Metaforiniai terminai

Renata BALTRŪNAITĖ Kaunas Vytautas Didysis University METAPHORIC TERMS The lack of logic in everyday language is masked by the use of metaphors. Logic and ir metaphor are — complementary du aspects of the text. V. Nalimov Metaphor is — one of the iš most efficient means of language expression ja and has been studied since ancient times. Aristotle wrote: “A metaphor is the transfer of a word meaning one thing to another thing; transferred here either į species of the genus, or species of the genus, or species of the species, or by iš analogy’!. į Current metaphoric iš research is not į merely a continuation of iš tradition; His interest į extends to wider fields: philosophy, logic, psychology, literary studies, visual art theory, various branches of linguistics. In recent decades, the main research on metaphor has moved to the ja field of philology (rhetoric, stylistics, literary theory), where the advantages of poetic metaphor were studied, directed to the study of thinking, cognition and perception. The spread of metaphor not only in the artistic but also in the scientific language drew the attention of researchers not only to its iš fictional but also to its applied value. Without metaphor, it would be more difficult to understand the vocabulary of the “invisible worlds” (the inner life of man), abstract concepts. į Metaphor studies help to į understand the material from which the meaning of a word is made up. After realizing the influence of metaphor on thinking, it was concluded that metaphor not only forms the image of the object, but also determines the way and style of thinking about it. In particular, J. Lakoff and M. Johnson were interested in this direction. "Aristotle. Poetry. V, 1959. P 74 36 Metaphor can influence our perception of the world behavior. People have ir been used to describe the world metaphorically ir since ancient times. In the Middle Ages, the universe was conceived as a coherent entity in which everything has a purpose. The first a. scientific model of the universe in the 16th-17th centuries was also metaphorical: the universe is no longer perceived as an organism, but as a mechanism o (universe — machine, man — machine). Many theories of science are ir now presented as some kind of metaphors. Here, for example, F. Saussure was interested in how ma canunderstir and to treat language as an object of scientific study. As he writes Ivich, wishing to make his ideas on the subject more ir clearly apparent, he “caught an ingenious comparison su to chess”*. Metaphorical comparisons in linguistics created A. Schleicher (genealogical tree theory), J. Schmidt (wave theory), etc. ir Pasak N. According to Arutiunovas, the sense of — similarity is a common impulse of ir practical scientific discourse to create metaphors. In both cases, the metaphor is only the beginning of thought. Comparison is not an end in itself. The theory of light waves in physics was developed to compare light to a wave. ne su After raising an idea for reflection, the metaphor often “disappears”. Ji — only a scientific search tool, result*. o ne Metaphorical terms in this article are words of figurative meaning, one of the parts of a composite ar constant iš word combination, having such (metaphorical) meaning, which refers to a special concept of science, technology, art or other sphere of ar society. Metaphorical terms belong to linguistic (lexical, lexicalized, dead, nominative, etc.) ir a group of metaphors. Linguistic metaphor becomes permanent in speech, often losing its visual expressiveness. mą ir Such a metaphor in science performs the functions of the primary word: the scientific object has no other name. The metaphor in science differs from the metaphor in poetry. The emergence of metaphors in the scientific style, where visuality and expressiveness do not belong to the ir most important *Ivič M. Linguistics. V., 1973. P. 127. *ApyrioHosBa H. Meradopa u muckypc // Teopus meradopsl- ., Mocksa, 1990. C.9. 37 bas characteristics, can be motivated by the interrelationships of functional ir styles influences on language as a system in general. The essence of this objective phenomenon is that the scientific style — ne closed, open o system; affected by other styles. Scientific style may include elements that are more typical of another sphere of communication*. Another important reason for the emergence of metaphorical terms in the language of science is the reduction of memory load and the limitation of language resources. In a language system, it is not appropriate to express each concept, which is infinite, in a completely different word. But the language of science requires words ─ terms of one definite meaning. As science expands, more and more new terms are needed, new areas are discovered and explored, new words are created to name objects or new meanings are given to existing ones. Metaphorical terms are motivated words. They not only name the desired thing, but also indicate the relationship of that thing with another thing (or other things) or even describe the most important characteristics of that thing. Thus, the informativeness of the metaphor is another reason why it is tolerated in the scientific language. As in any other functional style, metaphor in scientific language is not an end in itself or an ornament of the text, it conveys information, effectively awakens the thought and the imagination of the reader. In the case of the creation of a metaphorical term, the speaker chooses the most important and most informative features. However, in cases where the concept itself allows sufficient freedom for the motivation of the choice of a name, the essential characteristics do not always prevail. The naming may also be determined by rather random associations, the flying imagination of the creator of the word, e.g.: flying saucer, mare's tail (from the English popular name of prefrontal clouds) (meteor.), Aristotle's lantern (zool.), bears (Trehoptera) (zool.) and others. Metaphor in the language of science is possible due to its property to emotionally and logically connect two concepts, and this makes it possible to transfer the name of one object to another object semantically, giving the latter name a new content. “KanmeikoBa E. O gunamuke MeradOopsI B HayuHoM CTHIE // GOurojoruueckue Hayku. 1974. No. 2. C. 124. 38 The motivation of the emergence of metaphorical terms in the scientific language allows us to distinguish several tų functions of terms: nominative (the named object of the scientific field has no other name), communicative (the object is named and information is provided about it), distinctive ir (especially common in systematic terminology, where it is necessary to distinguish one species from another), heuristic (consciously created comparison, image, arising from emotional impression, in iš order to better understand the idea raised) and the economy of language. New linguistic constructions, which have entered the į scientific language as figurative units of designation, acquire a peculiar defined character, are included in the usual context of cognitive linguistic į activity, gradually adapt, lose their pronounced ir metaphorical connotation, become traditional. According to the degree of adaptation, it is possible to 3 distinguish groups of metaphorical terms: 1. Fully adapted terms. Terms that have entered the field of į science as figurative concepts can adapt to the whole system in such a way that often the metaphorical shade fades so much that it is not even noticed that jų the word had a completely different meaning before. ne Such metaphors have lost their visuality and are ir perceived only as a kind of index, as the name of a scientific concept. One of the iš most faded metaphorical terms is the term force. In common speech this word is perceived as "physical mental power of living ar beings". The word force has been taken ne over by one field of science, terminology. ir Labour in the — economy (energy to produce); in war a living — force (wars); in horsepow- — er technique (now psn., unit of machine power); in physics force — (energy as a cause of effect). The term force in physics is quite common, this word is su composed of various term compounds, e.g.: friction force; the finite, or gravity, force; nuclear force, force momentum, force field, etc. ir Iš the abundance of compounds of this term can be judged by the jo complete ją ir fading of the adaptacimetaphoric shade; it has lost its imagery i ir Emotional. This term is no longer identified with the original meaning of the su word is perceived as a direct name of the phenomenon. ir 2. Partially adapted terms. This group of metaphorical terms nų includes those terms that have been adapted to the language of science, they are accepted and used in a 39 certain field of science for some time, but their metaphorical expression is relatively easily noticeable, retaining its visuality and emotionality. Some terms (e.g., hat, crown, step) acquire emotional-expressive connotation through terminology, while others (e.g., bob summer, devil-haired, witch broom) do not lose it due to terminology, because only their lexical meaning changes, acquiring terminological sems. It is true that the motivation of long-used terms gradually fades, but their often metaphorical shade remains. 3. Time limits. These types of terms are relatively rare in the scientific language, as the use of individual, metaphorical terms here is limited by the requirements of scientific style. In the field of linguistics, perhaps the most individual metaphorical terms can be found in the works of American linguists, because there are constantly new theories that are often short-lived, quickly destroyed by new ideas, so metaphorical terms retain their individuality, atypical. ir Metaforinial terms in the scientific text stand out for their special meaning. This or that word in the term is chosen not by chance, but based on a certain similarity of phenomena or concepts. Often, for such a transfer of the term, only external similarity is sufficient, that is, it is important only that the thing (property, phenomenon) somehow resembles another thing (property, phenomenon). But sometimes there are stronger links between the things that are named. Therefore, the methods of metaphorical transfer of the meaning of terms can be divided into two groups: 1. Transfer of the term by internal similarity, that is, by function, principle of operation, the very design or characteristics. For example, a device that was supposed to fly around the Earth or some other planet was called an artificial satellite, i.e., the one that accompanies, the companion, based on the analogy of function. This group also includes metaphorical terms that indicate some characteristics of the object. For example, a tree, wood characterized by high density (drowning in sea water) and strength (revolver bullet rebounds) is called iron birch (a synonym of Korean birch). Here the term element iron refers to properties that 40 brings the birch closer to the iron’. This way of transferring the meaning of terms is typical of the terminology of technical fields, because it is here that the principle of operation, functions are important. 2. Transfer of the term by external similarity, i.e. by analogy of form. This way of transferring the meaning of the word is not so necessary detail of the phenomenon (property ar object) knowledge as in the case of technical analogy. Here it is enough that some secondary, random one phenomenon (property ar object) characteristic would coincide or have some similarity į to another phenomenon (properar ty object) character. Perhaps the most widespread terminology is su the transfer of ar jo meaning of words related to human activity. This is particularly true of the zoological nomenclature. For example: ice diver (Gavia always): naras “Man performing underwater work”); fisherman Fishing: Fishing, Fishing, „1. Fishing. 2. fish salesman’; grass mowers (Phalangida, Opiliones): grass mower "hay cutter", gulnebyle bė (Cygnus olor) (-e) "a person who has lost speech"; Sacred ibis (Threshiornus / aethiopicus): holy (-a) "honest, noble, honorable" and so on. In other fields of science, terms made after the name of a human profession are generally avoided to avoid confusion between the performer of the action, which would be called in the literal sense, and ir the object of the name. Although sometimir es there are similar terms here, for example, the above-mentioned physics term satellite. The basis for the transfer may be a ir separate single object (human, animal ar plant) part, which externally į resembles the whole other object. For example: winged words (lingv.), eye of the storm (meteor.), tail (meteor.), tongue (meteor.), body (phys.), petys (phys.), hair (phys.), trunk (lingv.), root (lingv.), spiglys (meteor.), crown (phys.), kekė (phys.) ir Mr. In terminology, an object can be named as an animal plant, e.g.: hedgehog ir ar (snowflake shape), flying dogs (Pteropoidei), horses (Odonata), worm gear, wolf, mouthpieir ce, etc. * JIorTrTe JI. OcHoBBkI MOCTPOEHHUS HayJdHO-TEXHHYUEeCKONH TEDMHHOJIOTHH. Moxley, 1961. C. 44. 41 Part of the metaphorical terms consists of iš names taken from the domestic sphere: clothing, luxury items, work tools, architectural elements, food-relatsu ed concepts, etc. ir Such as: armor, sleeve, hat, crown, cannon, sword, cross, flying saucer, crust, grain, ball, fireplace, candle, drum, vocal strings, transparent, etc. mo ir Į abstract words of ir common language are transferred to terminology: momentum verb, ionospheric storm, electronic crash, etc. ir An interesting group of metaphorical terms consists of the names of literary-mythological characters, e.g. atlant anat. "first cervical vertebra of reptiles, birds, mammals", chimeras sist. ‘cartilage fish subclass’, jellyfish zool. ‘single, bell-shaped, ar free-floating sea bass’, siren sist. "one of iš the higher mammals" etc. ir R. Kocourek points out the following possible cases of metaphorical meaning transfer: a) from concrete to concrete: from dead to dead, from dead to alive, from alive to dead; live to live (animal to human, animal to animal, etc.); b) from the concrete to the abstract; (c) from abstract to abstract.’ Metaphorical terms can be interpreted through metaphorical motivation, which in some cases replaces a specific definition of the term and thus weakens or almost eliminates the distinction between literal and defining meaning. However, more often than not, such metaphors explain the way in which terms are formed, but do not determine their meaning. They usually indicate an etymological explanation, but do not necessarily reveal anything about the substance of the thing named. The meaning of the metaphorical term can be very far from the original meaning of the word. In the case of a metaphorical term, the semantic harmony law requires a word environment associated with the meaning transfer. *Kocourek R. The status of English Metaphorical Terms //Applications and implications of current LSP research. Volume II. University of Bergen, 1994. P. 527. 42 where such a term merely identifies an object but ne describes it, the main characteristir ics are described. For example, jo in physics we find the following cases of metaphorical terms: force pushes a body ... (IFZ:8); ... eddy current (1FZ: 79); ... current is flowing (IFZ:105); magnetic force is weak (IFZ:105); atoms bind together to form microstrings (IFZ:7) and so on. Du words are compatible semanticallyWir hat forms a regular and meaningful combination, if the meanings have coincidencey jų at least similar semantic ar characteristics". The meaning of the verb to push is interpreted as follows: "to use force, trying to move, move away, drive away" (DZ, The noun 1740). force has the following explanation: "energy as a cause of effect" (DZ, So in :267). the compound jéga (pa)stumia metaphorical term force semantically relates to the verb pastumias as su an actor ir jo the action being performed. Thus, even a ir metaphorical term can retain semantic harmony, which is determined by the facts of reality. In scientific texts, there are cases when a whole system is created based on the transfer of meaning. For example, Schleicher's idea of A. language as a living organism influenced the development of terms such as language family, dead language, and (dead) language creation. On the basis of the theory of the genealogical tree, such terms as: root, single-rooted word, trunk, nest, nesting method, synchronous section, etc., appeared in linguistics. ir This creates a whole system based on one basic metaphor. The terms of such metaphorical systems are incorporated ir į into other meaningful relationships of words, where the metaphorical nature of these terms fades: the idea remains, but the imagery disappears. Most metaphorical terms do not form such systematic groups, they are individual cases of meaning transfer, e.g.: capillary "narrow tube thermometer" (there are no devices: vein, artery, ar cord, etc.); vocal cords (parts of speech devices are not described as musical instruments in phonetics: ar jų the tongue is not called the keys, the nasal cavity the drum, the lungs the — lungs) etc. o — ir Most often, such metaphorical terms do not require an environment in which ordinary words were used before termination. "Jakaitienė E. Lexical semantics. V, 1988. P. 70. 43 The analysis of the terminology systems of various languages and different fields shows that the metaphorical method of creating terms is used quite widely. The fewer international terms a field of terminology adopts, the more terms it contains that are made up by means of meaning transfer®. However, it is often considered that the profusion of metaphorical terms should be avoided, as such terms do not give the seriousness and formality characteristic of the scientific style. In part, this approach is correct. Terminologically, it is also important that the derivative or loanword is not funny, vulgar or misleadingly associative. In the history of scientific language and terminology, there are many examples of new creations that failed to survive mainly because they had a strong emotional—expressive connotation?. In terminology, the metaphorical term formation method is applicable only when: / 1) concepts belonging to different functional styles or different terminological systems do not coincide with each other, i.e. when the same word is not used in both meanings in the same scientific text; 2) the term or its element metaphorically transferred from one terminology system to another is not used in that system with a different meaning; 3) the structure (construction) of the term does not differ excessively from other terms of the classification system. The famous Russian terminologist D. Lotte proposes to follow the following criteria when evaluating and forming new words or combinations of words, metaphorically transferred into the terminology of science and technology: 1) the terms must sufficiently accurately describe the concept and do not raise undesirable associations; 2) metaphorical terms or their parts in context with other terms should not form unpleasant and unsuccessful combinations, for example, gele- * lorre JĮ. OCHOBBI IOCTpOECHHS HayJ3HO-TEXHHUeCKOČ TEDpMHHOJIOTHH. Moxley, 1961. C. 50. *Gaivenis K. On the question of the visuality of Lithuanian terms //Lithuanian Linguistics Issues: Problems of Lithuanian Lexicon and Terminology. V., 1991. T. 29. P. 28. 44