Epo, lyrikos, dramos žanrų ir kitų klasifikacijos vienetų pavadinimai pirmuose lietuviškuose literatūros teorijos vadovėliuose

Asta MITKEVIČIENĖ Institute of the Lithuanian Language NAMES OF GENRES OF EPIC, LYRIC POETRY, DRAMA, AND OTHER CLASSIFICATION UNITS IN THE FIRST LITHUANIAN TEXTBOOKS OF LITERARY THEORY 1. Introductory remarks It is often said that the terminology of literary studies is particularly non-Lithuanian. Was this always the case? This article examines one of the main groups of literary-studies terms used during the formation of the field’s present-day terminology: the names of genres of epic, lyric poetry, drama, and other classification units in the first Lithuanian textbooks of literary theory. The discussion is not limited to the origins of the terms; it also addresses their synonymy and pauses to consider several other aspects of their usage. The material was gathered from K. Bizauskas’s Theory of Writing and Literature (part 1, 1918) and the third, expanded and revised edition of Theory of Literature1, both editions of M. Gustaitis’s Stylistics (1923 and 1927), three different editions of J. Norkus’s textbook Theory of Literature (the basic principles of prose and poetry) (1923, 1926, 1930), St. Čėsūnas’s Theories of Poetry and Prose (1925), and J. Ambrazevičius’s book Theory of Literature. Poetics (fourth edition, 1938²)—that is, from all the first specialized works on literary theory published during the interwar period. Why were works on literary theory chosen specifically? As J. Girdzijauskas states, before K. Bizauskas’s textbook, “there were only fragments of theoretical reflections on literature” (Girdzijauskas 1993: 115). Although in the first two decades of the twentieth century the basic concepts and understandings had already taken shape— 1 The second edition of K. Bizauskas’s textbook appeared without any revisions (and consisted only of Part I), while the fourth, as stated in the preface, was revised only slightly; the terms remained the same. In 1920, J. Jablonskis reviewed the second edition of the textbook and criticized it harshly (Jablonskis 1933: 181–183). 2 Pirmieji leidimai – 1930, 1933, 1936 m. Ketvirtasis leidimas (1938 m.) pasirinktas todėl, kad tai paskutinis iki karo išleistas literatūros teorijos vadovėlis, atspindintis ketvirtojo dešimtmečio literatūrologijos terminų vartoseną. 81 —taking shape, or had taken shape, in literary criticism (see ibid.); however, the system of concepts (and thus of the terms themselves) is most clearly visible only in works of literary theory³. Incidentally, it was the authors of the literary-theory textbooks listed above who first attempted to define the terms apysaka, novelė (Sprindytė 1996: 26; LLE 2001). The textbooks are, of course, not all of the same scholarly or linguistic quality, nor are they of the same length. The authors’ backgrounds in literary studies also differ: K. Bizauskas studied law in Moscow; M. Gustaitis, in addition to other studies in the West, studied the history of literature and art at the University of Fribourg; J. Norkus graduated from the history department of the University of Lithuania; and J. Ambrazevičius studied literature at the University of Lithuania, where he later taught, as well as at the University of Bonn (LLE 2001; VLE III 2003, VII 2005; LE XX 1960). At the time of publication, the textbooks were also evaluated differently. As already noted, J. Jablonskis criticized the second edition of K. Bizauskas’s textbook. St. Čėsūnas’s textbook, prepared on the basis of D. Ovsianiko-Kulikovskii’s work, was deemed unsuitable as a school textbook by the Ministry of Education’s commission for reviewing educational materials and books (though suitable, for example, for teachers) (ŠD 1925: 1243); it was published only once. In the third decade of the 20th century, the textbook by teacher J. Norkus was probably the one most widely used in schools (Misevičius 1930: 733). The preface Prakalba to the 1922 edition of K. Bizauskas’s textbook is very important to the history of literary-studies terminology. The author writes that he had submitted literary-studies terms to the Terminology Commission⁴, which “discussed them over a series of meetings but had not yet finally established them”⁵, and so he was publishing the textbook “adhering to— 3 Names of genres of epic, lyric poetry, drama, and other classification units were used, for example, in works of literary history that began to be published as early as the late 19th century. However, since these works surveyed still-young Lithuanian literature, the number of terms for the thematic groups under discussion could also only be limited. 4 K. Bizauskas’s concern for terminology is reflected in this observation of his: “the establishment of terms is not the business of any one interested person or author, but a common concern of us all” (Biz, 4). 5 In 1921, the Terminology Commission tasked J. Tumas with forming a small commission on literary terms and proposed that L. Gira and V. Krėvė be invited to join it. The small commission submitted to the Commission a list of K. Bizauskas’s literary-studies terms, which were discussed at seven meetings. J. Jablonskis attended all the meetings, and K. Būga attended five. A. Smetona chaired most of the meetings, and A. Vireliūnas was their secretary. P. Mašiotas and A. Dambrauskas often attended the meetings. K. Bizauskas participated in only one meeting. Unfortunately, unlike the resolutions on terms in law, roads, geography, and other fields, the Terminology Commission did not publish resolutions on literary-studies terms. 82 “taking into account the observations of the Terminology Commission” (Biz3 3). He also gives special thanks to K. Būga and J. Jablonskis for their advice. At the end of J. Gustaitis’s Stilistikos is a Terminų sąrašas (it contains only one or two genre names). Terms are presented in textbooks in a great variety of ways: they are defined, discussed, described, or merely listed; changes in the concepts designated by terms and the origins of some terms are also shown. For example: “Nowadays, ballads are understood as short epic works whose content includes much that is unusual and fantastic<~>. The ballad originated in southern France, in Provence. The folk singers of Provence, the troubadours, went from castle to castle praising the deeds of knights. Dancing accompanied this singing, and so these songs came to be called ballads (ballare—to dance). From France, ballads spread to England and Germany, where the term came to denote epic works of fantastic content” (Biz3 154–155). Terms are classified in textbooks. J. Ambrazevičius’s textbook includes a schema of literary theory, which shows the hierarchy of the terms it incorporates. Genre and other classificatory terms. The term genre is used somewhat more frequently only in J. Ambrazevičius’s textbook (cf. the genre of the ballad Am4 90, the genre of the poem Am4 98, the genre of the novel Am4 102, etc.). However, genres also refers to the kinds of belles lettres: epic, lyric, drama (Am4 89). In the textbooks of M. Gustaitis (1927) and J. Norkus, only a few instances of the use of genre have been observed. Most often, all the authors use the term kind for both a kind of belles lettres and a genre; less frequently, they use form (e.g., Biz3 145, Nor1 46, Nor2 50, Am4 98), or division (e.g., Čes 50). Kind also denotes a classificatory subdivision more specific than genre, which is now often designated in different ways. In traditional Lithuanian literary studies, this classificatory term is often (generic) form, (generic) type, model (see Zaborskaitė 1982, LTA 1982). Types also refers, for example, to kinds of lyric poetry: confessional lyric, philosophical lyric, and so on (see Zaborskaitė 1982). This article will discuss the names of genres and genre forms, as well as the names of kinds of epic, lyric, and drama. In the selected textbooks, folklore is discussed alongside literature; however, folklore terms are not specifically examined in this article (they are used only for comparison with terms in literary studies) and are not included in the total number of terms. On the other hand, it is not always possible to separate folklore from the discussion, since the boundary between literary and folkloric genres is not always clear. The terms for the article were collected mainly on the basis of V. Zaborskaitė’s Literatūros mokslo įvadas (1982) and Literatūros, edited by V. Kubilius. 83 teorijos apybraiža (1982), literatūrologijos terminų žodynais, taip pat tautosakos darbais. Šiame straipsnyje aptariami 276 epo, lyrikos, dramos rūšių, žanrų ir žanrinių formų pavadinimai, neskaitant variantų. Tie terminai sudaro 44 nevienodo ilgio sinonimų eilutes. 2. Epic, lyric, drama Almost all authors use the terms epic6 Biz₃, 137, Gus₁ 4, Gus₂ 4, Nor₁ 43, Nor₂ 47, Nor₃ 60, Češ 49, Am₄ 71 (Biz₃ 64 has a compound term with the variant epos – poetic epos), lyric Biz₃ 137, Gus₁ 4, Gus₂ 4, Nor₁ 55, Nor₃ 72, Am₄ 71 / lyrica Nor₂ 47, Češ 81, drama Biz₃ 138, Gus₁ 4, Gus₂ 4, Am₄ 71 to name the corresponding kinds of literature. It should be noted, however, that epic is replaced in textbooks by the term epic poetry Biz₃ 137, Nor₁ 43 / epic poetry Nor₃ 60, Češ 49, Am₄ 94, lyric – lyric poetry Biz₃ 137, Nor₁ 72 / lyric poetry Nor₂ 58 / lyric poetry Nor₃ 22, Češ 7, lyrical poetry Biz₃ 165, Nor₁ 55, drama – dramatic poetry Biz₃ 138, Nor₁ 62 / dramatic poetry Nor₂ 64 or dramatic poetry Češ 57. It has been observed that K. Bizauskas and J. Norkus favor compound terms most. J. Ambrazevičius most often finds the terms epic, lyric, drama sufficient. The names for works of epic, lyric, and drama vary greatly in the textbooks. Long strings of synonyms result, for example: lyric work Biz₃ 137, Nor₁ 58, Nor₃ 75 / lyrical work Nor₂ 62 – lyrical work Biz₃ 165 – work of lyric poetry Biz₃ 166 – lyrical work of art Biz₃ 167 – lyric creation Biz₃ 179, Nor₁ 56, Nor₃ 73, Am₄ 110 / lyrical creation Nor₂ 60 – work of lyric poetry Češ 59. Three-word combinations could be regarded as extended forms of terms. The greatest number of synonyms occurs in the third edition of K. Bizauskas’s textbook, while J. Ambrazevičius avoids synonymy, using only lyric creation. More authors use synonyms for the names of epic and dramatic works, for example: epic work Biz₃ 137, Gus₁ 57, Gus₂ 62, Nor₁ 43, Nor₂ 6 Nowadays, both epic and epika are used to mean narrative literature (the term epika may have begun to spread in an effort to designate different concepts by different terms; cf. novel – novel studies, novella – novella studies, humor – humor studies, etc.). In the most recent publications (for example, VLE V 2004), preference is given to the shorter term. 7 Examples of synonyms and variants are presented in the article chronologically, so that changes in terminology can be seen more clearly. 84 47, Nor₃ 61, Am₄ 98 – epic work Biz₃ 154, Am₄ 89 – epic work Nor₁ 43, Nor₂ 47, Nor₃ 61, Am₄ 89 – epic composition Nor₁ 56 – epic work Nor₂ 59, Nor₃ 57, dramatic work Biz₁ 12, Biz₃ 25, Nor₁ 10, Nor₂ 10, Nor₃ 13, Am₄ 14 – dramatic work Biz₃ 137, Nor₁ 62, Nor₂ 64, Am₄ 111 – dramatic composition (Gus₁ 231 / dramatic composition Češ 57 – dramatic work Češ 57 – dramatic composition Nor₃ 56, Am₄ 121 and the long form work of dramatic poetry Am₄ 121 (as can be seen, more than one author favors long forms). J. Norkus uses the term short epic work Nor₁ 52, Nor₂ 55 for a short epic composition, while J. Ambrazevičius introduces the term minor epic work Am₄ 122. Such a profusion of synonyms has been caused by the unsettled expression of the modifying elements and the synonymous use of composition and work. 3. One-word terms Most (about 71%) of the one-word terms (out of 69 identified) in the thematic group under discussion are international terms. The names of dramatic (and theatrical) genres stand out: there is not a single Lithuanian term. These terms are used in the same form today as well, for example: drama Biz₃ 185, Gus₁ 210, Gus₂ 204, Nor₁ 63, Nor₂ 47, Nor₃ 58, Am₄ 116, farce Biz₃ 198, Češ 57, Am₄ 122, féerie Biz₃ 198, Am₄ 122 (fejerija TŽŽe 2002, feerija VaitkTŽŽe 2003), comedy Biz₃ 185, Nor₁ 63, Nor₂ 66, Nor₃ 58, Češ 57, Am₄ 115, melodrama Biz₃ 198, Češ 58, Am₄ 122, mystery play Biz₃ 198, Češ 75, Am₄ 122, one-act play Am₄ 122, tragedy Biz₃ 185, Nor₁ 63, Nor₂ 66, Nor₃ 58, Češ 57, Am₄ 115, vaudeville Biz₃ 198, Češ 57, Am₄ 122. The only term to take root in a different form was moralitetas Biz₃ 199, becoming moralitė (cf. LTŽ 1962; Zaborskaitė 1982; TŽŽe 2002). The term drama, used to denote a single dramatic genre, merits separate discussion. K. Bizauskas, J. Norkus, and J. Ambrazevičius eliminate the polysemy of the term drama in their texts by using drama in the literal sense Biz₃ 185, Nor₁ 67, Nor₂ 70, drama (in the literal sense) Nor₁ 66, Nor₂ 69, or drama (in the narrower sense) Am₄ 116 / drama in the narrower sense Am₄ 121 (J. Ambrazevičius is more precise). Incidentally, St. Češūnas uses the term drama in yet another sense—“tragedy”: “Often the term d r a m a has this meaning; that is, it denotes not just any dramatic work, but only a t r a g i c one” (Češ 57). This usage may have been determined by the non-terminological meanings of the words drama and tragedy (cf. DŽ₅ 2003 85 drama 3. figuratively, “a great misfortune causing moral suffering,” and tragedy 2. figuratively, “a great misfortune, a horrifying event”). The names of epic and lyric 8 genres and types of works are more diverse in origin. Most are, of course, international terms, for example: bucolic Biz3 156, eclogue Biz3 156 (eclogue LTŽ 1962, TŽŽe 2002, VaitkTŽŽe 2003, eclogue Zaborskaitė 1982), epigram Biz3 178, Nor3 67, Češ 64, epinicion Biz3 172, epitaph Biz3 179, epopee Biz3 146, Nor3 71, Češ 51, Am4 96, sketch Gus1 130, Gus2 137, feuilleton Gus1 177, Gus2 178, hymn Biz3 175, Gus1 62, Gus2 67, Nor2 64, Nor3 77, Češ 62, Am4 110, humoresque Biz3 164, iambic verse Biz3 178, Am4 111, chronicle Biz3 102, Gus1 106, Gus2 115, Češ 68, Am4 27, memoirs Biz3 99, Gus1 113, Gus2 121, Nor1 36, Nor2 43, Nor3 50, Češ 68, Am4 27, obituary Biz3 106, Gus1 122, Gus2 129, novella Biz3 145, Gus1 4, Gus2 4, Nor3 68, Am4 80, pamphlet Am4 110, lampoon Biz3 177, pastoral Am4 98, psalm Biz3 175, Češ 62, novel Biz1 12, Biz2 25, Gus1 4, Gus2 4, Nor1 5, Nor2 3, Nor3 3, Češ 6, Am4 7, romance Biz1 61, Biz3 91, and so on. The authors do not use the term epopee with the same meaning: K. Bizauskas, St. Češūnas, and J. Ambrazevičius use it for (long) heroic poems, whereas J. Norkus uses it for a particular novel (for example, Cervantes’s Don Quixote). The textbooks also use the international terms rondeau Biz3 179, Gus1 236, Gus2 77, sonnet Biz1 62, Biz2 92, Gus1 65, Gus2 77, Češ 36, Am4 74, triolet Biz3 179, Gus1 64, Gus2 73, Am4 74. The authors describe the concepts these terms denote in different ways. For example, K. Bizauskas describes the sonnet, triolet, and rondeau, and St. Češūnas the sonnet, as particular kinds of poems (“Very many lyric poems have distinct titles not according to their inner content but to the features of their versification” (Biz3 179)), whereas M. Gustaitis simply treats them as particular kinds of rhyme. J. Ambrazevičius states the use of such terms most clearly: “Some stanza structures are more commonly used and have particular names. These names are also used to designate 8 The names of epic and lyric genres and genre forms are discussed together because they cannot always be assigned precisely to one or another literary mode; for example, ballad. Moreover, in the textbooks examined, some genres, such as idyll, are classified as epic, whereas today they are generally regarded as lyric genres (see Zaborskaitė 1982: 155). 9 The article also discusses terms denoting genres associated with the para-literary sphere, the so-called literature of fact (terms from LTA 1982: 265; Zaborskaitė 1982: 173). 86 “entire poems composed of such stanzas” (Am4 74). K. Bizauskas and J. Ambrazevičius also regard the term oktava Biz3 179, Am4, 74 as the name of a particular poem, while J. Ambrazevičius uses tercinas Am4 / tercina Am4 74 (tercina eventually became established); these terms are now usually understood as names for particular types of stanza (cf. LTŽ 1998). It is worth noting that both K. Bizauskas and M. Gustaitis use rondą, a declinable variant of the term (now rondo), although in the first edition of the latter author’s textbook, the section on rondo is titled rondeau Gus1 236 (the un-Lithuanized form is also included in the Terminology list of that edition Terminų sąrašą). K. Bizauskas includes the terms arabeska (-as?) Biz3 164 (now “a particular mode of representation” (ЛЭТП 2001: 49)) and siluetas Biz3 164 (?) among epic forms, but does not explain them (merely lists them). St. Čėšunas’s textbook uses the term cona (a form of love lyric) Čėš 63. Perhaps this is canzona? The forms of international terms used in the textbooks had not yet become fully standardized—there are variants, for example: autobiography Biz3 99 / autobiography Gus1 121, Gus2 129, Nor1 36, Nor2 44, Nor3 51, Čėš 68, Am4 28, ballad Biz3 145, Nor3 65, Am4 90 / ballad Nor1 46, Nor2 50, Čėš 50, biography Biz1 64, Biz3 99 / biography Gus1 106, Gus2 115, Nor1 36, Nor2 43, Nor3 50, Čėš 68, Am4 27, elegy Biz3 171, Nor1 58, Nor2 61, Nor3 75, Am4 109 / elegy Čėš 63, idyll Biz1 145, Am4 98 / idyll Nor2 50, Čėš 50, ode Biz3 171, Nor1 75, Am4 109 / ode Nor1 58, Nor2 61, Čėš 62, poem Biz1 12, Biz3 25, Gus1 62, Gus2 56, Nor1 46, Nor2 50, Nor3 62, Čėš 6, Am4 79 / poem Gus1 88, satire Biz3 171, Nor2 61 / satire Nor1 58, Nor3 75, Am4 109, etc. (for more on variants, see Mitkevičienė 2004). More interesting variants are annals Biz3 102 / annals Gus1 106, Gus2 115. Alongside the aforementioned poema / poeṁa, M. Gustaitis uses the hybrid form little poem Gus2 72 or little poem Gus1 235, whose diminutive meaning is further intensified by the adjective smaller. There are roughly two and a half times fewer names for Lithuanian genres and types of works. These include apybraiža Čėš 56, apysaka Biz1 12, Biz3 25, Gus1 4, Gus2 4, Nor1 5, Nor2 3, Nor3 3, Čėš 6, Am4 7, apsakymas Biz3 145, Nor1 54, Nor2 58, Čėš 5, Am4 104, atsiminimai Biz1 64, Biz3 103, Nor1 36, Nor2 43, Nor3 50, Čėš 68, dienynas Gus1 120, dienoraštis Biz3 102, Gus2 128, Am4 27, eilėraštis Biz1 93, Gus1 48, Gus2 51, Nor1 8, Nor2 6, Nor3 10, Čėš 59, Am4 7, gyvenimai Gus1 122, Gus2 130 “hagiographic work (lives of saints),” išpažintis Biz3 106, Gus1 121, Gus2 129, kelionraštis Gus1 100, 87 Gus2 110 (apparently formed by analogy with dienoraščiu, metraščiu), metraštis Biz1, 64, Biz3 99, Gus1 106, Gus2 115, Nor1 36, Nor2 43, Nor3 50, Češ 54, Am4 27, pasakėčia Biz3 20, Gus1 60, Gus2 65, Nor1 18, Nor2 21, Nor3 29, Češ 24, Am4 11, pasakojimas Am4 100, paveikslas Nor1 54, Nor2 58, užrašai Biz3 99, Gus1 106, Gus2 115, Nor1 36, Nor2 43, Nor3 53, Am4 27, vaizdelis Biz3 164, Am4 9, and so on. All the Lithuanian terms listed are derived forms (either lexicalized as terms, for example, gyvenimai, or specially coined to name concepts in literary studies). Lithuanian diminutives are also used alongside terms familiar to us today, for example: apysakaitė Am4 81, apsakymėlis Biz3 164, Nor1 54, Nor2 58, Nor3 68, metraštėlis Nor2 74. The term metraštėlis appears only in the second edition of J. Norkus’s textbook (it is unclear why the diminutive was chosen). In the third edition, the same place has metraštis Nor3 82. The term apysakaitė is used only by J. Ambrazevičius. He applies it to Šatrijos Ragana’s Vincą Stonį (a 146-page book). K. Biz auskas does not equate apsakymo ir apsakymėlio (he mentions the latter alongside such “epic forms” as vaizdeliai, humoreskos, etc.), whereas J. Norkus lists these terms side by side, although preference is nevertheless given to apsakymui10 (in the 1930 edition, apsakymas is no longer used to name a particular genre). Incidentally, it should be noted that, as Lithuanian prose genres developed (in the second half of the 19th century), short and medium-length prose works were called by a great variety of names (mostly in Lithuanian!), for example: vaizdelis, pasaka, nusidavimas, paveikslas, apsakymėlis, viešinys, apysakutė, apysakaitė, apysaka, istorija, and so on (Sprindytė 1996: 24–25). As J. Sprindytė argues, only from the 1950s onward can genre subtitles be relied upon (Sprindytė 1996: 15), although even later novellas were also called novels, and short stories were called novellas. The authors of the textbooks under consideration rely on the subtitles of works; for example, M. Gustaitis, J. Norkus, and J. Ambrazevičius call V. Pietaris’s novel Algimantas an apysaka, that is, all the authors who mention the work, because it was published with that subtitle. Only the latter adds the observation that the authors call this and other works apysa 10 Interestingly, J. Norkus calls Palangos apsakymu ir apsakymėliu Nor3 35, Nor2 42, Nor3 50. He calls Palangos Juzę (it may be that this describes not the work’s genre but its type—a narrative work; that is, the term is used with a different meaning). Apsakymėlis, as A. Zalatorius states, “for a long time was even more popular than a p s a k y m a s, but later a p s a k y m a s gradually began to eclipse a p s a k y m ė l i s” (Zalatorius 1971: 19). 88 works, although, for example, Algimantas is more like a novel (Am4 103). The fact that no distinction was made is shown by M. Gustaitis’s giving a single example for both the novella and the short story (Žemaitė’s Christmas). According to A. Zalatorius, in the third and fourth decades of the twentieth century, the term novelė was prevalent, rather than apsakymas11 (Zalatorius 1980: 7–8). The textbooks of the period under consideration likewise show a gradual shift toward novelė. K. Bizau­skas uses the terms novelė and apsakymas for different concepts, and provides their definitions: “A narrative work of small volume is called an a p s a k y m a s. Usually, an apsakymas depicts a single adventure, most often characterizes one person, does not attempt to portray life in its entirety; it is, as it were, an episode, a moment taken from the lives of the characters. N o v e l ė relates to the novel as a ballad does to a romantic poem. It is a short work of art about some particular adventure, usually based on reality, but it does not exhaust the details of characterization” (Biz3, 164). In the first two editions of his textbook, J. Norkus uses the term apsakymas to name certain short narrative works (he also gives the terms apsakymėlis, paveikslas, noting that the latter is used only occasionally). The 1930 textbook, unlike earlier editions, describes only the novella, though it mentions the term apsakymėlis alongside it. J. Ambrazevičius also discusses only the novella, but notes that “alongside the novella there are short epic works of a smaller scale, also called apysakaitė, apsakymas, vaizdelis” (Am4 104). It is difficult to determine from the material presented in the textbooks how the names of prose genres relate to one another (for example, which terms are synonymous and which are not). The term eilėraštis deserves separate discussion, since it does not everywhere denote a (short) work in verse. K. Biz auskas has used this term since the third edition of his textbook, where it denotes metrical language, verse (“By eilėraščiai we mean metrical language divided into rhythmic sections resembling musical measures” (Biz3 80)), although occasionally it means verses (cf. mišros eilės Biz3 85, baltosios eilės Biz3 91) (in the first edition, howe- 11 As A. Zalatorius states, “not one of the more significant collections of Lithuanian short prose published in the third and fourth decades of the twentieth century had the subtitle ‘apsakymai,’ but very many books were titled ‘novelė’ by their authors themselves” (Zalatorius 1980: 7). 89 sai eilės Biz1 13). J. Norkus’s and St. Čėšūnas’s textbooks likewise show this use of eilėraščio Nor1 39, Nor2 6, Čės 6, but they also contain eilės Nor1 39, Nor3 6, Čės 30 (it is sometimes difficult to tell what exactly the term refers to in a particular instance). M. Gustaitis mainly uses the term eilės in this sense Gus1 40, Gus2 39. J. Ambrazevičius states that “the most common external form of lyric poetry is the eilėraštis” (Am4 107). It should be emphasized that in the 1918 edition of his textbook K. Biz auskas calls fables sakmės¹²: “Perhaps only the sakmės are an exception, in which moral lessons are often found, generally placed at the end of the sakmės, and in which the idea of the sakmės lies” (Biz1 9). In the same year, Margalis’s collection of 62 translations appeared under the title sakmi, although the word sakmė in the sense of “a work of narrative folklore” had already been included, according to the data in LKŽe, in the Lithuanian-English dictionary compiled by A. Lalis in 1915 and published in Chicago; J. Šliūpas used it in that sense. As is known, before the twentieth century fables were called pasakos (the term is also found in the titles of fable books published at the time; one example is L. Rėza’s collection Aisopas, arba pasakos)¹³. They continued to be called this in the first half of the twentieth century (for example, in S. Čiurlionienė’s 1913 Iš mūsų literatūros (p. 35), among others). As can be seen, K. Biz auskas sought to designate the concepts “pasaka” and “pasakėčia” differently, so sakmė was probably chosen (none of the textbooks examined uses the term sakmė to mean “a work of narrative folklore”). In the 1922 edition of K. Bizauskas’s textbook, pasakėčios is already used in the same sentence. The term pasakėčia can be found in the second edition of P. Klimas’s textbook Skaitymai lietuvių kalbos pamokoms, published in 1918 (?), and it was later established by J. Jablonskis (in 1920, Rygiškių Jonas’s Pasakėčios: Rinkinėlis kalbos mokslui was published). The names of folklore genres and types of works, unlike those of literature, are mostly Lithuanian, for example: burtažodžiai Am4 94, daina Biz1 46, Biz2 93, Gus1 46, Gus2 47, Nor1 5, Nor2 3, Nor3 61, Čės 8, Am4 8, dainelė Biz3 51, Nor1 8, Nor2 6, Nor3 10, giesmė Biz1 62, Biz2 93, Am4 96, mįslė Biz3 144, Gus1 10, Gus2 11, Nor1 19, Nor2 21, Nor3 29, Am4 45, rauda Biz1 48, Biz2 73, Gus1 45, Gus2 ¹² This meaning is not recorded in LKŽe. ¹³ In the nineteenth century, the term pasaka meant a narrative (fabulist) work in general (Zalatorius 1971: 39). 90 45, Nor₁ 57, Nor₂ 60, Nor₃ 73, Češ 62, Am₄ 108, legend Biz₃ 164, Am₄ 94, tale Biz₁ 42, Biz₃ 64, Gus₁ 4, Gus₂ 4, Nor₁ 7, Nor₂ 49, Nor₃ 10, Češ 50, Am₄ 7, proverbs Biz₃ 118, Gus₁ 5, Gus₂ 6, Nor₁ 44, Nor₂ 21, Am₄ 45, sayings Gus₁ 149, Gus₂ 154, Nor₁ 44, Nor₂ 48, Češ 46, folk song Nor₁ 57, Nor₂ 60, Nor₃ 73, and so on. There are only a few international terms in the thematic group under consideration, for example: legend Biz₃ 144, Gus₁ 19, Gus₂ 19, Nor₁ 32, Nor₂ 37, Nor₃ 6, Am₄ 94, myth Biz₃ 139, Nor₃ 68, Am₄ 91 / myth Nor₁ 44. The name of a Russian folklore genre, bylina, was borrowed from Russian. Biz₃ 142. 4. Two-word terms Monolexemic terms serve as the principal constituents of specific terms; consequently, the principal constituents of complex terms in the thematic group under consideration are also predominantly international (about 77% of all complex terms)14. Literary genres are often classified according to the same features. Thus, the source constituents of terms designating different concepts often coincide or resemble one another. Terms with a dependent constituent of foreign origin.15 Terms with a dependent constituent of foreign origin make up about 57.3% of all two-word terms. The dependent constituents of two-word terms are most commonly adjectives with the suffix -inis (about 57% of the terms), for example: ancient drama Češ 57, adventure novel Am₄ 102, didactic ode Biz₃ 173, didactic fable Biz₃ 158, emotional lyric poetry Am₄ 106, fantastic travelogue Gus₁ 100, Gus₂ 110, fantastic novel Nor₃ 71, Am₄ 102, philosophical ode Biz₃ 173, heroic poem Biz₃ 147, heroic epic Biz₃ 139, individual song Am₄ 109, individual lyric poetry Am₄ 108, individual poem Češ 52, individual epic Am₄ 90, historical novella Gus₁ 142, Gus₂ 148, Nor₁ 54, Nor₂ 58, Češ 50, historical chronicle Nor₃ 59, historical poem Biz₃ 153, historical epic Biz₃ 139, Nor₁ 45, Nor₂ 48, Nor₃ 44, Am₄ 93, historical sketch Biz₃ 105, historical 14 In this article, complex terms are classified only according to the origin of their dependent constituents (not all constituents). When a specific concept is named from a particular perspective (e.g., psychological), the origin of the generic term (which often serves as the principal constituent) is immaterial—the specific constituent remains the same in any case (e.g., psychological novella, psychological novel). 15 Words or terms of foreign origin include old borrowings, international words, and hybrids. 91 novel Biz₃ 44, Nor₁ 54, Nor₂ 58, Nor₃ 70, Čes 50, Am₄ 102, classical comedy Biz₃ 194, Am₄ 120, classical oda Biz₃ 172 / classical ode Biz₃ 174, classical poem Biz₃ 145, classical tragedy Biz₃ 187, Am₄ 117, classical epic Biz₃ 145, mythic epic Biz₃ 138, moral novella Gus₁ 142, Gus₂ 148, natural oda Biz₃ 172, patriotic poems Am₄ 106, political novel Nor₃ 70, psychological novella Gus₁ 142, Gus₂ 148, psychological novel Am₄ 102, pseudoclassical drama Čes 57, pseudoclassical idyll Biz₃ 156, pseudoclassical comedy Biz₃ 195, pseudoclassical lyric poetry Biz₃ 166, pseudoclassical ode Biz₃ 172, pseudoclassical poem Biz₃ 145, Nor₂ 53 (and the variant pseudoclassical poem Nor₁ 50, Nor₃ 65), pseudoclassical tragedy Biz₃ 190, pseudoclassical epic Biz₃ 145, realist tragedy Am₄ 118, reflective lyric poetry Am₄ 106, religious lyric poetry Čes 62, religious ode Biz₃ 175, religious poems Am₄ 106, ritual novel Biz₃ 162, romantic poem Biz₃ 146, moral satire Čes 64¹⁶, political satire Čes 64, satirical lyric poetry Čes 64, sentimental novella Gus₁ 142, Gus₂ 148, and so on. Several terms are formed with the constituents literary, epic, lyrical, for example: literary song Am₄ 163, literary tale Am₄ 103, epic poem Gus₁ 74, Nor₁ 54, Nor₂ 57, Nor₃ 61, lyric poem Biz₃ 153, Am₄ 97, lyric poems Biz₃ 179, Nor₁ 56. The group of terms with a dependent constituent of foreign origin could be expanded to include terms whose dependent constituents are Lithuanianized adjectives with the suffix -inis, for example: realistic travelogue Gus₁ 100, Gus₂ 110, social novel Nor₃ 71, Am₄ 102. Another large group of two-word terms consists of terms whose dependent constituent is the genitive of a noun of foreign origin (about 25.5% of the terms), for example: church hymn Gus₂ 53, church song Biz₃ 144, comedy of character Am₄ 121, philosophical lyric poetry Čes 62, Greek comedy Am₄ 120¹⁷, Greek ode Biz₃ 172, Greek tragedy Biz₃ 188, Nor₁ 64, Nor₂ 66, Nor₃ 58, Am₄ 117, epic of heroes Am₄ 93, comedy of intrigue Am₄ 121, historical novella Gus₁ 142, Gus₂ 148, epic of history Am₄ 90, historical novel Biz₃ 163, Gus₁ 142, Gus₂ 148, Christian hymn Biz₃ 175, literary epic 16 The reverse order of constituents is otherwise not characteristic. 17 In this and several other cases (see below), compound designations formed with names of peoples should be regarded as terms rather than nomenclatural designations, because they denote not just any literary phenomenon associated with the respective people, but a particular historical genre type. 92 Biz₃, Nor₁ 43, Nor₂ 47, literary lyric poetry Biz₃ 167, Nor₂ 58, Nor₂ 74 / literary lyric poetry Nor₂ 6118, patriotic lyric poetry Čes 62, ode of the pseudoclassicists Biz₃ 175, religious lyric poetry Čes 62, chivalric romance Nor₃ 70, Čes 53, Am₄ 102, Roman idyll Biz₃ 156, satirical epigram Gus₁ 65, satirical lyric poetry Čes IV 64, satirical novel Biz₃ 163, though this genitive is not appropriate everywhere (e.g., patriotic lyric poetry, religious lyric poetry, satirical novel, etc.). It is unclear whether the dependent element in the term drama chronicles Čes 57 is a genitive or a nominative (“With respect to Turin, dramatic works are divided into historical works (which also include the so-called ‘drama chronicles’) <...>). The eponymous term Shakespearean tragedy Nor₃ 58 can be assigned to this group only provisionally (“Universal literary history recognizes three notable kinds of tragedy: ancient Greek tragedy, French classical tragedy (17th c.), and Shakespearean tragedy” (Nor₃ 58)). Compound two-word terms are less often formed with a hybrid adjective in the suffix -iškas, e.g.: humoristic novel Čes 54, lyrical song Am₄ 99, poetic biography Biz₃ 159, poetic epic Biz₃ 64, chivalric novel Biz₃ 162, romantic poem Gus₂ 231, Gus₂ 75, satirical song Nor₁ 60, Nor₃ 76 / satirical song Nor₂ 63, satirical fable Nor₂ 63 / satirical fable Nor₃ 76, satirical novel Am₄ 102, subjective poem Nor₃ 65; international adjectives or hybrid participles are rarer still, e.g.: dramatized tale Am₄ 122, dramatized poem Am₄ 122, lyric-epic Čes 56, subjective poem Nor₁ 50 / subjective poem Nor₂ 54. Pronominal forms are almost never used (there is only one term with a pronominal dependent element). Variants of dependent elements also occur, resulting from the different degrees of Lithuanianization of terms at different times. Such variants were widespread in the 1920s (see Mitkevičienė 2004). Terms with Lithuanian dependent elements. The dependent element is most often (in about 37% of terms) a noun in the genitive, e.g.: epic of existence Čes 50, novel of the present Biz₃ 163, artistic epic Biz₃ 138, Nor₁ 43, Nor₂ 47, artistic ode Biz₃ 172, artistic fable Biz₃ 157, artistic novel Biz₃ 163, nature lyric poetry Čes 62, ceremonial ode Biz₃ 173, war song Čes 62, war lyric poetry Čes 62, warrior epic Čes 50, Am₄ 90, travel account Biz₃ 112, Gus₁ 88, Gus₂ 99, Nor₁ 35, Nor₂ 42, Nor₃ 49 / travel accounts Biz₃ 18 Literary epic and literary lyric poetry are subgenre terms at the same level as folkloric epic, folkloric lyric poetry. 93 113, travel novel Nor3 70, folk epic Biz3 138, Nor1 43, Nor2 74, folk lyric poetry Biz3 167, Nor1 56, Nor3 72, Am4 108 / folk lyric poetry Nor2 59, love poems Češ 63, love lyric poetry Češ 63, townspeople's drama Biz3 197, bourgeois drama Am4 121, non-heroic poem Češ 50, adventure novel Češ 55, Nor3 70, Am4 102, ode of praise Biz3 173, comedy of manners Am4 121, family novel Biz3 197, Nor3 71, Am4 102, folkloric epic Am4 90, folkloric lyric poetry Am4 108, social novel Biz3 163, Gus1 142, Gus2 148, though not far behind are adjectives in the suffix -inis (about 30%), e.g.: existential novella Češ 50, existential novel Češ 50, artificial ode Biz3 172, verse epic Am4 90, emotional lyric poetry Am4 106, heroic poem Am4 95, heroic epic Biz3 139, unrhymed epic Am4 90, pastoral idyll Biz3 156, written lyric poetry Am4 108, written novella Nor3 68, written epic Am4 90, oral epic Biz3 138, social satire Češ 64, sectarian ode Biz3 172, family novel Biz3 163, family novel Biz3 163, national hymn Biz3 175, ? hymn Biz3 144, social poems Am4 106, social novella Gus1 142, Gus2 148, social novel Nor3 71. Again, the noun genitive is not the most suitable choice in some cases, for example in the terms artistic ode, ode of praise. Simple adjectives (most of them pronominal) also serve as dependent elements in terms, e.g.: light satire Biz3 177, new novel Češ 55, new comedy Am4 121, new ode Biz3 173, new poem Biz3 153, Am4 97, new tragedy Nor1 64, Nor2 66, serious satire Biz3 177 / serious satire Am4 110, old poem Nor2 53. A few terms have a Lithuanian adjective in the suffix -ingas as their dependent element. M. Gustaitis seems to favor terms with such adjectives most, e.g.: meaningful feuilleton Gus1 177, Gus2 178, meaningful monograph Gus1 130, Gus2 137, adventure novella Gus1 104 / adventurous novella Gus2 113, adventure novel Gus1 104 / adventurous novel Gus2 113; war song Češ 62. Both pronominal and non-pronominal participles serve as dependent elements in several terms, e.g.: descriptive novel Biz3 163, descriptive poem Am4 98, unrhymed lyric poetry Am4 107, ridiculing satire Am4 110, didactic novel Biz3 163 and didactic novel Biz3 197, reasoning lyric poetry Am4 106, narrative lyric poetry Biz3 167, narrative poem Biz3 149, Nor1 50, Nor2 53, Nor3 65, Am4 95, verse comedy Biz3 197. The examples show that Lithuanian dependent elements in terms are fre- 94 are usually definite-form (cf. terms with a foreign-language secondary element). Only one term is used (incidentally, in the same textbook) in both a definite and an indefinite form. Variation in Lithuanian secondary elements is a relatively rare phenomenon. Terms with other kinds of secondary elements are isolated, for example, M. Gustaitis uses the term apysaka–fantazija Gus2 148, taken from M. Vaitkus’s Tvano, published with such a subtitle. The literary-studies term liaudiška daina Gus1 53, Gus2 56, Am4 109, “a song resembling folk song,” differs from the folklore term liaudies daina Biz1 35, Biz3 54, Gus1 4, Gus2 4, Nor1 20, Nor2 12, Nor3 21, Češ 5, Am4 38. For this purpose, the suffixal adjective -iškas is appropriately chosen here. The examples show cases of synonymy between secondary term elements (for synonymy, see below; the terms themselves are not synonymous), e.g.: būtinė apysaka – būties epas, didaktinė pasakėčia – pamokomasis romanas, filosofinė odė – filosofijos lyrika, lyrinė poema – lyringasis epas, patriotizmo lyrika – patriotiniai eilėraščiai, sakytinis epas – sakomoji lyrika, etc. Similar inconsistencies of expression occur both within the same textbook and across different publications. Unfortunately, the tendency is not always toward improvement. 5. Other compound terms Terms with Lithuanian and foreign-origin secondary elements. The secondary elements in this type of term are usually expressed by a noun in the genitive and an adjective (most often with the suffix -inis), e.g.: fantastinis kelionių aprašymas Gus1 88, Gus2 99, liaudies epinė poema Nor3 63, liaudies herojinė poema Biz3 145, liaudies istorinis epas Biz3 143, tautos herojinis epas Am4 95; realusis kelionių aprašymas Gus1 88, Gus2 99, and the variant realinis kelionių aprašymas Gus1 100, Gus2 110, sentimentalus šeimos romanas Češ 55; fantastiškų kelionių aprašymas Biz3 113, filosofinio pobūdžio lyrika Nor3 75; senovinė graikų drama Am4 115. In several terms, both secondary elements are agreeing modifiers, e.g.: krikščioniškas tikybinis epas Biz3 144, naujoji klasikinė drama Češ 57, sekamoji klasikinė poema Biz3 145, while in one term they are governed modifiers, for example, senovės graikų tragedija Nor3 58. A single four-word term was also found: istorinė naujųjų laikų poema Biz3 153 / naujųjų laikų istorinė poema Biz3 153. 95 Terms with Lithuanian secondary elements. The type is indicated by two genitives, e.g.: naujųjų laikų komedija Biz₃ 196, Am₄ 120, naujųjų laikų poema Biz₃ 152, Am₄ 95 / naujųjų laikų poema Biz₃ 153, naujųjų laikų tragedija Biz₃ 192, senųjų amžių poema Nor₃ 53, šių laikų idilė Biz₃ 156; also by a noun in the genitive and an adjective, e.g.: liaudies karžyginė poema Biz₃ 145, Nor₃ 46, Nor₃ 51, liaudies karžyginis epas Biz₃ 146, naujasis dailės epas Biz₃ 145, tautos karžyginis epas Am₄ 96; or by two adjectives, e.g.: seniausia karžyginė poema Am₄ 95 and seniausioji karžyginė poema Am₄ 96, senoji karžyginė poema Am₄ 96, naujoji tautinė drama Češ 57–58; by a participle and an adjective, for example, sekamoji karžyginė poema Nor₁ 49, Nor₂ 53, Nor₃ 65. Terms with foreign-origin secondary elements. Terms with foreign-origin secondary elements are the rarest. In such terms, one secondary element is most often an adjective with the suffix -inis, and the other is a noun in the genitive, e.g.: antik inė graikų komedija Am₄ 120, antikinė graikų tragedija Am₄ 117 / graikų antikinė tragedija Am₄ 117, klasikinė prancūzų komedija Am₄ 120, realistinė anglų tragedija Am₄ 117, prancūzų klasikinė tragedija Nor₃ 58 / klasikinė prancūzų tragedija Am₄ 117. Compare also other terms, e.g.: klasikinė herojinė poema Biz₃ 146, lyrinis epinis eilėraštis Nor₃ 66; sentimentalus idėjos romanas Češ 55. The secondary elements of compound folklore terms are most often Lithuanian (most are expressed by a noun in the genitive), e.g.: buit ies daina Biz₃ 169, būties pasaka Am₄ 91, būsenos daina Biz₃ 168, garsų ir darbo dainos Nor₁ 57, Nor₂ 60, Nor₃ 73, gyvulių ir paukščių dainos Nor₁ 57, Nor₂ 60, Nor₃ 73, gyvulių pasaka Biz₃ 141, Am₄ 91, laidotuvių rauda Češ 63, našlaičių daina Nor₁ 57, Nor₂ 60, Nor₃ 73, papročių pasaka Biz₃ 141, tikėjimų ir papročių dainos Nor₁ 87, Nor₂ 60, Nor₃ 73, vaikų pasaka Am₄ 92, vestuvių daina Biz₃ 169, Nor₁ 20, Nor₂ 22, Nor₃ 32, Češ 62; aprašomoji pasaka Biz₃ 141, vestuvinė daina Nor₁ 57, etc. Words of foreign origin occur as secondary term elements much less frequently (the secondary elements are often identical or related), e.g.: istorijos daina Biz₃ 99, istorinė daina Biz₃ 143, Nor₁ 45, Nor₂ 49, Nor₃ 61, Am₄ 93, mitinė daina Biz₃ 168, mitinė pasaka Biz₃ 140, Am₄ 91, mitų pasaka Am₄ 91¹⁹, saty rinė pasaka Biz₃ 141, satyros pasaka Am₄ 92, etc. 19 Today, instead of the terms mitų pasaka and mitinė pasaka, the term sakmė is used. 96 However, in Lithuanian terms, it is usually only one of the dependent components of multiword terms, e.g.: historical folk song Nor1 71, Nor1 79, Nor3 87, folk heroic song Nor3 62, folk lyrical song Nor1 57, Nor3 74 / folk lyrical song Nor2 61, poetic folk song Nor1 45 / poetic folk song Nor2 49, Nor3 62, etc. 6. Terminological synonymy With respect to their sources, the synonyms of the terms in the groups under discussion are of several kinds. Some are used by the same author in the same edition of a textbook, others are found only in different editions of a textbook, and still others in textbooks by different authors (from the same or another period). Thus, synonymous terms indicate instability in the expression of the names of epic, lyric, and dramatic forms, genres, and genre forms, as well as change over time. The synonym series of terms comprise between two and nine terms. Most are binary (52%) and ternary (34%) synonym series. Binary synonym series: a) synonymy of one-word terms. There are only a few synonymous one-word terms: the Lithuanian terms diary Biz3 102, Gus2 128, Am4 27 and daybook Gus1 120; the international terms idyll, or pastoral Am4 98 (now not regarded as synonyms). The synonymy of the terms daybook and diary is the result of language use. According to the data in LKŽe, the word daybook, meaning “a book for recording the day’s activities and events,” was used, for example, by J. Šlapelis in 1921 in the Lithuanian–Russian Dictionary. Such changes in word usage are reflected in literary terminology, into which these words entered already as terms. The relationship between the terms tragedy and drama in St. Čėsūnas’s textbook was discussed earlier. b) synonymy of multiword terms. The most common case of such synonymous terms is the synonymous use of an adjective (usually an adjective with the suffix -inis) and a noun in the genitive, e.g.: historical novel Biz3 44, Nor1 54, Nor2 58, Nor3 70, Čės 50, Am4 102 – history novel Biz3 163, Gus1 142, Gus2 148, historical novella Gus1 142, Gus2 148, Nor1 54, Nor2 58, Čės 50 – history novella Gus1 142, Gus2 148, historical epic Biz3 139, Nor1 45, Nor2 48, Nor3 44, Am4 93 – history epic Am4 90, religious lyric poetry Čės 62 – religion lyric poetry Čės 62, satirical lyric poetry Čės 64 – satire lyric poetry Čės 64; satire novel Biz3 163 – satirical novel Am4 102, warlike song Čės 62 – war song Čės 62. Several synonym series arise from replacing the adjective that functions as a dependent component with 97 (over time) a related adjective, e.g.: romantic poem Biz₃ 146 – romantic poem Gus₁ 231, Gus₂ 75, subjective poem Nor₁ 50 and the variant subjective poem Nor₂ 54 – subjective poem Nor₃ 65. J. Ambraz(e)vičius’s textbook contains several synonymous terms whose dependent components have different origins—one is Lithuanian, while the other is foreign—for example: emotional, affective lyric poetry Am₄ 106, reflective, reflexive lyric poetry Am₄ 106. The author gives preference to the more Lithuanian terms. K. Bizauskas uses synonymously the names of historical types of ode with Lithuanian dependent components (new, artistic ode Biz₃ 172) and those of foreign origin (classical, or natural ode Biz₃ 172). The synonymy in these term series is distinctive: although new – artistic mean “literary, artistic,” and classical – natural mean “uncontrived, genuine,” and are not synonyms, the terms themselves, new ode – artistic ode, classical ode – natural ode (the main term is classical ode), are synonyms—or, more precisely, semantically non-equivalent synonyms (the concept is named by foregrounding different features). The synonymic relationship is evident not from the expression but only from usage. The synonymy of all the terms listed is determined by different (whether synonymous or not) dependent components. c) synonymy of terms with different numbers of components. The following examples were found: travel account Biz₃ 112, Gus₁ 88, Gus₂ 99, Nor₁ 35, Nor₂ 42, Nor₃ 49 (and the variant account of travels Biz₃ 113) – travel writing Gus₁ 100, Gus₂ 110, comedy of modern times Biz₃ 196, Am₄ 120 – modern comedy Am₄ 121, poem of modern times Biz₃ 152, Am₄ 95 / poem of modern times Biz₃ 153 – modern poem Biz₃ 153, Am₄ 97, poem of ancient times Nor₂ 53 – ancient poem Nor₂ 53, philosophy lyric poetry Češ 62 – lyric poetry of a philosophical nature Nor₃ 75. The three-word terms (except the last) appear earlier than the two-word terms in the same textbook or are used in earlier editions. The variant terms real travel account Gus₁ 88, Gus₂ 99 and realistic travel account Gus₁ 100, Gus₂ 110 (their dependent adjectives are adapted into Lithuanian differently) have the synonym realistic travel writing Gus₁ 100, Gus₂ 110. St. Čėsūnas uses the terms new classical drama Češ 57 and pseudo-classical drama Češ 57 synonymously. Three-member synonym series: a) synonymy of one-word terms. Most one-word synonymous terms are lexical synonyms. The terms used synonymously are a) one-word term synonymy. Most one-word synonymous terms are lexical synonyms. The terms used synonymously are atsi- 98 reminiscences Biz, 64, Biz₃ 103, Nor₁ 36, Nor₂ 43, Nor₃ 50, Češ 58 – memoirs Biz₃ 99, Gus₁ 113, Gus₂ 121, Nor₁ 36, Nor₂ 43, Nor₃ 50, Češ 68, Am₄ 27 – notes Biz₃ 99, Gus₁ 106, Gus₂ 115, Nor₁ 36, Nor₂ 43, Nor₃ 53, Am₄ 27. In the first edition of K. Bizauskas’s textbook, only the term reminiscences is found; in the third edition it seems to be pushed into the background, as the author mostly writes memoirs (the first occurrences are notes or memoirs Biz₃ 99, memoirs, or notes Biz₃ 101). Reminiscences is first used as a component of the compound terms literary reminiscences, theatrical reminiscences Biz₃ 103. M. Gustaitis does not use the term reminiscences at all (although he gives as examples works whose titles contain this word). His textbook favors the term notes (notes or memoirs Gus₁ 113, Gus₂ 121), which is generally the term used. In the first editions, J. Norkus first mentions the synonyms notes, or memoirs Nor₁ 36, Nor₂ 43, whereas in the third edition he uses reminiscences, or memoirs (in both cases, the Lithuanian term is preferred). However, thereafter he mostly uses the term reminiscences in these instances. Incidentally, a reviewer of the second edition criticizes the author for calling notes reminiscences without explanation (Misevičius 1930: 735). It has been noted that the term notes is also used in one place in the third edition. Apparently, St. Češūnas considers the terms reminiscences and memoirs synonymous (they are listed next to each other, separated by a comma). In textbooks published after K. Bizauskas, efforts were made to use Lithuanian terms. However, J. Ambrazevičius’s work again takes the opposite approach, using memoirs, or notes Am₄ 27 or simply memoirs. Thus, it can be argued that the term reminiscences struggled to gain acceptance (cf. memoir writing, memoirist). Another no less interesting trio of terms is chronicle Biz, 64, Biz₃ 99, Gus₁ 106, Gus₂ 115, Nor₁ 36, Nor₂ 43, Nor₃ 50, Češ 54, Am₄ 27 – chronicle Biz₃ 102, Gus₁ 106, Gus₂ 115, Češ 68, Am₄ 27 – annals Biz₃ 102 / annals Gus₁ 106, Gus₂ 115. In the first and third editions of K. Bizauskas’s textbook, the term chronicle is used, but the third edition also gives two other names for the same concept: chronicle and annals. M. Gustaitis, too, most often prefers the term chronicles, which is sometimes replaced by chronicle. Annals is used perhaps only once. J. Norkus avoided synonymy, using only chronicles. The terms chronicles and chronicle can be found in St. Češūnas’s textbook, but they are neither linked nor explained there, so it is difficult to judge their relationship. J. Ambrazevičius, like K. Bi 99 zauskas, uses the Lithuanian term chronicles, but says they are also called chronicles. b) synonymy of compound terms. The most common case of synonymy among compound terms is synonymy of secondary elements. It is not uncommon for the elements of terms forming three-member series, by which the terms differ, to be of different origins—a Lithuanian and a foreign word. For example, K. Biz auskas and M. Gustaitis use the term social novel Biz₃ 163, Gus₁ 142, Gus₂ 148, while in the 1930 edition J. Norkus writes social (social) novel Nor₃ 71 (priority is still given to the more Lithuanian term; instead of a noun genitive, the suffixal adjective in -inis is chosen to denote the type), whereas J. Ambrazevičius retains a term whose secondary element is expressed solely by a word of foreign origin, social novel Am₄ 102. The synonymous series adventure novel Gus₁ 104 / adventure novel Gus₂ 113 – adventure novel Nor₃ 70, Češ 55, Am₄ 102 is supplemented by adventure novel Am₄ 102, which has a synonymous (but more distant in meaning) secondary element of foreign origin. The latter term is used only by J. Ambrazevičius, who prefers it to adventure novel. Thus, the tendency is toward internationalization. J. Ambrazevičius uses three terms to name the same concept: folk song Gus₁ 53, Gus₂ 56, Am₄ 109 – individual song Am₄ 109 – literary song Am₄ 163; their secondary elements are words that are not synonymous. J. Ambrazevičius replaces the term used by K. Bizauskas and J. Norkus, literary lyric Biz₃ 167, Nor₁ 58, Nor₃ 74 / literary lyric Nor₂ 61, with two terms: written, or individual, lyric Am₄ 108. The review of J. Norkus’s second textbook mentioned above proposed changing the element literary: “In a new edition, the author will have only one or two minor things to change, namely, <...> the terms ‘literary (fine-art) epic,’ ‘literary lyric’ should be replaced with more precise terms: ‘individual epic,’ ‘individual lyric’ (Misevičius 1930: 733). Apparently, because folklore was also being incorporated into literary theory at the time, the terms literary lyric and literary epic (see below) could be understood imprecisely. The secondary components distinguishing some terms are Lithuanian words (but not synonyms), e.g.: folk epic Biz₃ 138, Nor₁ 43, Nor₂ 74 – spoken epic Biz₃ 138 – folklore epic Am₄ 90, folk lyric Biz₃ 167, Nor₁ 56, Nor₃ 72, Am₄ 105 / folk lyric Nor₂ 59 – spoken lyric Biz₃ 167 – folklore lyric Am₄ 108. K. Bizauskas prefers the term 100 folk epic, folk lyric, and names the corresponding sections accordingly. J. Ambrazevičius considers folklore lyric the principal term. The synonym series expressed by related words (grammatical synonyms) includes chivalric novel Biz3 162 – chivalric romance Biz3 162 – knightly romance Nor3 70, Čes 53, Am4 102; family novel Biz3 163 – family novel Biz3 163 – family novel Biz3 197, Nor, 71, Am4 102 are the final elements. These concepts are expressed synonymously only in K. Bizauskas’s textbook; later textbooks use only one term (with a genitive modifier). Terms that may be considered synonymous include burghers’ drama Biz3 197 – weeping comedy Biz3 197 – bourgeois drama Am4 121. Alongside burghers’ drama, K. Bizauskas gives a quite different term with a clearly derogatory connotation, weeping comedy, stating that this was the name given to burghers’ dramas in France (Biz3 197). Thus, the latter term is merely a historical fact. J. Ambrazevičius’s textbook contains only bourgeois drama. c) synonymy between terms whose components differ in number. Names of historical types of dramatic works are used synonymously, for example: classical comedy Biz3 194 – ancient Greek comedy Am4 120 – Greek comedy Am4 120; pseudo-classical tragedy Biz3 190 – French classical tragedy Nor3 58 / classical French tragedy Am4 117 – classical tragedy Am4 117, pseudo-classical comedy Biz3 195 – classical French comedy Am4 120 – classical comedy Am4 120. Thus, the component classical is used with different meanings: for K. Bizauskas, classical means ancient (Greek), whereas for J. Ambrazevičius it means belonging to classicism. The synonym of the three-word term description of fantastic journeys Biz3 113 – fantastic travel description Gus1 88, Gus2 99 is the two-word term fantastic travelogue Gus1 100, Gus2 110. Multi-member synonym series. These are mostly four-member synonym series. One of them is literary, or artistic, epic Biz3 138, Nor1 43, Nor2 47 – written, or individual, epic Am4 90. K. Bizauskas mostly uses the term artistic epic (cf. earlier literary lyric). It is difficult to say which term J. Norkus prefers. J. Ambrazevičius, as in the case of lyric, uses two terms—written, or individual, epic. Another four-member synonym series consists of names for a historical type of ode: artificial, sectarian, or pseudoclassical ode Biz3 172 – ode of the pseudoclassicists Biz3 175 (most often, pseudoclassical ode is used). Four- and five-member 101 Two historical types of tragedy are designated by terms, e.g.: Greek tragedy Biz3 188, Nor1 64, Nor2 66, Nor3 58, Am4 117 – classical tragedy Biz3 187 – ancient Greek tragedy Am4 117 / Greek ancient tragedy Am4 117 – tragedy of ancient Greece Nor3 58; tragedy of modern times Biz3 192 – modern tragedy Nor1 64, Nor2 66 – Shakespearean tragedy Nor3 58 – realistic English tragedy Am4 117 – realistic tragedy Am4 118. As many as seven terms designate one type of folk epic. K. Bizauskas uses three of them (heroic epic Biz3 139, folk heroic epic Biz3 146), while J. Ambrazevičius uses four (epic of heroes Am4 90 – heroic epic Am4 93 – national heroic epic Am4 95 – national heroic epic Am4 96). This abundance of synonyms resulted from the synonymous use of adjectives serving as modifiers and genitive nouns (of Lithuanian and foreign origin), as well as competition between long and short variants of terms and differing head elements in three-word terms. Although the designations of the concept vary, the textbooks are dominated by synonyms with a Lithuanian modifier (heroic epic, epic of heroes). Today, the term heroic epic is used to designate, for example, Homer’s Odyssey and similar works. However, for this purpose the authors use other terms (except St. Čėšunas, who writes epic of heroes Čėš 50). There are as many as eight of them (nine including St. Čėšūnas’s epic of heroes), e.g.: folk heroic poem Biz3 145, Nor1 46, Nor2 51 – folk heroic poem Biz3 145 – epic poem Biz3 146, Čėš 51, Am4 96 – heroic poem Biz3 147 – folk epic poem Nor3 63 – oldest heroic poem Am4 95 / the oldest heroic poem Am4 96 – heroic poem Am4 95 – ancient heroic poem Am4 96. It has been observed that, unlike in the case of heroic epic, K. Bizauskas more often uses a term with a foreign-origin modifier, heroic poem (or folk heroic poem). The term epopee is included in the textbooks as an alternative designation for the concept. 7. Conclusions 1. The third edition of K. Bizauskas’s literary theory textbook appeared in the same year that the University of Lithuania was established in Kaunas and literature began to be taught there. Thus, the need for Lithuanian literary-studies terminology was already very great, and terms had to be coined quickly, while suitable terms already in use also had to be selected rapidly (terms existed, because 102 articles on literary subjects had been published as early as the nineteenth century, and histories of Lithuanian literature began to be published in 1890, among other things). The Terminology Commission was of little help here: K. Bizauskas could only follow its recommendations, rather than simply adopt and use established terms. Other authors must have taken many terms from his textbook, but, unfortunately, the terms they used were not always better than K. Bizauskas’s. The facts speak for themselves: the authors of the first books on literary theory were a lawyer, a historian, and a clergyman who had studied literature abroad… J. Ambrazevičius alone was a literary scholar who had graduated from a Lithuanian university. 2. Most of the names for epic, lyric, and dramatic forms, genres, and other units of classification in the first Lithuanian literary theory textbooks are of foreign origin: nearly two and a half times more international one-word terms than Lithuanian ones were found; mixed-origin (Lithuanian and foreign-origin) compound terms account for more than half of all compound terms; foreign-origin terms account for more than two-fifths, while purely Lithuanian terms make up only about one-sixteenth. The scarcity of compound terms of Lithuanian origin was determined by the predominance of foreign-origin one-word terms: one-word terms become the principal components of compound terms. In two-word terms, foreign-origin words occur as modifiers almost one and a half times more often than Lithuanian words; only three-word terms with foreign-origin modifiers are less numerous than terms whose modifiers are Lithuanian words. 3. Both one-word and compound terms display a phenomenon quite common in the third decade of the twentieth century: variation. This was largely caused by inconsistent Lithuanianization of international terms and foreign-origin words serving as term modifiers. Lithuanian adjectives or participles used as term modifiers are almost always definite forms, whereas those of foreign origin very rarely are. This undermines systematicity. 4. The modifiers in two-word terms are most often expressed by adjectives with the suffix -inis. There are about one and a half times more such terms than terms with a genitive modifier. These two structural types of two-word terms are dominant, as they are today. Terms whose modifiers are adjectives with the suffix -iškas make up less than one tenth of all two-word terms. 5. Across all editions of the literary theory textbooks, the number of synonym series exceeds the number found in any single edition (the most common are two- 103 members). Moreover, as terms changed over time and were replaced by synonymous terms, the path taken was not always the better one—that of Lithuanianization. Comparing the number of synonym series in K. Bizauskas’s 1922 textbook and J. Ambrazevičius’s 1938 work shows that their number did not decrease (only variants of terms were uncharacteristic of J. Ambrazevičius; moreover, there were fewer inconsistencies in the expression of subordinate elements). 6. The first Lithuanian textbooks on literary theory attest to several important aspects of literary terminology, for example, inconsistencies in the use of names for genres of epic prose; the use of tale in the sense of “folk tale”; the gradual transition from short story to novella; the differentiation of the terms folk song and folk song; the difficult path of the word memoirs into the terminology of literary studies; and so on. ŠALTINIAI Am4 – A m b r a z e v i č i u s J. Literatūros teorija. Poetika. Vidurinėms mokykloms, Kaunas, 1938. Biz1 – B i z a u s k a s K. Raštijos bei literatūros teorija 1, Kaunas, 1918. Biz3 – B i z a u s k a s K. Literatūros teorija. Vadovėlis aukštesniosioms mokykloms, Kaunas, 1922. Češ – Č e š ū n a s St. Poezijos ir prozos teorija. Vadovėlis vidurinėms mokykloms, Šiauliai, 1925. Gus1 – G u s t a i t i s M. Stilistika. Vadovėlis literatūros teorijai, Marijampolė, 1923. Gus2 – G u s t a i t i s M. Stilistika. Literatūros teorijos vadovėlis, Kaunas–Marijampolė, 1927. Nor1 – N o r k u s J. Literatūros teorija (pagrindiniai prozos ir poezijos dėsniai). Vidurinei mokyklai, Kaunas, 1923. Nor2 – N o r k u s J. Literatūros teorija (pagrindiniai prozos ir poezijos dėsniai) vidu-rinei mokyklai, Kaunas, 1926. Nor3 – N o r k u s J. Literatūros teorija. Pagrindiniai prozos ir poezijos dėsniai. Vidurinei mokyklai, Kaunas, 1930. LITERATŪRA B u k a u s k i e n ė T. 1993: Lietuvių literatūros mokymo istorija (iki 1940 m.), Vilnius. Č i u r l i o n i e n ė S. 1913: Iš mūsų literatūros, Kaunas. DŽ. 2003: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas. Vyr. red. St. Keinys, Vilnius (e. leidimas). G i r d z i j a u s k a s J. 1993: Kazys Bizauskas ir jo literatūros teorija. – Naujasis židinys 7–8, 115–118. 104 Jablonskis J. 1933: K. Bizaukas. Raštijos bei literatūros teorija [Rec.]. – Jablonskio raštai 2. Red. J. Balčikonis, Kaunas. Klimas P. [1918]: Skaitymai lietuvių kalbos pamokoms, Vilnius. LE XX 1960: Lietuvių enciklopedija, Bostonas. LKŽe: Lietuvių kalbos žodynas. – www.lkz.lt LLE 2001: Lietuvių literatūros enciklopedija. Red. V. Kubilius, V. Rakauskas, V. Vanagas, Vilnius. LTA 1982: Literatūros teorijos apybraiža. Red. V. Kubilius, Vilnius. LTŽ 1962: Literatūros terminų žodynas. Sudarė J. Petronis, V. Vanagas, A. Zalatorius, Vilnius. LTŽ 1995: Literatūros terminų žodynas 1. Romanas. Sudarė A. Krasnovas, Vilnius. LTŽ 1998: Literatūros terminų žodynas 2. Eilėdara. Sudarė J. Girdzijauskas, Vilnius. Misevičius P. 1930: J. Norkus. Literatūros teorija (pagrindiniai prozos ir poezijos dėsniai) vidurinei mokyklai [Rec.]. – Švietimo darbas 7, 733–738. Mitkevičienė A. 2004: V. Dubo visuotinės literatūros vadovėlio terminų variantai. – Terminologija 11, 119–144. Sauka D. 1982: Lietuvių tautosaka, Vilnius. Sauka L. 1999: Lietuvių tautosaka, Kaunas. Sprindytė J. 1996: Lietuvių apysaka, Vilnius. ŠD 1925: Švietimo darbas 11, 1243. TŽŽe 2002: Interleksis. Tarptautinių žodžių žodynas. Ats. red. A. Kinderys, Vilnius (e. leidimas). VaitkTŽŽe 2003: Vaitkevičiūtė V. Tarptautinių žodžių žodynas, Vilnius (e. leidimas). VLE III 2003, V 2004, VII 2005: Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija, Vilnius. Zaborskaitė V. 1982: Literatūros mokslo įvadas, Vilnius. Zalatorius A. 1971: Lietuvių apsakymo raida ir poetika, Vilnius. Zalatorius A. 1980: XX amžiaus lietuvių novelė (iki 1940 m.), Vilnius. www.libis.lt (Lietuvos integrali bibliotekų informacijos sistema). КСЛТ 1974: Краткий словарь литературоведческих терминов. Ред.-сост. Л. И. Тимофеев, С. В. Тураев, Москва. ЛЭТП 2001: Литературная энциклопедия терминов и понятий. Гл. ред. А. Н. Николюкин, Москва. THE NAMES OF EPIC, LYRICS, DRAMA GENRES AND OTHER CLASSIFICATION UNITS IN THE FIRST LITHUANIAN TEXTBOOKS OF LITERATURE THEORY Summary This article investigates the origin, synonymy and some usage issues of names of epic, lyrics, drama genres, genre forms and kinds used in the first Lithuanian textbooks of literature 105 ture theory. The material for this article was collected from all special works on the theory of literature published between two wars – Raštijos bei literatūros teorija (The Theory of Writing and Literature) (1918) and its third edition Literatūros teorija (The Theory of Literature) (1922) by K. Bizauskas, the textbook Stilistika (Stylistics) (1923 and 1927) by M. Gustaitis, three different editions of the textbook Literatūros teorija (pagrindiniai prozos ir poezijos dėsniai) (The Theory of Literature (The main laws of prose and poetry)) (1923, 1926, 1930) by J. Norkus, Prozos ir poezijos teorija (Theory of Prose and Poetry) (1925) by St. Češūnas, the fourth edition of the textbook Literatūros teorija. Poetika (The Theory of Literature. Poetics) (1938) by J. Ambrazevičius. Most of the names of epic, lyrics, drama genres and other classification units are of the foreign origin: there are two and a half times more international one-word terms than Lithuanian terms, complex terms of the mixed origin (Lithuanian and foreign origin) – make a bigger half of all complex terms and terms of the foreign origin make more than two fifths. Words of foreign origin are the elements of two-word terms one and a half times more frequently than Lithuanian words. Only three-word terms with the subordinate elements of the foreign origin are fewer than three-word terms with the subordinate elements of the Lithuanian origin. There is one feature of terms (both one-word and complex terms) in textbooks, published in the twenties of the 20th century, which was quite common at the time – variation. It was predetermined by not unified Lithuanianisation of international terms or words of the foreign origin, which made the subordinate elements of complex terms. Like nowadays, two structural types of two-word terms prevail – terms with the suffix -inis and terms with a genitive of the noun. There are more synonym lines in all editions of the textbooks of literature theory than in one publication (usually there are two synonyms used in one publication). In some cases when changing synonymous terms not always the better way – the Lithuanisation – was chosen. The comparison of the synonym lines in the textbook by K. Bizauskas published in 1922 and in the work of J. Ambrazevičius dating 1938 shows that a number of synonyms was not decreasing. The first textbooks of theory of literature show some things important to the terminology of literature theory, for instance, a promiscuity in the usage of the names of epic prose genres, the usage of sukmė (saga, story) in the meaning of “pasakėčia“ (fable), not hasty move from apsakymas (story) to novelė (novella), a differentiation of terms liaudiška daina and liaudies daina (folksong), a difficult way of the word atsiminimai (memoirs) into the terminology of the literature theory. Asta MITKEVIČIENĖ Gauta 2005-10-24 Lietuvių kalbos institutas P. Vileišio g. 5, LT-10308 Vilnius E. paštas [email protected] 106