Bullying prevalence in Pakistan’s educational institutes: Preclusion to the framework for a teacher-led antibullying intervention [original]

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Bullying prevalence in Pakistan’s educational

institutes: Preclusion to the framework for a

teacher-led antibullying intervention

Sohni SiddiquiID*, Anja Schultze-Krumbholz

Department of Educational Psychology, Technische Universita

¨t Berlin, Berlin, Germany

*[email protected]u-berlin.de

Abstract

Increasing reports of bullying and cyberbullying in schools in recent years are undeniable

and have been recognized as a serious public health problem. Conventional bullying and

cyberbullying are not only a problem in higher educational institutions in Pakistan, but also in

primary and secondary schools. Although statistics show higher levels of bullying and

cyber-risky behaviors among youth, policies and interventions to control the consequences

of conventional and cyberbullying are rare in the Pakistani context. This study explores

teachers’ perspectives and experiences in identifying bullying strategies in different school

contexts. Four hundred fifty-four teachers working in different educational institutions com-

pleted an online survey that provided data to draw conclusions and to get a better sense of

the situation in educational institutions in Pakistan. According to the results, teachers experi-

ence verbal and social bullying more frequently than online and physical bullying. In addi-

tion, teachers in lower grades reported noticing more physical bullying than teachers in

higher grades. Facebook was reported to be the most common platform students used to

bully each other. Researchers also found significant differences between rural and urban

teachers’ experiences with social bullying. Bullying intervention strategies should be devel-

oped and integrated into educational settings in Pakistan. The data presented will be used

to develop tailored anti-bullying interventions that are culturally and socially appropriate for

Pakistani educational settings.

Introduction

Aggression is a set of actions that are considered a significant challenge for society to deal with

and are defined by social psychology as any behavior aimed at harming a person or animal [1].

If there is no immediate intervention, some of these aggressive behaviours, can lead to serious

societal consequences, such as extreme forms of bullying or irreversible negative effects such

as delinquency [2]. Bullying is a repeated aggressive behavior with the intention to afflict phys-

ical, emotional, or mental harm and usually results from a power imbalance [3]. To differenti-

ate, bullying others without using electronic or digital means is nowadays considered to be

“traditional bullying”; when technology is used to intentionally harm others, it is referred to as

PLOS ONE

PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0284864 April 27, 2023 1 / 23

a1111111111

OPEN ACCESS

Citation: Siddiqui S, Schultze-Krumbholz A (2023)

Bullying prevalence in Pakistan’s educational

institutes: Preclusion to the framework for a

teacher-led antibullying intervention. PLoS ONE

18(4): e0284864. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.

pone.0284864

Editor: Faisal Shafique Butt, COMSATS University

Islamabad - Wah Campus, PAKISTAN

Received: December 23, 2022

Accepted: April 11, 2023

Published: April 27, 2023

Peer Review History: PLOS recognizes the

benefits of transparency in the peer review

process; therefore, we enable the publication of

all of the content of peer review and author

responses alongside final, published articles. The

editorial history of this article is available here:

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0284864

This is an open access article distributed under the

terms of the Creative Commons Attribution

License, which permits unrestricted use,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

provided the original author and source are

credited.

Data Availability Statement: All relevant data are

within the paper.

cyberbullying. School bullying and neighborhood bullying are two examples of traditional bul-

lying, while cyberbullying is a result of technology, such as the Internet [4].

Traditional bullying, or face-to-face bullying, is further subdivided into physical, verbal, or

social/emotional/relational bullying. Acts such as hitting, kicking, tripping, pinching, and

pushing or damaging property are considered different forms of physical bullying. Contrarily,

name-calling, insults, use of swear words, teasing, intimidation, and rude remarks are different

kinds of verbal abuse or verbal bullying. Social bullying, sometimes referred to as covert/rela-

tional or emotional bullying, is often challenging to recognize and can be carried out behind

the bullied person’s back. It is designed to harm someone’s social reputation and/or to cause

them humiliation. The most common types of this behavior include lying and spreading

rumors, negative facial or physical gestures, menacing or contemptuous looks, playing nasty

jokes to embarrass and humiliate, mimicking unkindly, encouraging others to socially exclude

someone, damaging someone’s social reputation, or affecting acceptance of the person [5].

The advent of technology and frequent internet usage has introduced a more technologi-

cally-oriented form of aggression known as cyber aggression [6]. It is defined as ‘intentional

harm delivered by the use of electronic means to a person or a group of people irrespective

of their age who perceive(s) such acts as offensive, derogatory, harmful or unwanted’ [7].

Englander et al. (2017) defined cyberbullying as willful and repeated harm inflicted upon a vic-

tim through the use of computers, cell phones, and other electronic devices [8]. Even though

several initiatives and interventions have been designed to prevent and control this harmful

behavior, the rate of cyberbullying and traditional bullying continues to rise around the world

[9]. Facebook statistics revealed that between 2017 and 2021, harassment-related posts con-

stantly increased [10]. Delgado (2020) also reported that abusive language among children and

teens rose by 70% and more soon after engagement in online classes [11]. Moreover, as school

work had to be done from home, traditional bullying was replaced by cyberbullying in house-

holds [12].

The issue of bullying and cyberbullying has gained prominence worldwide, but for educa-

tional institutions in Pakistan, this matter has yet to be studied in depth. Additionally, the vast

majority of the data collected and published are based on respondents’ self-reports, which may

be skewed by social desirability biases or misremembrance issues, thus undermining validity.

The aim of this article is to discuss the range of traditional bullying and cyberbullying and

their concomitants in Pakistan’s educational system by including experiences of teachers

working at different educational institutions. Moreover, the need for a socially and culturally

adapted/newly developed bullying intervention will be discussed by revisiting steps and inter-

ventions taken in the past and the data gathered from teachers.

Theoretical background

The theoretical basis for explaining the concept of bullying and aggression

Aggression is a broad term comprising multiple constructs and is not just limited to behavior

evaluated at the symptom level [13]. Aggression is also described from a variety of perspectives

including antisocial behavior, juvenile delinquency, coercion, assertiveness, or bullying [14].

Gay (1999) summarized the concept of the Psychoanalytical Theory presented by Sigmund

Freud in the late 19th century and stated that aggression is an innate and fundamental feeling

which is a part of human nature; it is essential for defense and the fight for dominance [15].

Pinker (2012) supported Freud’s concept and explained that the motive behind bullying is the

need for power, which is a special kind of instrumental violence that is inherent in human

nature [16,17]. Dehue (2013); Slonje et al., (2013) reported that traditional bullying and cyber-

bullying behaviors constitute unjustified aggression, based on power imbalance, and continue

PLOS ONE

Bullying prevalence in Pakistan’s educational institutes

PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0284864 April 27, 2023 2 / 23

Funding: The funders had no role in study design,

data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or

preparation of the manuscript.

Competing interests: The authors have declared

that no competing interests exist.

over time [18,19]. A psychoanalytic model explains that human nature is always seeking supe-

riority, and bullying is a way of displaying authority and showcasing prestigiousness.

In early studies, one of the other main factors being considered was frustration as a cause

of aggression [20]. Similarly, Agnew (1992) developed a General Strain Theory and defined

strain as events or conditions that individuals dislike, with strains also classified as the inability

to achieve desired goals, the presentation of harmful or negatively valued stimuli, and the loss

of desirable stimuli [21]. All these strains can be seen as major contributors to a perpetrator’s

involvement in bullying behavior and victims’ transformation into perpetrators. The literature

has elaborated that bullying and cyberbullying are generally associated with people who have

been maltreated or have a higher level of anxiety, academic difficulties, passive aggressive

behaviors, and internalizing and externalizing problems than their peers [22–24].

Albert Bandura introduced the concept of social learning in the development of aggression.

He further elaborated that interventions designed to modify behavior via rewards and punish-

ment were incomplete for explaining the development of behaviors, as humans tend to mimic

others and learn from them [25]. Garandeau and Cillessen (2006) explained that perpetrators

are popular and considered to have competent social-cognitive skills [26]. The desire for

supremacy and high status are some of the motives behind bullying others [27]. Bystanders

often mimic bullies to gain the same social influence as they perceive a bully’s fame and peers’

anxiety about becoming the next victim.

Another theory regarding child behavior is the Social Information Processing Theory (SIP),

which examines how children and teenagers process information in social contexts. According

to SIP, children with disruptive behavior problems perceive, interpret, and make decisions

about social information in a way that increases their likelihood of engaging in aggressive

behavior [28]. Attachment problems or coercive cycles could explain such difficulties with

interpersonal processing. Similarly, coercive parenting can explain harsh parental behavior

such as hitting, yelling, scolding, threatening, rejection, and psychological control to achieve

compliance from the child. As an example of how social information processing theory is

applied, a child may assume another child intentionally pushed them in the lunch line rather

than assuming it was an accident.

Social Interaction Theory proposed by Tedeschi and Felson (1994) demonstrated aggres-

sion as psychologically influenced behavior aimed at changing the target’s behavior [29].

These actions are used by a perpetrator to obtain something valuable such as money, goods,

information, services, or to achieve desired social or self-identity. Anderson and Bushman

(2002) introduced the General aggression model (GAM) that integrated existing mini-theories

of aggression into an amalgamated whole. This model is more comprehensive, explains aggres-

sive acts based on multiple motives, and provides broader insights into child-rearing and

development issues [30].

Status and frequency of bullying and cyberbullying in Pakistan

The increase of bullying and cyberbullying in academic settings in recent years is indisputable

[31] and has been established as a serious public health problem [32], with long-term negative

effects on physical and mental health [33]. Similarly, traditional and cyberbullying have not

only found their way into Pakistan’s higher educational institutions, but appear in primary

and secondary schools as well [34,35]. Various investigations have shown that bullying and

cyberbullying are common practices in Pakistan’s educational institutions and have affected

the physical, emotional, and mental health of students.

Saleem et al. (2021) report that the level of cyberbullying has substantially increased in edu-

cational institutions in Pakistan [35]. Data gathered from universities of the province of Sindh

PLOS ONE

Bullying prevalence in Pakistan’s educational institutes

PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0284864 April 27, 2023 3 / 23

has confirmed that cyberbullying is common in urban universities. Previously, Musharraf and

Anis-ul-Haque (2018) also supported the findings of [35] and found that more than 60% of

university students were involved in cyberbullying behavior [36]. Similarly, Mirza et al. (2020)

found that cyberbullying is ubiquitous in higher educational institutions [37].

Saleem et al. (2021) added that substantial differences in victimization and perpetrators

were found with respect to socioeconomic status and access to the Internet [35]. Further, Rafi

(2019) reports that linguistic skills were exploited by the aggressors to victimize the partici-

pants [38]. Young social media addicts often have offline disputes, which becomes the rudi-

mental rationale for cyber-associated behaviour [38–40]. Although studies concluded that

boys are more involved in perpetration and victimization, researchers have reported that

females have also been victimized through conventional and online media. Magsi et al. (2017)

found that females in universities are also being scoffed at and harassed using electronic

media, but about half of the victims do not disclose this due to cultural and religious restraints

and to protect themselves from being blamed as immoral [41]. Women suffer in silence and

as a self-defense leave activities that are taking play in cyberspace. Lack of knowledge about

how to handle cyberbullying and lack of trust in law enforcement agencies are additional

important factors that encourage bullies to victimize women in urban university settings. It is

also reported that females are more susceptible to developing anxiousness due to cyber victimi-

zation as compared to their male counterparts [36]. Additionally, both targets of bullying and

offenders of bullying experienced adverse emotional and social consequences. Bullying perpe-

trators exhibited a greater severity of depressive symptoms due to problems in psychosocial

functioning [42].

Bullying and cyberbullying is not limited to the university level but have permeated the

schooling system in Pakistan [34,42–45]. Khawaja et al. (2015) found that violence in the form

of physical and verbal abuse is commonplace in major cities and provincial capitals [44]. Asif

(2016) further added that bullying and victimization are also associated with poor academic

performance [46] and they are one of the causes of the high dropout rate in schools [45].

Murshid (2017) and Musharraf and Anis-ul-Haque (2018) reported that victimization is

the major cause of mental health issues, such as anxiety and depression among youth in Paki-

stan, while low to middle-income countries like Pakistan have limited resources to address

such mental issues [47,48]. It is recommended in recent publications [6,35,49,50] to build

support centers in academic settings to deal with bullying and cyberbullying situations and to

implement anti-bullying interventions. The goal of these centers is to raise students’ awareness

of prevention and coping measures. In Pakistan, interventions should be tailored to the coun-

try’s specific circumstances.

Sources of frustration-aggression in Pakistani society

Dollard et al. (1939) considered that frustration and dissatisfaction are the main causes of

aggression development [51]. In continuation, the concept of displaced aggression described

by Denson et al. (2006) also explains how the level of frustration redirects aggression to an

alternative target to cope with stress [52]. Moreover, Patchin and Hinduja (2011) explained

bullying behaviour in terms of the General Strain Theory (Agnew, 1992) that argues that indi-

viduals who experience strain feel angry or frustrated as a result and are more at risk to engage

in criminal, deviant or bullying behavior [21,53]. Correspondingly, traditional bullying and

cyberbullying are more common among people who are traditionally or cyber victimized,

show a high level of anxiety, academic difficulties, passive-aggressive behaviours, and internal-

izing and externalizing problems than among their peers [22–24]. Husain (2000) reported that

post-independence economic development has predominantly benefited a small class of the

PLOS ONE

Bullying prevalence in Pakistan’s educational institutes

PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0284864 April 27, 2023 4 / 23

elite, while the majority of the population remains uneducated and poor [54]. Unemployment,

accelerating inflation, uncontrolled population growth and low literacy rates are some addi-

tional enduring factors in the declining standard of living of Pakistan’s major population [55,

56]. Rapid urbanization, limited and insecure water supply [57], food insecurity and malnutri-

tion [58] are some of the additional factors that contribute to rising aggression in Pakistan’s

society. Empirically, it is reported that there is a high prevalence of behavioral problems and

emotional and behavioral difficulties among Pakistani school children [34].

Supporting the statements of [34] and elaborating the reasons behind the behavioral prob-

lems of children, Asad et al. (2017) and Karmaliani et al. (2017) emphasized that peer violence

in Pakistan is rooted in poverty and the socialization of children, especially at home [59,60].

Murshid (2018) reported that one of the reasons for victimization is poor hygiene that indi-

cates victims’ disadvantaged social class to bullies [61].

Malik and Abdullah (2017) concluded on the basis of information gathered from teachers

and students that violent programs on TV, news and discussions on unemployment, under-

employment, and other socio-political problems were a major source of aggression among

youths in Pakistan [62]. Concerning bullying, the majority of students, as well as teachers,

rated verbal bullying to be a catalyst for aggression.

Interestingly, despite low economic conditions in Pakistan, internet use has significantly

increased in the past two decades. In 2001, only 1.3% of the population used the internet [63],

but by 2012, Pakistan was at the top 20

position in the world in terms of internet users [64].

One of the major reasons for the spread of the internet is the huge competition in the ISP

(Internet Service Providers) and telecommunication market. The easy availability of WIFI [65]

and accessibility of smartphones at ever cheaper rates have caused the number of mobile inter-

net users to increase consistently [66].

Status and conditions of interventions in Pakistan’s context

International investigations have indicated that countries with a higher prevalence of face-to-

face traditional bullying have a high level of cyberbullying as well [67]. Cyberbullying seems to

co-occur with traditional bullying [24] and interventions should be pertinent for managing

both types of bullying, otherwise, several studies have shown that controlling one form of bul-

lying can lead to the perpetrator engaging in other forms of bullying [68,69]. Many of the

interventions dealing with traditional school bullying are modified for tackling cyberbullying

issues on the presumptions of similarities in both types of bullying behaviour. Both constitute

unjustified aggression, based on a power imbalance, and persist over time. Repetition criteria

are debated among scientists as it is not as obvious in cyberbullying as it is in traditional bully-

ing [18,19].

The Federal Investigation Agency (FIA) of Pakistan has reported that delinquency related

to the internet is constantly rising [70]. Although statistics have unveiled a higher number of

cyber risks behaviours especially in youngsters, interventions designed to control cyberbully-

ing and consequences are substandard so far in Pakistan’s context [35]. Similarly, despite a

high frequency and concerns about bullying and victimization as a public health issue in low-

and middle-income countries in addition to the chronicity of behavioral problems there are

limited policies and interventions designed, implemented, and evaluated [34]. One of the

effective trials conducted by McFarlane et al. (2017) was the application of an international

intervention program named "Right to Play Intervention" [43]. In this whole-school approach

students were engaged with different physical activities to help build their cognitive, social,

emotional, and physical skills. Right To Play’s Positive Child and Youth Development program

in Pakistan includes games and activities from the manual Red Ball Child Play that focuses on

PLOS ONE

Bullying prevalence in Pakistan’s educational institutes

PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0284864 April 27, 2023 5 / 23

Loading more pages...