Kodėl „bombomis“ „bombarduoja“

Jonas KLIMAVIČIUS Institute of the Lithuanian Language WHY DO THEY “BOMBARD” WITH “BOMBS” This is an old, repeatedly raised question that, unfortunately, remains unanswered, and it deserves a broader perspective not only on the microsystems of designata, but also on those of denotata and their changes. 1. From artillery to aviation: bomb and bombard, bomb and bombard But first, what did bomb and to bombard mean in the past, and what do they mean now? In Jurgis Šlapelis’s 1907 SNŽŽ, to bombard means “to fire from cannons [i.e. guns],” while a bomb has two meanings: “a cannonball; a ball thrown by hand, <…> used mostly to kill tall but ugly people.” Even today, terrorists around the world keep placing, planting (or even throwing) bombs somewhere; only in Lithuania is it an explosive device, while calling such a thing a bomb is unusual. Ordinary people nowadays imagine that something thrown by hand can only be a grenade, although in fact a grenade is a granular (Latin granatus, “grained”) bomb. SNŽŽ has no entry for grenade, and the 1919 KarŽ, published by the Ministry of National Defence (compiled by Petras Ruseckas), has no bomb—only grenade and fugo grenade – фугасная граната. In M. and S.’s 1923 STŽŽ, to bombard means “to shell with cannons,” and there is neither bomb nor grenade. J. Norkus’s 1924 SNŽŽ has neither to bombard, bomb nor grenade. In the popular encyclopedic dictionary published in 1927, “Skaityk mane. Aš viską žinau. Visiems reikalingas žodynas. Untulio surinktas” [“Read me. I know everything. A dictionary everyone needs. Compiled by Untulis”], bombardment is “heavy firing from cannons” (123). Of importance to the lexicographic and encyclopedic history of the bomb is the 1936 Enc IV, which describes a bomb as follows: “In the 15th–17th centuries, bombs were hollow artillery projectiles shaped like balls and charged with gunpowder: <…>. At first, bombs were used in mortars; <…>. <…>. In the mid-19th century, the name bombs was given to artillery projectiles weighing more than 40 pounds. <…>. Hand grenades and mines are also called bombs— 29 those and mines. <...>. A certain type of bomb is an aviation bomb. They are dropped from an aircraft <...>” (essentially, this is also how LE III defines it). Mortar (Dutch mortier < from Latin mortarium – pestle, mortar) – “a short-barreled (...) artillery piece of large caliber (...) firing at a barrel elevation angle of 50–75°. <...>” LTE VIII. Bombardment in Enc IV is merely “heavy and concentrated artillery fire” (LE III already includes “dropping bombs from aircraft”). By contrast, TŽŽ 1936 has: bomb is still only “an artillery or hand-thrown explosive projectile,” while the meaning of to bombard is already twofold: “to fire artillery shells at the enemy or to drop bombs from an aircraft.” The origin and original meaning of the word to bombard become clear from another weapon—even though bombardment was first carried out with mortars—namely the bombard: 1. “artillery cannon” in TŽŽ 1936; “a weapon that fires bombs, stone or metal spherical projectiles (...). Most widely used in the 14th–16th centuries” in Enc IV (“in 1381, the Teutonic Knights reportedly first used bombards during the siege of Trakai Castle” in LE III). The original bombard (French bombarde) was a medieval catapult [Latin catapulta—1) “a launcher of arrows and spears,” 2) “a projectile” < from Greek katapeltēs, “a launcher of arrows”]—a siege stone-throwing engine; while the 15th–17th-century sense 2 of bombard is “a short-barrelled cannon firing stone or iron projectiles.” The second definition of bombard in TŽŽ 1936—“a two-masted Mediterranean merchant ship”—is not very clear (but not very important). Even less clear would seem to be definition 3 of bombard, “a bass organ pipe,” and bombardon, “an ancient brass wind instrument,” in TŽŽ 1936. Enc IV gives a somewhat odd entry: bombardo (-don)—“an obsolete (mostly 16th-century) wooden wind instrument of the trumpet family, of varying sizes. It was replaced by the bassoon. Related to the bombardon is the bombardino (original: ‘B-nui – Bombardinas’)” (LE III has only bombardo). TŽŽ 1985 defines bombard as 2. “a wooden wind musical instrument, a prototype of the bassoon”; 3. “an organ stop producing a very loud sound.” MuzŽ 1975 defines bombard as 1) “an old wooden wind musical instrument, a prototype of the bassoon. There were various types of bombards: bass (cf. Italian bombardone, German Doppelquint-bombart), tenor (cf. Italian b. piccolo, German Basset-bombart), soprano (cf. Italian bombardino), and alto (cf. Italian b. piccolo)”; 2) “an organ voice”. 30 with reeds, 16″ or 32″ pipes (cf. French bombarde, German Posanne),” while bombardon—see bombarde. Clarity is provided by Latin bombus “buzzing, droning; rumbling, booming” < and Greek bómbos “low tone.” Probably named for its sound are the Latin nomenclature terms bombus “bumblebee,” bombyx “silkworm,” bombyliidae – bee flies, and bombina – the fire-bellied toad. However, the medieval form of the lute or lyre, bardon (< Czech bardun < Middle High German pardune), has nothing to do with the bombardon. This is not the only instance of artillery’s musicality (or music’s artillery-like qualities)—cf. bazukà (English bazooka), “an antitank weapon of the U.S. Army. <...>. <...>. The bazooka fires rocket-propelled shells. — — — It is fired while held against the shoulder, standing, kneeling, or lying down. The bazooka has a telescopic sight. <...>” LE II, “U.S. antitank rocket-propelled grenade launcher,” TŽŽ 1985 (used in Africa in 1942, in Korea in 1952–1953), and “a primitive wind musical instrument used by the American comedian Bob Burns (d. 1956),” SWO 1978 (unrelated to the Greek stringed musical instrument buzūkis). Related to bomba is also bombažas, “the bulging of a can’s lid and bottom due to gases, <...>,” TŽŽ 1985 (also Polish bombastyczny, German bombastisch—Lithuanian pomпаstiškas, “artificially solemn, ostentatious, luxurious,” DŽ₃; that is, inflated). Thus the original meaning of the word bombarduoti was to fire bombomis from a bombardos. In 1941, LKŽ I₁ includes only bombardą, marked with a cross, i.e. as nonstandard (slang), and does not include bombarduoti at all. Bòmba (and dialectal bómba) is likewise marked slang, though without a cross: “an explosive weapon, a grenade.” The explanation is therefore not entirely clear, but one sentence already sounds rather like an aviation reference: Bombas meta Pn. The adjective bombinis in Pn. Raštai is explained only by cross-reference—→ bomba—but the examples make it ambiguous: The great bomb plot was launched. Bombing German aircraft. [Bombinis is still not common today: only KarŽ 1995 has bombinė aviacijos ginkluotė; it is absent from both DŽ₃ and even LKŽ I₂. There is also mininis in KarŽ 1995—mininė laivų ginkluotė.] The verb bombuoti is entered below with the labels neol. and sl., meaning “to pelt with bombs,” but no longer by hand. 31 Usually, aircraft bombers do the bombing. At meetings of the Lithuanian Language Section and elsewhere, the logical-minded chemist Kazys Daukšas passionately advocated using this verb, bombuoti. Yet here too, language demonstrated its innate conservatism and the irrelevance of formal logic: in 1968, LKŽ I2 already directs bombuoti to bombarduoti, although this time the example comes not even from written sources but from everyday speech: They were shooting, bombing all day Šts. The Germans bombed Skuodas Šts. [The entry also includes the variant bombinti, illustrated with a sentence by B. Sruoga.] There is also bombesys from everyday speech: When a bombing raid comes, we’ll go into the pits Rt. But LKŽ I2 defines bombarduoti in a twofold sense: “to fire artillery shells at an adversary or to pelt them with bombs from an aircraft.” And bomba is also still defined in both senses: “an explosive projectile (hand-thrown, fired from a gun, or dropped from an aircraft), <...>.” Bomb underwent a change in meaning over about three decades. In TŽŽ 1951, bomb still had two meanings: “an explosive projectile, hand-held, fired from a gun, or dropped from an aircraft,” whereas TŽŽ 1969 gives only 1) “an explosive shell [and 2) volcanic bombs – “pieces of lava ejected during a volcanic eruption <...>”; Enc IV volcanic bomb – “chunks of lava thrown into the air during a volcanic eruption, sometimes to heights of 2,000–3,000 m, which, rotating as they fly through the air until they fall to the ground, cool and take on a round, elongated, club-shaped form, usually the size of a person’s fist or head”]. Bombardment in TŽŽ 1951 means “shelling with artillery guns or dropping bombs from aircraft”; TŽŽ 1969 is still much the same. In the 1954 DŽ, 1 bomb still means “an explosive projectile used in artillery, aviation, etc.,” to bombard means “to fire artillery shells at the enemy or pelt them with bombs from an aircraft,” while in the 1972 DŽ, 2 bomb is already primarily “an explosive projectile used in aviation, etc.,” and to bombard now means only “to pelt the enemy or their territory with bombs from an aircraft.” By TŽŽ 1985, aviation has taken over almost everything from artillery: bomb 1. “an explosive projectile dropped from an aircraft, or any explosive charge” (2. geol. “<...>”), to bombard – only “to drop bombs from aircraft.” The same is true of DŽ3 – bomb means “an explosive device,” to bombard means “to pelt with bombs from aircraft.” The school TŽŽ editions of 1995 and 1998 are exactly the same. LTE II 1977 adds bomb aviation bomb alongside the main variant, but already 32 for quite a different reason: Submarines are bombarded with depth charges there as well, and depth charges LTE IV There are aviation (dropped from aircraft) and naval types. Antanas Smetona’s KarŽ 1995 bomb also means 1) “one of the types of aviation ammunition” (but there is also the subtype aviation bomb) and 2) “a projectile for fighting submarines”—a depth charge. 2. grenade and bomb Pirmiausia prisiminkime minėtą fugo granatą KarŽ 1919. Ir beveik visur granata skiriama prie artilerijos (nors yra ir rankinių): granata – „artilerijos sviedinys“ TŽŽ 1936; „granatos artilerijos skiriamos gyviesiems taikiniams kaŀti, lauko įrengimam ardyti, priešo artilerijai šaudyti ir t.t. Granatų yra įvairios paskirties ir rūšių: prieššarvinių, šautuvinių, rankinių ir kt. <...>“ Enc IX. Filologiniai žodynai reikšmes skiria: granata 1. „artilerijos sviedinys“: Iš granatų mušė, Prūsų mūrus ardė JD 1095, 2. „rankomis ar iš šautuvo metamas pėstininkų sprogstamasis ginklas“ LKŽ III; 1. „rankomis metamas sprogstamas sviedinys“, 2. „artilerijos sviedinys“ (DŽ₂ – 1. pဿn. „artilerijos sviedinys“), tik DŽ₃ apibendrinta – 1. kar. „sprogstamasis ginklas“ (2. sport. „metamasis įrankis“). 3. cartridge, ammunition, and projectile (missile); weapon Here we have already seen that a grenade is a cartridge, a projectile, even a weapon. And also ammunition: a grenade is “ammunition using fragments, fire, chemical and biological agents to fight people and destroy equipment. Grenades are classified by use—as hand grenades and rifle-grenade-launcher grenades (a grenade-launcher cartridge, a rifle grenade); <...>” KarŽ 1995. So it turns out that a hand grenade is ammunition... And a bomb is “an explosive projectile dropped from an aircraft” LTE II, it is 1) “one of the types of aviation ammunition” KarŽ 1995, and then again 2) “a projectile for fighting submarines” KarŽ 1995. 33 A projectile was originally (already in Jonas Jablonskis and others) and for some reason remained, even after the word for a game ball (also two-winged!..) had become established—at least in sport—meaning 1. “a rubber ball used for playing, inflated with air” DŽ1, DŽ2 or simply 1. “a ball used for playing” DŽ3, LKŽ XIV, and only 2. military “a gun cartridge” DŽ1, DŽ2, LKŽ XIV or “gun ammunition” DŽ3. Yet a hand grenade or a hand spear could also be a projectile. LKŽ XIV includes Jeronimas Ralys’s neologism svaidì nys, “something that is thrown,” from his translation of Homer’s Odyssey: Thus they began to dance, throwing the throwing-object, with high leaps and agility. The form sviedmuo, used by Alfonsas Nyka-Niliūnas in his translation of Shakespeare’s Hamlet, is not recorded in LKŽ XIV: “To be or not to be—that is the question. And what is nobler in the mind: to suffer / The arrows and missiles of outrageous fortune, or to take arms against a sea of troubles / And end them by fighting?” (quoted from LA 1997 95 5). KarŽ 1919 already has sviedinys – снаряд. And KarŽ 1995 defines sviedinys (artillery projectile) as “the main part of an artillery cartridge <...>”. Thus, a gun (artillery) has a cartridge, which contains a projectile (or the projectile itself is the whole cartridge); a rifle has a cartridge containing a bullet; and aviation has ammunition, cf.: “The following are ammunition: artillery cartridges, rocket projectiles, warheads of torpedoes and missiles, small-arms cartridges, grenades, mines, bombs, explosive charges, and smoke canisters” KarŽ 1995. Can a grenade or bomb also be a weapon? It can: a weapon is “means and devices for fighting and destroying the enemy, its equipment, installations, and structures during combat. It consists of means of destruction and means of delivering them to the target. More complex weapons also have control and targeting devices. <...>” KarŽ 1995. Very well described: a grenade is 1. “an explosive throwing or firearm: <...>” TŽŽ 1985. 4. bomb launcher, grenade launcher, mortar, machine gun; flamethrower, gas projector; spear thrower Only by thinking trivially is a bomb now merely an “explosive projectile dropped from an aircraft” (LTE II). Yet already in KarŽ 1919 there are bomb launcher – бомбометъ and bomb-launcher operator – бомбометчикъ. 34 In 1932, BŽ 250 gives the variant bombasvaidis (mortar – mortira, bomb launcher). In 1936, Enc IV bomb launcher is “a type of close-support artillery. <...>. In its design, a bomb launcher closely resembles a mortar, but differs in that the explosive charge in the bomb weighs no more than 4 kg. Bomb-launcher trajectories are very steep. Therefore, their chief purpose in positional warfare is to fire at the enemy in trenches. The bomb launcher is of very simple construction; range: up to 300 m for older models, no more than 1,000 m for newer ones. They are also light in weight.” In 1941, LKŽ I, bombasvaidis – see bomb launcher, while bomb launcher – see bombosvydis, “a weapon for throwing bombs”; although the sentence hardly bears this out: Italian bomb-throwers pursue the fleeing Abyssinians, whereas bomb-launcher operator clearly refers to aviation: “one who throws (from an aircraft) bombs.” This is probably an editorial inaccuracy. Bombosvydis also appears in the 1948 RŽ. LKŽ I₂ essentially repeats LKŽ I₁, but removes the contradiction: bomb-launcher operator – “one who fires from bomb launchers” (without example sentences). The 1967 BŽ I states explicitly: бомбометчик – бомбиниркас, bomb thrower (pilot), but it is probably clearly mistaken, since бомбомет – bomb launcher, bombosvydis. RLKŽ I takes a further step toward contradiction: бомбометчик – military bomber (pilot), bomb thrower, although бомбомет here already means something quite different – a (shipboard) bomb launcher (see section 6). In 1940, Enc IX has a grenade launcher – “a weapon for throwing grenades. For this purpose, a rifle is used (for rifle grenades), <...>.” The 1956 LE VII presents a whole “grenadeology.” Grenade artillery, however, came later: “The first small grenades appeared at the beginning of the 16th century. <...> <...>. Grenades came into widespread use only at the end of the 18th century, when the grenade gun appeared. From then on, the round explosive projectiles of cannons and howitzers were also called grenades, while mortar projectiles were called bombs. With the introduction of rifled and elongated projectiles into artillery in the mid-19th century, the grenade became an almost universal projectile” (LE VII, “grenade”). Here grenade and bomb are distinguished, whereas the 1976 LTE I does not: “In the 16th century, explosive [artillery] projectiles called grenades and bombs appeared” (369). Further on, LE VII calls the grenade gun more precisely a grenade cannon and explains: “a smoothbore gun introduced in the 18th century specifically” 35 “for direct-fire shooting of explosive projectiles. The first G. C. [that is, grenade gun? – J. K.] appeared in Russia (Shuvalov’s design). Later, in France in 1851. <...>. <...>. <...> persisted until the advent of rifled artillery. <...>.” Historically later, a grenade-throwing gun is “a weapon for throwing grenades. <...>. After the war [Russo-Japanese, 1904–1905], several types of light guns were designed, which were given the name grenade-throwing gun. They fired over short distances (200–300 m) and had a very steep trajectory. <...>. <...>. The barrels were short. <...>. Grenade-throwing guns were designed to be light enough to carry. They remained in use only briefly. They were little used during World War I (1914–1918). They were superseded by the advent of the mortar.” LTE IV (1978) says something similar: “Rifle grenade launchers saw some use during World Wars I and II, but never became widespread,” but adds new information: “After World War II, hand-held grenade launchers became widespread.” Although LTE IV has no entry for grenade cannon, it distinguishes between a grenade launcher and an artillery grenade. The now-established form is granatsvaidis DŽ₂, DŽ₃ (although the 1984 PolŽ₂ has granatosvaidis), just as with granatmedis. DŽ₃ also has granatsvaidininkas, “one who fires a grenade launcher.” Enc IX also has granatininkas, “a combatant specially trained to throw grenades.” There could also be an athlete called granatininkas (cf. javelin thrower, discus thrower, shot-putter). The mortar was developed in Russia during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–05 (under the direction of L. Gobiata)” (LTE VII), although LTE I’s article on artillery says: “In 1904, Midshipman S. Vlasyev invented the mortar). A mortar is “a rifling-free artillery weapon that fires mines at a high barrel elevation angle (45–85°)” (LTE VII). It notes: “The Lithuanian army used 81 mm Finnish mortars; <...>.” In fact, minosvaidis, “a gun for launching mines,” is recorded in TŽŽ 1936. The 1948 RŽ has minosvydis and minosvydininkas. DŽ₁ gives minosvaidis and minosvydis, “a weapon for launching mines,” while LE XVIII defines minosvydis as “an infantry firearm in the form of a simplified cannon. <...> it came into wider use during World War I.” In the LE XIII entry for machine gun it says: “The first machine guns appeared in the armament of the army in the USA during the war of 1870–1871. They we 36 vo netobuli. <...>. Pirmąjį automatinį kulkosvydį išrado Sir Hiram Maxim (1840–1916)“. Karž 1919 yra: пулеметъ – kulkosvaidis, nors пуля – kulipka. Jono Jablonskio – kulkosvydis. Kulkosvaidis – įprasčiausias šios serijos žodis. A flamethrower is “a short-range offensive weapon. A flamethrower consists of fuel containers, a container of compressed air or other gas, a fuel hose, a nozzle with firing and ignition mechanisms, and other accessories: <...>. The Germans first used a flamethrower against the French near Verdun. – – – 17 German flamethrower operators surrendered to 1,900 Frenchmen” (LE XIV). Flamethrower is recorded in Enc V, p. 247 (1937), but as early as 1926 the poet Salys Šemerys published a collection of poems, “A Flamethrower to Set Hearts Ablaze.” There is also a flame thrower for destroying weeds (LTA 1999, 185, 12). Somewhat similar is a gas projector – “a weapon designed to launch shells or mines filled with chemical warfare agents. Gas projectors are set up in groups of several hundred, sometimes thousands, loaded with gas mines and fired all at once by means of electricity. <...> release so much gas and contaminate the air so densely that even gas masks often do not help. <...>. The English were the first to introduce and use gas projectors as a means of chemical warfare, against the Germans in 1917” (Enc VII, 1939). LE V (1955) similarly has dujosvydis. LTE III refines both the concept and the history: gas projector is “a weapon that discharges poisonous and radioactive gases, liquids, emulsions, or solid-particle dust. <...>. The German army first used a gas projector on 22 April 1915, by the Iper River, against the English and French. <...>.” Perhaps the most recent is the term for an object from the Stone Age (Paleolithic): spear thrower, a primitive device used by Aboriginal peoples, Indigenous peoples of the Americas, and others, and also in medieval Europe during sieges of fortresses (LTE IV, illustration; DŽ). The question of the variation in the form of the derivative is resolved by differentiation: 1) nouns with the grammatical meaning of an instrument, such as bombosvaidis, kulkosvaidis, and others mentioned above (from svaidyti, “to throw”)—without vowel alternation; 2) games such as vandensvydis, the obsolete krepšiasvydis (“basketball”), and orasvydis (“volleyball”) (from sviesti, “to hurl”)—with vowel alternation [hence the technical term vandensvydis – water monitor= and vandensvaidis (водомет) (PolŽ₂)]. 37 5. bomber and bomber pilot; aircraft carrier and aviator; minelayer and minesweeper; torpedo boat, torpedo vessel, and torpedo boat sailor; missile carrier and rocket-powered aircraft The Lithuanian Dictionary (LKŽ) I₁ cites only from written sources (not dictionaries) bombonešis (neologism, hybrid) ‘an aircraft that carries and drops bombs,’ but the same meaning is also given here for bombininkas (neologism, slang), 2. (whereas 1. means ‘a bomb thrower, saboteur,’ but not a pilot here: Be abejo, jis priklauso prie bombininkų gaujos). That bombininkas must have arisen under the influence of Russian бомбардировщик. Russian бомбардировщик is also ambiguous—1. bombonešis (aircraft), but 2. bombardment aviation pilot, bombardier (BŽ I), which in turn differed from the word бомбардир from the bombardier era: 1. military, obsolete bombardýras (BŽ I); 1. pre-revolutionary bombardýras, a soldier or artilleryman (RLKŽ I; Enc IV bombardiras, bombardjeras—‘in the 18th-century armies of Lithuania, Poland, and Russia, a lower rank corresponding to a corporal’); and 2. zoological žigas, degutininkas, smalinin-kas (beetle), Brachynus creptans (BŽ I); 2. zoological purkštvabalis (a beetle in the Brachyninae family) (RLKŽ I) [Enc IV bombardiras (German Bombardierkäfer—‘a beetle that defends itself by releasing a jet of acrid liquid from its anal glands, which turns into gas with an explosive sound, forming something like a little cloud of smoke. <...>. The bombardier beetle belongs to the ground beetle (Carabidae) family: <...>. The simplest example: Brachinus creptans L. <...>’]. Incidentally, purkštvabalis is still not recorded in LKŽ X. Bombardiru is also used of a powerful football shooter (perhaps not quite accurately, бомбардировщик 3.—sports colloquial puolėjas, ‘forward,’ RLKŽ I). There is also the unambiguous Russian бомбово́з – bombonešis (aircraft) (BŽ I, RLKŽ I). bombonešis took root and became established. As early as 1936, Enc IV has only bombonešis. Later, the series was continued by lėktuvnešis, ‘a ship for aircraft to land on and take off from’ (DŽ₁; already present in RŽ), semantically quite different from ledonešis; gandonėšis, liežuvnešis; lauknešis, lauknešėlis; and more similar to the newly coined vaiknešėlis, ‘a device for carrying a baby against the chest’ (PrPslgK I). Although bombininkas did not catch on, there is a very similar minininkas (RŽ), 2. ‘warship intended for laying mines’ (DŽ₃) [no longer accurate in DŽ₁ and DŽ₂—‘adapted for attacking with mines’; likewise LE minininkas 2. ‘warship adapted for attacking with mines,’ since that is now torpednešis, whereas torpe 38 da—only ‘a self-propelled mine’ [1, 1) ‘a vessel at sea or on rivers for laying mine or net barriers’ [2) ‘a piece of engineering equipment in the land forces designed to rapidly lay antitank mines in the ground (snow)’] (KarŽ 1995); eskadrinis minininkas means ‘a versatile, unarmored warship armed with mines (lays mine barriers), torpedoes, depth charges, universal 76–130 mm and antiaircraft artillery guns, and missiles. <...>. Used for reconnaissance, protecting a naval squadron, destroying enemy ships, and supporting naval landing forces and ground troops’ (LTE III). The article karo laivynas in LE XI distinguishes: minininkai, arba minų statytojai, as well as minų naikintojai and minų gaudytojai: ‘Other ships, such as destroyers and minesweepers, are also used or adapted as needed for laying mines. Minų gaudytojai (trawlers) <...>. Their purpose is to locate enemy mine barriers, determine their boundaries, clear passages through enemy minefields, or destroy entire friendly or enemy mine barriers. <...>.’ It goes without saying that just as there is an aircraft naikintuvas ir gaudytuvas (Russian истребитель-перехватчик, English fighter-interceptor; hence it is unclear whether a separate ‘interceptor’ is needed, sargybos naikintuvas, KarŽ 1995), so there should also be a ship minų naikintuvas ir minų gaudytuvas. The agent noun minininkas 1. ‘a specialist in laying and removing (clearing) mines, a minesweeper’ (LE XVIII); 1. ‘mine specialist, minesweeper’ (DŽ₃); ²minininkas 1. ‘a specialist in laying or removing mines’; 2. ‘aboard a warship, a specialist in mine weapons, their use, and countermeasures’ (LKŽ VIII) is possible in ordinary speech, but contradictory in terminology—it would yield minininkas aboard a (squadron) minininke. KarŽ 1995 has minuotojas, ‘a military specialist trained to lay and clear mines in terrain, structures, and other objects, and to conduct mine reconnaissance.’ KarŽ 1995 also has lėktuvininkas (lėktuvnešis). Torpeda (Latin torpedo—electric ray; DŽ₁ also has torpeda 2. zoological ‘a fish of the ray family capable of producing electric shocks’), as already noted, is a ‘self-propelled (naval) mine’; the first was made in 1866. LC 1885 33 already uses torpedlaivis (LKŽ XVI); 70 years ago, torpedininkas (Rtr; LKŽ XI) [LE XI 45—naikintojai (torpedininkai)]. Today the usual term is torpedinis laivas (armed with torpedoes) (DŽ₃ and DŽ₁), as well as torpedų kateris, a fast torpedo boat (LTE XI 359) (greitieji torpediniai laivai—‘intended for 39 operating in coastal areas, bays, and ports for torpedo attacks’ (LE XI 45; LE XI 43—coastal torpediniai laiveliai). Raketininkas means ‘a soldier in the missile forces’ (DŽ₃), while raketnešis means ‘an aircraft or ship carrying missiles’ (LKŽ XI), ‘a surface or submarine vessel, or aircraft, carrying combat missiles and equipped with their launchers’ (LTE IX) (whereas raketinis lėktuvas is not armed with missiles, but is a raketoplanas, ‘an aircraft with a rocket engine’ (LTE IX)). 6. aviation bomb launcher and bomb release mechanism; launching device, launcher, etc. Bombardos fired bombs, and the artillery bomb launcher also fired bombs. An aviation bomber drops bombs, but already “bombs may be free-falling, guided, or self-targeting. The latter have wings, control surfaces, remote-control or homing systems” LTE II. Even RLKŽ I has прицельное бомбометание – taikomasis avibombų metimas. And LTE IV says of ship-based depth charges: The latter are thrown overboard from the ship, fired from bomb launchers, or (rocket-propelled depth charges) launched from launching devices. A little clearer: <...> ship depth charges are fired from rocket and gas-powered bomb launchers aboard ships, or from stern-mounted bomb release mechanisms; <...> KarŽ 1995 (depth charge). So here we already have another bomb launcher. There are not yet single-word terms for devices that launch torpedoes and missiles: torpedo apparatus, “a warship device for launching torpedoes. <...>” LTE XI (LE XI 45 – torpedo apparatus), missile system – “a system for launching a combat, research, or training missile, aiming it at a target, and adjusting its trajectory. It includes the missile, launching device, aiming instruments, missile inspection equipment, a flight-control and trajectory-adjustment system, <...>” LTE IX (launching device – “a device for launching military missiles; <...>. <...>. Installed on the ground or in a silo, on a ship, aircraft, or high-mobility vehicle. <...>” LTE VIII), missile system – “functionally related systems and equipment for launching and controlling missiles. <...>” KarŽ 1995 (launching device – “a device for storing, aiming, preparing, and launching missiles;” 40 a device for aiming, preparing, and launching missiles; a combat component of a missile system. It consists of a tube or rails, aiming mechanisms, gas systems, shields, launch and control equipment, power sources, etc. Launchers may be vertical or inclined, stationary (silo-based, ground-based), semi-stationary (assembled), or mobile” KarŽ 1995). RLKŽ III ракетница – (flare) rocket launcher; rocket pistol is so far merely an attempt by linguists (although launcher fits well alongside aircraft, fighter). However, it turns out that a single-word term bomb release mechanism has long existed: Furthermore, this aircraft [ANBO – 41] could also carry 16 aviation bombs weighing 12 kg each (up to 200 kg total), for which automatic bomb release mechanisms had been specially installed LA 1998 118 13. Will we find raketlaidais, torpedlaidis? 7. to bomb, to torpedo; what next? To bomb means both to fire bombs, and to hurl bombs from a bomb launcher, and to drop bombs from a bomber or rocket-powered bomb launcher, and to launch bombs. The word bombard is also being used more broadly: “sub-bombarded”—missiles hit LTV 1999 05 08. One never hears to rocket. There is no to grenade. To torpedo exists as a verb – “to attack, strike with a rocket” DŽ₃; also LKŽ XVI torpedo 1. (while 2. means “to blast the bottom of an oil or gas well,” and 3. figuratively, “to sabotage a meeting, negotiations”); to torpedo does not exist yet. Conclusions The current system for naming aviation concepts has developed from the system of artillery (and small-arms) terminology BOMB – TO BOMBARD – TO BOMB bomb-thrower – to fire a grenade – grenade launcher – to fire (throw) a bullet – machine gun – to fire – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 41 With the disappearance of the realema bombard, and the change in the meaning of bomb— BOMB – BOMBER – TO BOMBARD bomb-thrower – to release Bomber clearly enough motivates the new meaning of bomb. The word to bombard remains obscurely motivated, but language users sense no ambiguity. One attempt at correction—replacing the word to bombard with the “clear” to bomb—proved unnecessary and unacceptable. The motivation might be clarified somewhat by including in the standard-language dictionary the historicism bombard and the historical meaning of bomb—“cannon projectile.” The microsystems of mines, torpedoes, and rockets develop in a similar (and somewhat different) way, but here some things are still halfway along, while rapid technological development leaves little time for them to settle. Received 1999-09-14 Abbreviations BŽ – Baronas J. Rusų lietuvių žodynas. K., 1932. – Russian-Lithuanian Dictionary / Prepared by V. Baronas, V. Galinis. Vilnius, 1967. Vol. 1. DŽ – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas: DŽ₁ – I leid., V., 1954. DŽ₂ – II leid., V., 1972. DŽ₃ – III leid., V., 1993. Enc – Lithuanian Encyclopedia. Kaunas, 1936, Vol. 4. 1937, Vol. 5. 1939, Vol. 7. 1940, Vol. 9. KarŽ – Kariškas lietuviškai-rusiškas ir rusiškai-lietuviškas žodynėlis. K., 1919. – Smetona A. Military Dictionary. Vilnius, 1995. LA – “Lietuvos aidas”. LE – Lithuanian Encyclopedia. Boston, 1954, Vol. 2. 1954, Vol. 3. 1955, Vol. 5. 1956, Vol. 7. 1957, Vol. 11. 1958, Vol. 13. 1958, Vol. 14. 1959, Vol. 17. 1959, Vol. 18. 1964, Vol. 31. LKŽ – Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language. Vilnius, 1941, Vol. 1, 1st ed., 1968, 2nd ed. 1956, Vol. 3. 1970, Vol. 8. 1976, Vol. 10. 1978, Vol. 11. 1986, Vol. 14. 1995, Vol. 16. The abbreviations of this dictionary are also used in the article. LTE – Lithuanian Soviet Encyclopedia. Vilnius, 1976, Vol. 1. 1977, Vol. 2. 1978, Vol. 3. 1978, Vol. 4. 1981, Vol. 7. 1981, Vol. 8. 1982, Vol. 9. 1983, Vol. 11. LTV – Lithuanian Television. MuzŽ – Krutulys A. Muzikos terminų žodynas. V., 1975. 42 PolŽ₂ – Rusų–lietuvių kalbų politechnikos žodynas / Sudarė G. Daugėla. V., 1984. PrPslgK – International Classification of Goods and Services. For the purposes of trademark registration. Vilnius, 1996, Part 1. RLKŽ – Rusų–lietuvių kalbų žodynas. V., 1982, T. 1. 1984, T. 3. RŽ – Lietuvių kalbos rašybos žodynas. K., 1948. SNŽŽ – Norkus J. Svetimų ir nesuprantamų žodžių žodynėlis. K., 1924. – Šlapelis J. Dictionary of Foreign and Unfamiliar Words. Tilsit, 1907. STŽŽ – M. ir S. Svetimų ir tarptautiškų žodžių žodynėlis. Šiauliai, 1923. SWO – Kopaliński W. Słownik wyrazów obcych. Warszawa, 1978. TŽŽ – Tarptautinių žodžių žodynas: K., 1936. V., 1951. V., 1969. V., 1985. – School Dictionary of International Words: Kaunas, 1995. Kaunas, 1998. Numerals indicate years, issue numbers (Roman numerals indicate volumes), and pages. Or a date. WHY BOMBS BOMBARD Summary The present system which names concepts of aviation has derived from the system of terms of artillery (and hand armament) bomb – bombard – to bombard (bomb) (bombard) (to bombard) bombardment weapon – to fire (bomb-thrower)(to shoot) grenade – grenade launcher – to fire (throw) (grenade) (grenade launcher) (to shoot) (to throw) bullet – machine gun – to shoot (bullet) (machine gun) (to shoot) After the term bombarda (bombard) dropped and the meaning of the word bomba (bomb) changed, such a system was formed bomb – bomber – to bombard (bomb) (bomber) (to bombard) bomb launcher – to launch (bomb launcher)(to launch) The new meaning of bomba is quite clearly motivated by the word bombonešis (bomber). An attempt to change the word bombarduoti (to bombard) with the ostensibly clearer form bombuoti was unnecessary and unsuccessful. Microsystems of terms mina (mine), torpeda (torpedo) and raketa (rocket, missile) developed similarly (and slightly differently), but the rapid progress of engineering gives a little time for them to settle down. 43