Užsienio terminologijos mokyklų apžvalga

OVERVIEW OF FOREIGN TERMINOLOGY SCHOOLS The foundations of terminology science were tried to be laid in the 1930s. Interest in terminology arose at once in several countries — Austria, Germany, Russia, Czech Republic. The works of scholars of these countries allow to distinguish two schools of terminology: Vienna and Russian. These schools adhere to similar principles, the only difference being which part of the theory is given the most attention. There are three approaches to terminology that are not fundamentally contradictory: = Terminology — interdisciplinary but independent science. General theory of terminology is based on the view that the most important thing is the nature of concepts, their relationships, relationships between terms and concepts. This move from concept to term distinguishes the methods of terminology and lexicography from each other. = The main focus is on philosophy, i.e. logical classification of conceptual systems. = —The main focus is on linguistics, which considers terminology as part of the vocabulary of a language and special languages as subsystems of the general language. The terminology is applied to the methods of linguistics and lexicography (Felber 1984: 31; Cabré 1999: 7). The Vienna School is based on the work of the Austrian scientist and engineer E. Wiester. In 1931 he was awarded a doctorate for his dissertation “Internationale Sprachnormung in der Technik” (International Standardization of Technical Language- ®) at the University of Stuttgart. In the same year, the work, which laid out the foundations of terminology theory, was expanded and printed. In 1935 the book was translated and printed in the USSR. In this work, which has not lost its relevance so far, terminology is considered as a means of communication, examining the nature of concepts, their interrelationships, characteristics, definitions, the creation of terms, the standardization of concepts and terms, i.e. internationalization. The result of E. Wiister's terminological research is the general theory of terminology. An important aspect of it is the standardization of concepts and terms. 119 After World War II, E. Wüster devoted most of his time to the development of the terminology principles of ISO (International Organization for Standardization). He himself drafted almost all the documents. The result of his long-term work is about 500 publications on terminology, standardization of terms, documentation, transliteration, symbol theory, classification, thesaurus theory, UDK (Universal Decimal Classification), etc. His most important works, according to his colleague and follower, Hans Felber, are: Internationale Vereinheitlichung von technischen Fachausdrücken (1957), Das Worten der Welt (1959), Die Struktur der sprachlichen Begriffswelt und ihre Darstellung in Wėrterbüchern (1959), Begriffsund Themaklassifikationen. Unterschiede in ihrem Wesen und ihrer Anwendung" (Classifications of Concepts and Things: Differences in Their Essence and Application) (1971), "Die Umkehrung einer Begriffsbeziehung und ihre Kennzeichnung in Wėrterbüchern" (The Inversion of a Begriffsrelation and its Description in Dictionaries) (1974) (Felber 1984: 34). E. Wüster’s ideas are summarized in his own Introduction to General Terminology Theory and Terminology, which he prepared for the audience of the terminology course given at the University of Vienna. "Einfūhrung in die Allgemeine Terminologielehre und terminologische Lexikographie" ("Introduction to the General Theory of Terminology and Terminology Lexikography") was published posthumously in 1979 as volume 8 of the "Schriftenreihe der Technischen Universität Wien". For more information about E. Wūsteris see Terminologija 5, 126-129. The ideas of the Vienna School were further developed by H. Felber, G. Budinas, C. Galinskis, W. Nedobity. Among them is the “Terminology manual” (UNESCO, Paris, 1984) prepared by H. Felber. The most prominent feature of the Vienna School is the focus on concepts and the focus of terminology work on standardization of terms and concepts. The terminology here is mainly handled by specialists in individual fields. Most of the Central and Northern European countries are working in this direction — Austria, Germany, Norway, Sweden, Denmark. The development of the theoretical foundations of the Russian terminology school began in the early 1930s. The methodology of terminology work was presented quite professionally by the founder of the Russian terminology school Dmitry Lotte. Having an education as an engineer rather than a linguist, he sufficiently qualifiedly examined such linguistic phenomena of special lexics as synonymy, polysemy and homonymy, word formation and word conjunction, abbreviation of various types of lexical forms, borrowing and assimilation of lexems and morphemes, established general principles of terminology management and presented the most important requirements for an “ideal” term. The works of D. Lotte, E. Drezen, G. Vinokur, A. 120 Reformatsky laid the foundation for Russian terminology. In 1933, the Technical Terminology Commission (Komuccust TEXHHYeCKOH TEpMHHOJIOTHH), later the Committee on Science and Technology Terminology, now the Committee on Scientific Terminology (Komuter HayuHoii TepMuHojIorun) of the USSR Academy of Sciences was established, whose main task was to develop the theory of terminology and the methodology of terminology management. The second phase of terminology development in the Soviet Union began in the late 1950s and continued until the end of the 1960s. During this period, the status of the term, which has given rise to intense discussions (the works of A. Reformatskis, L. Kapanadzė and others), the relationship between terms and nomenclatural names, logical aspects of terminology and questions of translation of terms are examined. The next stage of the development of Russian terminology, which took place in the 1970s and 1980s, was characterized by a sharp increase in the number of terminology works, the expansion of the geography of research and the emergence of regional centres and terminology groups. The main direction of research becomes almost standard structural semantic description of specific term systems. The terminology center remains Moscow, even several organizations in that city are working on terminology. The Committee on Scientific and Technical Terminology continues the research initiated by D. Lotte. At the Moscow Polygraphic Institute, T. Kandelaki began to read the first special course on terminology theory. Intensive and multifaceted terminology research was carried out at the Faculty of Philology of Moscow State University, where P. Denisov, V. Danilenko, V. Leichik, V. Prokhorova, P. Veselov, R. Cagolova worked. Furthermore, the terminology group of Prof. O. Akhmanova, which included G. Agapova, N. Gvi121 In 1990, the first Russian school of terminology was established, and one of the first textbooks on terminology, “Terminology: Theory and Method”, was published. The Leningrad Terminology Center was established at this time, which focused on historical terminology research (L. Kutina, E. Sorokoletov, E. Konovalova, E. Chupulina, A. Gerd), terminography (A. Gerd, A. Moiseyev, M. Antonova) and the study of nomenclature (L. Komolova). B. Golovin founded the Gorky terminology group. It included R. Kobrin, V. Nemchenko, K. Averbuch, L. Pekarskaya, O. Makarichina and others. This group was distinguished by the fact that it began to apply linguistic statistical methods more widely, searching for the most common models of term creation, examining the problems of terminological research automation, etc. In the 1980s and 1990s, the Gorky State University published a collection,, Tepmun u cJroBo” (“The term and the word”), which included articles on the specificity of the term and the term systems, the functioning of terms in scientific texts, on comparative studies of terms in different languages. At the same time as Gorky, the Voronezh group appears, led by S. Ivanov and E. Aniushkin. She devotes considerable attention to the problems of terminology, examines technical terminology, widely applies statistical methods. In the 1980s, Voronezh terminologists published a collection of scientific papers “OrpacjJieBasi TEDMHHOJIOTUSI” (“Terminology of the Branch”). The collections deal with current terminology problems related to the creation, functioning and development of terms of economic sectors. Terminology research is also carried out in Omsk and Chelyabinsk. The Omsk Terminology Center, led by L. Tkacheva, examined extralinguistic terminology processes, sociolinguistic aspects of terminology creation, ideologization of scientific and technical terms. The Chelyabinsk terminology group, founded by L. Shkatova, solves onomastological problems of Russian terminology, organizes annual conferences and publishes their reports. In the last decade of the 20th century, a qualitative leap in terminology was observed, for which the already discussed terminology groups and centres, the collections of scientific papers published by them and several other organizati122 ons and fundamental works published after 1990 were of great importance. The Russian Research Institute of Terminology Classification and Standardization and Quality Information (Bcepoccuiickui Hay4HO-HCCJIeJ[OBATCeJIbCKHŪ MHCTUTYT KJIACCHOHKAIIHH TEDpMHHOJIOTHH H HHOOpMAIIHMH IIO CTaHJIapTH3alIHH H KauecTBY), which since 1968 publishes the scientific-technical information set "Hay4uHo-TeXHHYeCKasi TEDMHHOJIO"- rus" (Terminology of Science and Technology), is carrying out extensive work on the standardization of terms. In the early 20th century, the collection’s topics were greatly expanded, including theoretical issues of terminology management, creation, new branches of science and new terminology systems. The terminology group, headed by A. Superanskaya and based at the Institute of Linguistics of the Academy of Sciences, has prepared the fundamental monographs “OOGiias repmuHosiorusi: Boripockhi Teopun” (General terminology: questions of theory) (1989) and “O6111as1 TEDMHHOJIOTHS: TepMH1H0Jrornueckas ĮesTeJibHOcT5” (General terminology: terminological activity) (1993). These works have moved from quantity to quality and to a new theoretical level of terminology. In 1992, the Kharkiv Society of Lexicographers was founded under the leadership of V. Dubichinsky. The members of the community are scholars from various countries, who study the problems of terminology and lexicography. It organizes scientific conferences and seminars, the materials of which are published in the collection of scientific works on lexicology and lexicography “Vocabulum et vocabularium” (1994-1998), publishes the newsletter “Lex”. A major event confirming a new stage in terminology management in Russia was the establishment of the Russian Society of Terminologists (PoccTepm) in 1993 on the initiative of V. Tatarinov. The main tasks of this association are: coordination of scientific research in terminology and terminography, organization of scientific conferences and seminars, publication of works in the association’s collection, “Tepmunosenenue” (“Terminology”, editor-in-chief V. Tatarinov), maintaining contacts with foreign terminologists, etc. The Society organizes annually international scientific conferences,- ,TepmuHonornueckue yreHusi PoccTepma® („Terminological RossTermo Readings“), the material of which is printed in the collection „TepąMunoBejnenne“ („Terminology“) (1994-1998) and „Tepsuno123 BeJĮEHHE H MPENoJaBaHUe HHOCTpaHHBIX SI3bIKOB" (Terminology and teaching of foreign languages) (1999). The greatest achievement of terminology in the last decade of the 20th century is considered to be the monographs: V. Leičikas and L. Besekirska,- ,TepmunoBeJĮeHHe: MPEIMET, MeTOJIbI, cTpyKTYypa“ (,, Terminology: object, methods, structure“) (1998) and V. Tatarinov,,- Teopust TEpMHHOBemenus. T. 1. Teopust TEpMH4Ha: HCTOpHS H COBPEMEHHOE COCTOSIHHe" (Theory of Terminology. Vol. 1. Theory of the term: history and current situation) (1996). These very serious theoretical works summarize the results of the terminology research of the last 30 years, present the most important postulates of the term, the main directions and methods of terminology research, current problems and tasks of terminology development. In terms of terminology, S. Griniov’s ideas are important, as they are presented in his books, BBeneHue B TepmuHoBeneHue (Introduction to Terminology) (1993) and, UcTopuyeckuii CuCTeMaTU3MPOBAHHBIN CJIOBapb TEDMHHOB TEPMUHOBeneHus (Historical Systematic Dictionary of Terminology Terms) (1998). This dictionary was compiled for the first time and includes 3245 terms. According to the author, this dictionary shows sufficient maturity of terminology as a complex applied scientific discipline. The research of the definitions of terms in S. Shelov’s monograph “OrpejtejieHHe TEDMHHOB H TIOHATHITHAS CTpyKTypa TepMuHonorun® (“Definition of Terms and Structure of Terminological Concepts”) (1998) appears to be relevant and promising. The thesis newly addresses such issues as the linguistic nature of terms, types of definitions of terms, structure of terminology concepts, etc. The main directions and methods of terminological research of the Russian school were established and presented in two books of V. Tatarinov’s chrestomacy “Hcropus oreuecrBeHHoro TepMHHOBejJIeHHSz. T. 2. HarrpapBJieHHsi © MeTOJIbI TEDMHHOJIOTHUCeCKHX HCCJIeJJOBaHHH” (The History of Patriotic Terminology. Vol. 2. Directions and Methods of Terminological Research) (1995, 1999). Other terminology schools and centres. The Prague Terminology Centre grew out of the Prague School of Functional Linguistics. In the 1920s, the theory of common language, i.e. the national multifunctional language and its stylistic differentiation, as well as the theory of language culture, developed in the Czech Republic, 124 laying the foundations for modern terminological activity in the Czech Republic and Slovakia (Vančura, Kopecky, Čoda). The Prague Terminology Centre also relied on the ideas of E. Wūster. It was assumed that the language of science, i.e. the special language, is a functional language. The smallest unit of a functional language is a term. A terminology system is a system of designations that identify a system of concepts. Prague linguists distinguished four styles: professional, aesthetic, journalistic and oral. Professional style is considered the core of general language. A term is a professional lexical unit and a part of the professional functional style of the national common language. Linguistic norms can be codified. This helps to ensure the consistency of the language. Codification of terminology—the presentation of terms and conceptual definitions in glossaries and standards. The focus is on standardization, because standards are produced by a specific institution and are therefore more reliable and objective than dictionaries produced by individuals. Four aspects of practical work are distinguished: 1) analysis of scientific and technical texts, 2) application of language culture methodology (conscious intervention), 3) application of the principles of nomination theory, including word formation theory, 4) application of logical principles to classify terms and concepts (Felber 1984: 35-36). The main focus is on the structural and functional description of special languages, with a strong focus on standardization. The terminology work in Czechoslovakia was mainly carried out by the Czechoslovak Committee for Terminology Standards, led by the Czech Language Institute and the Slovak Academy of Sciences. The most famous representative of the Prague School is L. Drozdov. The works of Czech and Slovak terminologists —L. Drozdo „Deutsche Fachund Wissenschaftssprache“ (German language for professional and scientific use) (together with W. Seibicke, Wiesbaden, 1973), J. Horecki „Zakladné problémy terminoldgie“ (Basic problems of terminology) in the publication,,- Aktuálna problémy lingvistickej terminolégie“ (Bratislava, 1976), B. Havraneko „Terminologie“ (Terminology) in the publication,,- Ottov slovnik naučny novej doby. Appendices VI. S. 1074" (Prague, 1943), by B. Poštolková, M. Roudny, A. Tějnora "O české terminologii" (On Czech terminology) (Prague, 1983). 125 M. T. Cabrė distinguishes four stages in the development of terminology: origin (1930-1960), formation (1960-1975), boom (1975-1985) and expansion (1985—to this day) (Cabrė 1999: 5). In the 1970s and 1980s, terminology activity spread to Canada, France, Belgium, Scandinavia, and more recently to Spanish and Portuguese-speaking countries, Japan and China. In Canada, the focus is on terminology convergence, translation and terminology issues, usage and standardization, and term banks. One of the most famous Canadian terminologists, G. Rondeau, studied and proposed the term neonymy. His most notable work is "Introduction a la terminologie" (Montreal, 1984). A lot about terminology was written by A. Rey, R. Kocourekas. In Canada and other French-speaking countries, the focus is on a traditional linguistic approach to terminology, with terminology activities often focused on translation and language planning. In 1979, the Groupe Interdisciplinaire de Recherche Scientifique et Appliquée en Terminologie® (GIRSTERM) was established at the University of Laval, Quebec, under the leadership of Prof. G. Rondeau. Terminology work is developing very rapidly in Scandinavia. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, terminology centres and national term banks were established here. In the Nordic countries, the main focus is on empirical research, the application of Wooster’s methods to areas where they have not been applied before, such as law or economics, and terminology teaching. A pragmatic approach to standardisation prevails: only what is necessary and appropriate should be standardised. The Copenhagen School of Economics has published a textbook on terminology, “Terminology: an introduction” (Guildford, Surrey, 1986) by H. Picht and J. Draskau. Other European countries are also working on terminology. In Germany, the focus was not so much on terminology as on the special language. The theory of terminology is developed in parallel with classification theory and knowledge engineering. The works of L. Hoffmann, I. Dahlberg, K.-D. Schmitz are mentioned. In the 126 UK, J. C. Sager worked in a similar direction at the University of Manchester. Zi: his best works —“English special languages. Principles and practice in science and technology (with D. Dungworth and P. McDonald, Wiesbaden, 1980) and A practical course in terminology processing (Amsterdam/Philadelphia, 1990). Terminologists might be interested in the work of our neighbors —S. Gaida’s “Wprowadzenie do teorii terminu” (“Introduction to the Theory of Terminology”) (Opole, 1990) and V. Skujiņas- ’s “Latviešu terminologijas izstrades principi” (“Principles of the Creation of Latvian Terminology”) (Riga, 1993). Terminology activities in European countries are very extensive and diverse. National terminology centres and term banks have been established in many countries. In 1996, the European Association for Terminology (EAFT) was founded in Denmark. Of the organizations developing terminology activities on a global scale, five are particularly noteworthy — Infoterm, TermNet, IITĘ ISO TK/ 37 and GTW. Infoterm — International Information Centre for Terminology was founded in 1971 on the initiative of E. Wiister. Its objective is to support cooperation in the field of terminology, the development of reliable and multifunctional terminology, providing information on terminological activities in various countries, and creating a network of terminology organizations. At the end of the 1920s, UNESCO commissioned Infoterm to develop a plan for an international terminology network. TermNet was founded in 1988. It is responsible for developing and disseminating software for terminology work, preparing and publishing printed materials, and organizing training. The TermNet currently has about 50 members from 20 countries. Together with Infoterm, GTW and IITF, it produces and publishes the quarterly TermNet News magazine, which focuses on term banks, terminology training, language planning and terminology standardisation. It also publishes monographs, bibliographies, and conference reports. IITF —Internationales Institut für Terminologieforschung (International Institute for Terminology Research) was founded in 1989 as Aust127