education plays a core role in protecting

children’s basic right to education. If gender equality is

low, this leads to a vicious circle in personal development

of girls, human capital and gender conflicts in society.

479

Ya-Ju Chang and Matthias Finkbeiner / Procedia CIRP 40 ( 2016 ) 475 – 480

x The global youth unemployment rate in 2013 was 12.6%,

close to a crisis critical peak [11,26]. The economic and

social costs of unemployment and widespread low quality

jobs for young people continue to rise and undermine the

potential of economies to grow [26].

x Media (newspapers, periodicals, books, broadcasts,

websites, television shows and news, etc.) designed for

children is important for children to attain knowledge and

to participate in public affairs by expressing their opinions.

Furthermore, well-designed media can provide information

without harmful content, such as violence [11].

x Fossil fuel is a non-renewable energy source. High fossil

fuel energy consumption speeds up the depletion of fossil

fuel resources and damages the rights of future generation

to access these resources [11].

x Demographic structure (especially the sex ratio at birth,

estimated as the number of boys born per 100 girls) can

reflect the attitude towards gender equality in society. High

sex ratios at birth may be attributed to sex-selective

abortion, infanticide and underreporting of female births

due to a strong preference for sons [27,28].

Moreover, including additional subthemes into the

assessment based on regional relevance shall be enabled.

Subthemes related to societal value and prerequisites in the

SCDI, which can be adapted according to country-specific

situations. These subthemes can refer to FGM, armed

conflicts or critical diseases, for example HIV or malaria [11].

To further develop the SCDI, relevant criteria need to be

identified that properly represent the identified subthemes,

and the quantification of these criteria for the calculation of

the numerical SCDI needs to be defined. The goal is to

provide quantitative values to compare the performance of

countries and to reflect their potential toward SD. The SCDI

then can be used to support decision making in policy and

societal development and bridge SCD to current sustainability

studies. In addition to its application on the country level, the

SCDI framework intends to complement SLCA

methodologies by introducing children as an additional

stakeholder group in SLCA, respectively LCSA. As SLCA is

struggling with lacking data, children could even replace the

current stakeholder groups for a high-level assessment, and

SCDI could provide the basis for an integrated indicator

framework [11].

Outcome of child development

Health

- Nutrition

- Child mortality

- Injury

- Subjective health

-Oral health

- Mental health

- Chronic disease

- Disability

- HIV/malaria

Education

- School attainment

- Completion of basic

and advanced

education

- Transition to

employment

- Subjective evaluation

- Other participation

Safety

- Violence and crime

- Juvenile

delinquency

- Bully offenders

- Feeling safe in

living community

and school

Relationship

- Family relationship

- Relation with parents

- Satisfaction of family

- Peer relationship

- Community relationship

- Engaging in community

activities

- Satisfaction of

community

Participation

- Participation in civic

activity

- Voting of

presidential elections

Context of child development

Health

- Immunization

coverage

- Risk behavior

- Eating and Physical

behaviour

- Maternal health

- Health financing

- Water and sanitation

- Hazardous pollutant

-Demographic

Structure: Sex ratio

at birth

Education

- Enrolment of basic and

beyond basic education

- Early childhood

education

-Parents‘ educational

qualification

- Government support on

education

-Provision of vocational

school

-Equality in education

Safety

- Violence and crime

- Being bullied

- Criminal victimization

- Family violence

- Child care arrangement

-Child abuse

- Physical punishment

- Birth registration

- Child labour

- Child marriage

- Female genital

mutilation

Economic status

- Household relative

income poverty

- Household without job

- Risk housing

- Crowded household

- Macroeconomic

situation

-Youth unemployment

Environmental

aspect

-Fresh water

vulnerability

-Fossil fuel

energy

consumption

Relationship

- Family structure

-Community

relationship

- Immigration

- Social capital

Participation

- Social connection

-Media for children

Economic status

- Material deprivation

- Food shortage

Fig. 1. The framework of sustainable child development index, adopted from [11]

480 Ya-Ju Chang and Matthias Finkbeiner / Procedia CIRP 40 ( 2016 ) 475 – 480

4. Concluding remark

The article proposes a new approach by taking children as

the key stakeholder group for SD, since they represent the link

between current and future societies. Based on the

comprehensive literature review, six relevant themes were

identified for assessing SCD: health, education, safety,

economic status, relationships and participation. The relevant

subthemes were identified and classified correspondingly. To

address the critical gaps in current studies on CD, the two-

level SCDI framework is proposed, considering relevant

themes and subthemes of SCD in an outcome and a context

level, including environmental aspects, and integrating

additional aspects with regional relevance. Thus, the SCDI

enables the evaluation of the potential towards SD at a

country level, and can support decision making in policy and

societal development. Besides, in SLCA, children could even

replace the current stakeholder groups for a macro-level

assessment, and SCDI could provide the basis for an

integrated indicator framework.

However, some limitations still persist. The proposed

framework will have to be continuously revised when

additional literature and information with regard to CD

become available. Furthermore, the interdependencies

between the different subthemes and criteria need to be

discussed in more detail in future studies, as these correlations

could influence the categorization of the criteria. As CD

aspects are often multi-faceted with complex and indirect

cause-and-effect relations, interpretation is not always

straightforward. These will be addressed in more detail in the

future research, and the applicability of SCDI will be tested in

exemplary case studies.

Acknowledgements

The authors gratefully acknowledge that the study is

funded by the German Research Foundation DFG (SFB

1026/1 2012), Collaborative Research Center CRC1026

(Sonderforschungsbereich SFB1026).

References

[1] United Nations. Report of the World Commission on Environment and

Development: Our Common Future. United Nations 1987. http://www.un-

documents.net/wced-ocf.htm (accessed January 11, 2014).

[2] Cornock M. Rights of the child. Geneva: United Nations; 2009.

[3] United Nations. Convention on the Rights of the Child 1989;2014.

http://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/crc.aspx.

[4] Van de Kerk G, Manuel A, Sustainable Society Foundation. Sustainable

Society Index SSI-2012. The Hague: 2012.

[5] Holden E, Linnerud K. The sustainable development area: satisfying basic

needs and safeguarding ecological sustainability. Sustain Dev

2007;15:174–87.

[6] Waas T, Hugé J, Verbruggen A, Wright T. Sustainable development: a

bird’s eye view. Sustainability 2011;3:1637–61. doi:10.3390/su3101637.

[7] International Union for Conservation of Nature Resource, United Nations

Environment Programme, World Wildlife Fund. World Conservation

Strategy - Living Resource Conservation for Sustainable Development.

Gland: International Union for Conservation of Nature Resource; 1980.

[8] Finkbeiner M, Schau EM, Lehmann A, Traverso M. Towards Life Cycle

Sustainability Assessment. Sustainability 2010;2:3309–22.

[9] UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative. Towards a Life Cycle Sustainability

Assessment- Making informed choices on products. Paris: United Nations

Environment Programme; 2011.

[10] United Nations Environment Programme. The Guidelines for Social Life

Cycle Assessment of Products. Druk in de Weer: United Nations

Environment Programme,; 2009.

[11] Chang Y-J, Schneider L, Finkbeiner M. Assessing Child Development:

A Critical Review and the Sustainable Child Development Index (SCDI).

Sustainability 2015;7:4973–96. doi:10.3390/su7054973.

[12] Save the Children Fund, The Save the Children Fund. The Child

Development Index- Holding governments to account children’s

wellbeing. London: 2008.

[13] Save the Children Fund, The Save the Children Fund. The Child

Development Index 2012- Progress, challenges and inequality. London:

2012.

[14] United Nations. United Nations Millennium Declaration 2000;2014.

http://www.un.org/millennium/declaration/ares552e.htm.

[15] Child Rights and You. Child rights 2012.

http://www.cry.org/CRYCampaign/ChildRights.htm (accessed October 9,

2013).

[16] United Nations Development Programme. The Millennium Development

Goals- Eight Goals for 2015 2014;2014.

http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/mdgoverview/.

[17] Murga-Menoyo MÁ. Educating for local development and global

sustainability: an overview in Spain. Sustainability 2009;1:479–93.

doi:10.3390/su1030479.

[18] United Nations Children’s Fund, United Nations Children’s Fund. An

Overview of Child Well-Being in Rich Countries . Florence: 2007.

[19] Minkkinen J. The structural model of child well-being. Child Indic Res

2013;6:547–58. doi:10.1007/s12187-013-9178-6.

[20] Cho EY-N. A clustering approach to comparing children’s wellbeing

accross countries. Child Indic Res 2014;7:553–67. doi:10.1007/s12187-

013-9229-z.

[21] O’Hare WP, Gutierrez F. The use of domains in constructing a

comprehensive composite index of child well-being . Child Indic Res

2012;5:609–29. doi:10.1007/s12187-012-9138-6.

[22] Ben-Arieh A, Casas F, Frønes I, Korbin JE. Multifaceted Concept of

Child Well-Being. In: Ben-Arieh A, Casas F, Frønes I, Korbin JE, editors.

Handb. Child Well-Being – Theor. Methods Policies Glob. Perspect. 1st

ed., Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands; 2014, p. 1–27. doi:10.1007/978-90-

481-9063-8_134.

[23] Lee BJ. Mapping Domains and Indicators of Children’s Well-Being. In:

Ben-Arieh A, Casas F, Frønes I, Korbin JE, editors. Handb. Child Well-

Being – Theor. Methods Policies Glob. Perspect. 1st ed., Dordrecht:

Springer Netherlands; 2014, p. 2797–805. doi:10.1007/978-90-481-9063-

8_137.

[24] Moore KA, Murphey D, Bandy T, Lawner E. Indices of Child Well-

Being and Developmental Contexts. In: Ben-Arieh A, Casas F, Frønes I,

Korbin JE, editors. Handb. Child Well-Being – Theor. Methods Policies

Glob. Perspect. 1st ed., Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands; 2014, p. 2807–

22.

[25] Andreas Jørgensen, Lufanna C. H. Lai, Michael Z. Hauschild. Assessing

the validity of impact pathways for child labour and well-being in social

life cycle assessment. Int J Life Cycle Assess 2010;15:5–16.

[26] International Labour Organization, International Labour Organization.

Global Employment Trends for Youth 2013. Geneva: 2013.

[27] United Nations Population Fund, United Nations Population Fund.

Report of the International Workshop on Skewed Sex Ratios at Birth. Ha

Noi: 2011.

[28] Rajeswar J. Population perspectives and sustainable development.

Sustain Dev 2000;8:135–41.