Terminų aiškinimas mokslo populiarinamuosiuose tekstuose

INTERPRETATION OF TERMS IN SCIENCE POPULARIZATION TEXTS In science popularization texts, intended for the general public, the most relevant and interesting scientific material is introduced in a simple and understandable way: the latest ideas, discoveries, etc. The most important function of these texts is to “present factual information, and to make this information attractive, it is dressed in the clothing of image and emotion, i.e., it is also aimed at impact and persuasion” (Župerka 1997: 83). In an effort to influence the recipient, to interest him in the problems raised, language means are used in a non-standard, creative way, using everyday situations. Accuracy, logic, reliability of facts in popular science texts are inseparable from visuality, emotionality, subjective evaluation. Unlike a text of scientific style, the recipient of which is oriented towards a qualified specialist, capable of “thinking in abstract categories, synthesizing complex scientific information, creatively memorizing it” (Bitinienė 1997: 27), the recipient of popular science texts is prepared to properly understand the information presented.'Popular science in Lithuania began to take shape more intensively in the late 19th century — the first decades of the 20th century. During this period, J. Adomaitis (Šernas), P. Avižonis, J. Basanavičius, K. Būga, J. Jablonskis, A. Janulaitis, J. Šliūpas, P. Vileišis and many other scholars of the time published articles popularizing science, in which “the basics of various sciences were popularly explained and the most necessary terms for general education were introduced” (Palionis 1995: 268). No less attention is paid to the popularization of science today — in an effort to satisfy the intellectual needs of society, the popularization of science is becoming increasingly important. Depending on the possible age of the recipient, education, etc., popular science texts may be treated differently. In order to give an overview of the most common ways of interpreting the terms, this article refers to texts intended for the general public. Most of the texts examined were from the series Science news for all. 42 formation. It tries to anticipate all components of scientific teaching, which the recipient may not understand, and seeks ways to explain them. In these texts abstraction is avoided — each statement is based on known facts and illustrated with concrete examples. Special attention is paid to terms, because their abundance or inappropriate use makes the text difficult to understand and limits the addressee’s ability to be interested in scientific innovations. Terms —the most important, most informative part of the vocabulary of the scientific language —are used in all variants of the scientific style”* (the stylistic characteristic — subjective accuracy is realized), but in each of them they function differently- ”. Given the indefinite audience, popular science texts try to present only those terms that are impossible to do without. The language is given preference to terms already established in certain branches of science, new, doubtful ones are avoided, new ones are not encouraged to be created." All terms used in popular science texts can be divided into terms that do not require additional explanation and terms that without additional explanation the recipient may not understand or misunderstand. In popularising science texts, general categorical concepts that are equally important for all sciences are not explained (e.g., * A. Bitinienė, taking into account “non-linguistic factors of scientific style, especially the constantly changing objectives of the act of communication, understood in a broad sense, the specificity of the relationship between participants and the functioning of real texts in the sphere of scientific activity” (Bitinienė 1997: 27). distinguishes three main — theoretical (special), educational and methodological — posts of scientific style and science popularization post, which, according to the researcher, belongs to the periphery of scientific style. * Taking into account the functioning of terms in the text, V. Leičikas (Jleitunk 1990: 82) presents the following classification of texts: terms creating (texts describing new theories, concepts, new inventions and discoveries, etc.), terms using (secondary information documents, science popularization, publicistic texts, etc.) and terms confirming (term dictionaries, encyclopedias, etc.) texts. “According to Terminology (see Gaivenis 2002: 27), anyone who doubts one or another term has the right to create his own new creation, but it is likely that new or little known terms can distance science popularization texts from more complex scientific texts, which are based on standardized or approved by the relevant institutions terms. 43 law, hypothesis, method, development, relationship, system, etc.) or terms of specific branches of science, which the addressee should be familiar with from general education. These are the basic concepts of various fields included in the general education programs. For example, in popular texts on linguistics, additional explanation is not required for terms denoting the names of sounds (e.g., vowel VanagMVP 82, consonant VanagMVP 82), parts of speech (e.g., noun KeinTA 69) or parts of words (e.g., ending KeinTA 19, suffix VanagMVP 65, root VanagMVP 67); popularizing texts on botany do not explain well-known names of plants (e.g., spruce JankevRGA 11, hillberry JankevRGA 24), substances (e.g., chlorophyll JankevRGA 9) or processes (e.g., photosynthesis JankevRGA 9), etc. Terms that are characterized by semantic accuracy and clarity of motivation are not explained in more detail — it is quite easy to understand some compound or enriched terms (dual), the meaning of which is revealed by the internal form of the term itself, e.g.: nourishing medium RimkSBP 7 or star leaf SviderskŽ 11, longevity SkliutKI 5, etc. Of course, there is always the possibility that the addressee may not understand the terms mentioned. However, it is much worse when science popularization texts do not explain terms that are not very common, used only in specialized literature, which without additional explanation remain incomprehensible to the recipient. The term “must, by its very structure, correctly orient users” (Keinys 1980: 32), but sometimes the internal form of the term can mislead the addressee. In such cases, the addressee not only tries to raise points that may go unnoticed, but also tries to predict errors and inaccuracies in the perception of the term. For example: : In the summer, it is easy to spot a species of the carnation family with pink flowers in the pine forests of Pirčiupiai — Valkininkai. There are not many species that remind the botanists of the world (after all, Latin is the international language of science and every plant species has a Latin name) of Lithuania. And these species do not necessarily have to be widespread only in Lithuania. It was enough that they were described for the first time by botanists working in Lithuania and sought that name. Lithuanian nightshade grows only in Southern Lithuania, Belarus, Poland, Ukraine JankevRGA 29-30. Falcon passenger. Falcon passenger does not travel at all; it's a sedentary bird. Some of the birds even stay overwintering where they migrated, and those who have fled usually return to the old nest BalaSevIRK 52. Fearing that the recipient may interpret the presented terms in his own way, their 44 true motivation is explained, trying to reveal the true meaning as detailed as possible. The main focus of popular science texts is on specific terms of specific branches of science. In order to make the information available to everyone who wishes to consult it, ways are being sought to clarify these terms in a simpler and more comprehensible way.” One of the most common ways of interpreting terms in popular science texts of different directions is the definition of the object, phenomenon or event that the term denotes. It is oriented towards a partial definition: no attempt is made to list all the characteristics of the object named by the term, the attention is focused on the pozymi which is most important in the specific context." For example: : Castle hills are fortresses for the defense of the local population GimbutBPL 116. Cholesterol is a substance that is essential for normal life activity SkliutKI 28. The expression of the definition itself can be different: the connecting expression" can be expressed by the words namely or called, moving away from the strict structure of the definition (the interpretation is more like a story). For example: : Often bacteria develop together with fungi, and vice versa. Such mutual communication is called synergy Lu- “ Methods of interpretation of terms have been discussed quite extensively by linguists of other countries —L. BataSiova (Barauniesa 1985), I. Kvitko (Ksurrko 1976), E. Lazarevich (Jlazapesuy 1978), E. Nikitin (Huknrun 1970) and many others. This area has been little studied in Lithuania. * For comparison: In the International Dictionary of Words, the term electrolyte is defined as “a substance whose molecules, dissolved or fused, break down into ions (salt, acid and base solutions, molten salts, etc.)” (TŽZ 1969: 205). In the popular text of the science of physics we find the following interpretation of this term: “electrolytes — are solutions of acids, bases or salts containing mobile ions — electric current carriers” (DavidavGJP 20). This text is about electrochemical reactions and ions with positive and negative charges, so, in the addressee- ’s opinion, it does not matter how a certain substance decomposes into ions — by dissolving or melting, etc. The definition leaves only what helps to understand the speaking situation. 7 The definition consists of three parts: the ‘definiendum’, the ‘definiens’ and the ‘conjunctive’ (expressed by the words is, therefore, means). The definition is the equality of the defining and the defining part” (VLE 2001: 645). 45 gauskB 6. The treaty may provide that non-signatories may accede to it at a later date. This connection is called accession or adhesion LydekPPKS 138. The definition, as a way of interpreting the meaning of a term, is used in all scientific style posts (very often it is a means of introducing new terms), but in popular science texts it can be supplemented with elements of evaluation not characteristic of technical language. For example: : Nickel is a white, yellowish-tinted metal. It is hard, well polished. Products coated with glossy or matt polished nickel look very beautiful DavidavGJP 34. Among such hereditary diseases, phenylketonuria can be noted. It is a disease of mental retardation, which is now successfully treated with nų appropriate diet SinkGLŽ 5. When describing the descriptive object in more detail, standardization and scientific rigor are — no longer formal communication į situations, they are replaced by more intimate conversations. Quite often terms are interpreted by revealing their origin. The indication of origin helps to understand the usage of the term, allows to į jo look at the nature. The following į is a list of the most commonly used names: du The first name of the city was given in the early 20th century, as a name for a small town. The name was taken from the Roman historian Tacitus, who in his Germania (98) mentioned the Aesti, gentes Aestiorum, a people living on the eastern edge of the Baltic Sea (according to Tacitus, "on the right bank of the Suebi Sea"). It is not clear whether Tacitus referred to all the Balts, or Prussians, or only those who lived around Aistmares GimbutBPL 12. Of prehistoric metals tin lead — ir — 1839 m. the first anti-friction alloy babite (named after the engineer who discovered it) was melted in the world. This alloy is used in the manufacture of slip bearings JanulMM 11; 2) the language from which the term originates and the motivation for the term shall be indicated.’ For example: : We now have synthetic inhibitors called * In linguistic literature this way of interpreting terms is often called term etymology no (see section 4.4). Kynukosa, Canmuna 2002: 149). 46 retardants (from the English word “retard”- ). These are physiologically active substances that also regulate plant growth. They slow the growth of stems, affect photosynthesis, metabolism, flowering and other growth processes of plants ŠimkKPAA 15. In 1941, a group of American scientists isolated for the first time a vitamin B, also called folic acid (from Latin "folium" - leaf), from spinach leaves. It is produced only in the leaves of the plant ŠimkKPAA 19. Motivation by revealing the primary meaning, the recipient not only shows the transparency of the meaning of the term, but also helps to remember a more substantive term. At the same time, they try to tell about the phenomenon that gave life to the term. However, this way of interpreting terms is not particularly successful — the history of the term does not always explain the term itself, and it may be difficult to memorize the obvious motivation without knowing the language. Perhaps for this reason, the origin of the term is often merely an additional information in parentheses alongside a much broader interpretation of the concept. In popular science texts, both ways of interpreting the origin of the term can be used side by side — in one sentence. This is often the case when the recipient wants to clarify synonymous terms. As already mentioned, one or another interpretation of the origin of the term is determined by the object itself. For example: : Another analogous form of anemia, affecting tens of millions of people in malarial areas, is Kuli’s anemia (named after the doctor) or thalassemia (from the Greek words “thalassa”—the sea, indicating disease on the coasts, and “haima”—- blood) SinkGLZ 40. Orientation to the origin of the term is also characteristic of specialised scholarly and educational texts, but in texts popularising science, after providing a reference to the source of origin, the tone of objective speech is not maintained — the explanation can be continued with examples of everyday situations. For example: : In a broader sense, the most diverse changes of all metals caused by the external environment are called corrosion of metals. The term “corrosion” itself is of Latin origin and means the decay, rustling of a metal alloy and metal work. Even copper and brass objects corrode. They do not cover themselves with brown rust, but with greenish plaque. Silver coins and silver objects are covered with similar plaques because silver is usually melted with copper. Aluminum, zinc and lead products also corrode. It is enough to boil cucumbers in an 47 aluminum pot or to keep sour cabbage for a few days and the sturdy dish gradually breaks. Thus, the metal has a major disadvantage -—it corrodes DavidavGJP 5-6. Practical experience of the recipient (e.g. the aforementioned pickling of cucumbers or cabbage in an aluminum pot) can be included as an additional, very compelling material. In popular science texts, everyday situations are often used to explain terms. For example, at the beginning of the 20th century, a young American scientist T. Morgan chose the fruit fly, the Drosophila, for genetic research. We have all seen this fly: in storerooms and cellars, swarms of tiny flies fly about picked fruit, wine, sour jams. This is the famous drosophila, to the research of which thousands of scientists devoted their lives SinkGLZ 11.The combination of scientific and common language style components reveals the specificity of science popularization texts. In popular science texts, it is possible to interpret terms using synonyms* used in other types of texts. Synonyms are usually used to explain international terms, with more commonly used variants listed next to them. For example: : This defect in the metabolism of the nerve cells did not manifest itself in any special way until 1903, when barbiturates were used as sleeping drugs: barbital, phenobarbital (perhaps better known to readers as veronal, luminal) and others. SinkGLZ 42. The only chemical that can provide energy in this system is hydrogen. His electro- * In exemplary organized terminology, synonymy is limited to the maximum — the aim is that each concept be represented by only one term. However, synonymous terms are abundant. The reasons for their emergence have been discussed in greater detail by St. Keynes (Keynes 1980). According to him, synonyms arise because of the ununiform terminology, and their own terms are created because of ignorance of the terms used by other authors. their incredibility or unreliability —all this leads to the emergence of both international and purely Lithuanian synonymous terms. In addition, "some synonymous terms are formed when, in addition to the words terminated in the popular or literary language, new words or values are added" or "in addition to the two-word and two-word composite terms, in individual cases shorter, often single-word terms are formed"; “it also happens that synonymous terms appear in search of a more regular expression” (Keinys 1980: 100, 101). 48 biological catalysts, or enzymes, transfer to the oxygen molecule JasaitGE 9; also —and Lithuanian counterparts, e.g. : Camps from this period contained ribs, fish bones, nut shells, agar (water nut) shells, fern roots, bird bones, etc. GimbutBPL 28. These are signs of life energy and its renewal, essential in the feminine chthonian (earth) and lunar (lunar cycle) symbol system GimbutBPL 33. The terms are thus interpreted without any special emphasis. Another synonymous way of interpreting terms, when an international term is presented next to the Lithuanian one, is more oriented to the specialist of the branch of science under consideration — the qualified recipient: most often the Lithuanian word, as a term, is new, therefore the international equivalent used in the specialized literature, but not more widespread, is also indicated. It can be assumed that for a non-specialist such an interpretation is didactic in nature — it is likely that the addressee, having become familiar with the term, will understand it more easily in another scientific text. For example: : In order to better understand why there is such interest in mutation-causing factors, we have to mention the reasons for natural (spontaneous) mutability of organisms and briefly move to the distant past LekevEG 14. The corrosion process is intensified if not one but several types of microorganisms, such as bacteria and microscopic fungi (micromycetes) LugauskB 6, develop on the surface. It has been observed that synonyms are usually presented by recalling a term already known, previously explained in the text, or when the term is used episodically. Visually and powerfully, terms are explained by metaphors and comparisons. Metaphors can also be used as synonyms — "a distinct semantics that brings the metaphor closer to widely used synonyms * In some sciences (e.g., botany, medicine, etc.) Latin words or combinations of words are quite common in the language. For example: : Microscopic fungi, particularly the Penicillium and Aspergillus genera, grow and develop on polyethylene LugauskB 14. Streptococcus haemolyticus, for example, does not have the granules that some bacteria may temporarily lose RimkSBP 12. The Latin equivalent in popular science texts is usually given for accuracy. It is not appropriate to consider such usage as a way of interpreting terms in popular science texts for the general public. 49 lines’ (batawesa 1985: 142). For example: : If you watch the sky for longer, you will see “shooting stars” — meteors, artificial satellites of the Earth flying here and there against the background of stars, and perhaps the spectacular northern lights swirling in greenish-- pink shades SviderskZ 19. As can be seen, the metaphorical compound "shooting star" used as a synonym of the term meteor, having the realized sem "flying" and specified by the adjective "falling", is an entirely possible interpretation of the meaning of the term." Or: More than 40 gibberellins (a group of growth-promoting hormones, of which the best studied and most active is gibberellinic acid) have recently been isolated — the plant stem growth “controller” ShimkKPAA 14. The depths of the Sun are a huge boiler of nuclear reactions that consumes hydrogen and produces helium YuzhkMZS 12. In popular science texts, metaphor, as an additional element of interpretation, can perform another function — help reveal the meaning of the phenomenon or process named by the term. An obvious orientation towards the metaphorization of the domestic style — “we feel closeness to the object of conversation, the speaker’s direct contact with it” (Župerka 1997: 62). For example: : Already at the beginning of this century, scientists were aware of another "favorite" substance of plants, from which their "appetite for eating" nitrogen improves. This substance — vitamin B, (pyridoxine) — was founded by American A. Maister Shimkpaa 18-19. This usage helps to give the impression that the text is not complex, that it is relatively easy to understand, because the information is presented directly and simply. The principle of accessibility can also be realized by comparisons, which in popular science texts are usually based on well-known objects and phenomena. For example: : Radiation mutagenesis can- * In popular science texts, metaphors or metaphoric compounds are often separated by quotation marks. Some authors use quotation marks in order to avoid responsibility for inaccurate and stylistically unmotivated metaphorization (Iaxyrur 1988: 23; cf. Abaravičius 2002: 210-211), but most often in popular science texts they are used to distinguish “author’s metaphors — new, unexpected comparisons of concepts” (Marcinkevičienė 1991: 19). There is no doubt that such excessive use of quotation marks is defective — “the tics of the quotation mark in the author’s metaphor erase part of its charm, the freshness of associations” (Marcinkevičienė 1991: 20). In many cases, quotes should be used with more moderation and caution in popular science texts. 50