Terminology and text linguistics

5 1Te minologija | 2011 | 18 Te minology and Tex Linguis ics Á G o T A F ó R I S Ká oliGáspá Uni e si y,TERMIK Eu opeanAssocia ion o Te minology Keywo ds: e m, concep , e minology, ex , ex linguis ics 1. INTRODUCTION The basic unc ion o language is o encode, s o e and ans e he knowledge accumula ed by socie y. The s uc u e o language and he complex p ocesses o language use a e app oached in di e en ways by he a ious b anches o linguis ics. Te minology and ex linguis ics s udy he aspec s o language use om di e en pe spec i es and using di e en me hods. Te minology esea ch places he e m in o i s ocus and conside s i as he basic uni . In ex linguis ics esea ch i is he ex ha is s udied. In bo h app oaches he ype o in o ma ion he uni unde s udy con ains and how i does so a e he impo an issues. Te ms a e pa o he ex . Te m ex ac o s, o example, ely on he ole o e ms in he ex ; hey wo k using di e en me hods, such as lis ing lexical uni s o hei colloca ions based on hei equency o occu ence in he ex , o ake o he ea u es o he ex in o conside a ion while ex ac ing e ms. In bo h ields se e al models ha e been de eloped o ca y ou s udies and o a icula e indings. These we e published in de ail many imes (e.g.: Mel’cuk, Žolko skij 1970; D essle 1971; Halliday, Hasan 1976; Pe ő i 1979; Beaug ande, D essle 1981; Ká oly 2007; Sage 1990; Lau én, Pich 1993; Temme man 2000; Budin 2001; Cab é 2003). Recen ly, he s udy o Hunga ian cou se books has gained special im- po ance in Hunga y, and se e al pape s ha e been published on he pedagogic s udy o ex s, mos o which a e quan i a i e s udies. I joined his line o esea ch wi h he so-called “quali a i e e minology” s udies, and looked o an aspec o ex linguis ics ha could be linked o and 5 2 Á. Fó is | Te minologyandTex Linguis ics con as ed wi h e minology ( he esul s we e published in esea ch epo s and pa ly in Fó is 2006, 2010b). Ano he ield I ha e esea ched is he scale- ee ne wo ks o e minology and dic iona ies (e.g.: Fó is 2007, 2008). Ne wo ks a e p esen in ex s a se e al le els. The s uc u e o a ex is he ne wo k ha p o ides cohesion. The ne wo k be ween concep s es- ablishes cohe ence, which appea s as a con igu a ion o knowledge o med by concep s. The ne wo ks p esen wi hin he ex a e linked o ex e nal ne wo ks, such as he knowledge ne wo k o he au ho , he ne wo k o p io knowledge o he ecipien , and hei in e ex ual backg ound. Beaug ande and D essle ’s In oduc ion oTex Linguis icsp o ides he basis o compa ing and con as ing ce ain aspec s o ex linguis ics and e minology. This pape he e o e aims o discuss issues ha play a deci- si e ole in encoding and decoding knowledge in a ex . 2. TEXT LINGUISTICS AND TERMINOLOGY The ex is c ea ed using he e bal and w i en signs o a language. The ex no only encodes in o ma ion, bu also ensu es i is dis ibu ed h ough space and ime. Depending on he na u e o in o ma ion, ex s can ha e di e en s uc u es and leng h. The ex always exis s in some physical om, appea s in a con ined space and ime, bu i s cogni i e ne wo k o ela ions is unlimi ed in bo h space and ime. The ex encodes in o ma ion on concep s h ough e ms; he e o e he ole o e ms in a ex has o be gi en speci ic ocus when s udying ex s. Tex s can be s udied om a ious iewpoin s. A s udy ocusing on a gi en aim can disco e he gene al p inciples o he s uc u e o ex s, he links be ween a ex and a na u al language, he ela ion o he ex s uc u e o he encoded in o ma ion, o he ela ion o he ex o o he componen s o he communica ion p ocess. The s udies conduc ed in ex s linguis ics ha e disco e ed a la ge numbe o indings on hese op- ics (e.g.: Mel’cuk, Žolko skij 1970; D essle 1972; Beaug ande, D essle 1981, 2002; Pe ő i 1990). Te minology and ex linguis ics s udy he issues o encoding and dis- ibu ing knowledge om di e en s a ing poin s and app oaches. Te - minology s udies place he e min o ocus, and i is conside ed o be he basic uni . These s udies iew he ex c ea ed in he encoding p ocess o be gi en, and de e mine he ole o e ms in handling in o ma ion. Tex linguis ics s udies ocus on he ex as he esea ch subjec . The ex is 5 3Te minologija | 2011 | 18 s udied wi hin he complex ne wo k o ela ions o handling in o ma ion, and he ea u es o in e nal and ex e nal e ec s a e desc ibed. In his app oach he e m appea s implici ly as he linguis ic componen ha o ganises he cogni i e con en o in o ma ion h ough he linguis ic code. The wo app oaches o esea ch ha e a common poin : he s udy o know- ledge s o age and o ganiza ion. Despi e he di e en app oaches and e- sea ch me hods, he indings can be inco po a ed in o a common ame- wo k, hey complemen and s eng hen each o he . Du ing cogni ion, concep s a e o med o map he elemen s o he wo ld, and hese concep s a e s uc u ed in o a sys em in he p ocess o hinking o enable easy handling o he di e si y in he wo ld. The lin- guis ic sign o a concep is he e m, and he sys em o med h ough classi ica ion o e ms is called e minology. Meaning is an insepa able pa o he e m, and i is desc ibed in e minology da abases, dic iona ies, and s anda ds e c. as de ini ions. Pie e Lé y’s a icle on he esponsibili y o in ellec uals d ew he a en- ion o esea che s wo king in a ious ields o he impo ance o e min- ology issues. The Hunga ian jou nal i led In o mációsTá sadalom (In o - ma ionSocie y) de o ed a whole olume o his a gumen (2008/4). Lé y sees one obs acle o using he po en ial o collec i e in elligence in he g ea a ie y and agmen ed na u e o symbolic sys ems, one speci ic p oblem being he a ie y and incompa ibili y o classi ica ion sys ems in gene al and o e minology in pa icula (Lé y 2007: web, Lé y 2008: 9). Te minology plays a signi ican ole in bo h heo e ical and empi ical esea ch, and he p ecise de elopmen and desc ip ion o e minology is a basis o scien i ic classi ica ion and scien i ic heo ies. Knowledge is con eyed h ough language and echnical ex s no only con ey knowledge bu echnical and e minological no ms as well. “Mo eo e , ex s a e he mos widesp ead ehicle o scien i ic explo a ion and discussion. The s a us o heo ies and models in mos sciences is no be e han he s a us o he accep ed mode o discou se. The scien is s hemsel es canno belong o a scien i ic communi y un il hey ha e acqui ed i s con en- ions o discou se and a gumen a ions” (Beaug ande, D essle 1981: 211–212). I ollows om he abo e ha i is ad isable o app oach scien i ic ex s bo h om he iewpoin o he ex and he concep . The p esen pape ocuses on he ela ion o ex s and he e ms hey con ain o con ey in o ma ion. This app oach aims o s udy he ole o e ms in a ex . 5 4 Á. Fó is | Te minologyandTex Linguis ics 3. STANDARDS OF TEXTUALITY Se e al ypes and o ms o ex can be dis inguished; ex s can be c e- a ed o di e en pu poses (a ly ical poem o a se ice manual), ha e di e en leng h (a mul i- olume book o a eleg am) e c., bu he e a e ce ain common ea u es ha all c ea ed ex s sha e. These cha ac e is ic ea u es a e known as s anda ds o ex uali y. These p inciples e e o ea u es ha a e p esen in linguis ic s uc u es, concep ual ela ions, as- pec s o communica ion and in he sys em o cogni i e p ocesses, and a e e lec ed in ex s. In he ex linguis ics app oach o he ea u es o ex s, e ms a e no ea ed explici ly, howe e hey a e always p esen implici ly in he deci- phe ing o concep ual ela ions ( he ela ions among concep s). Beaug ande and D essle (1981) conside a piece o w i ing o be a ex i i is used in discou se and mee s he se en s anda ds o ex uali y. These a e cohesion, cohe ence, in en ionali y, accep abili y, in o ma i i y, si ua ion- ali yandin e ex uali y. Al hough hese se en s anda ds a e widely known, in wha ollows I will discuss hem in de ail (by quo ing) and elabo a e on hei e minological aspec s. 1. “The i s s anda d will be called cohesion and conce ns he ways in which he componen s o he su ace ex , i.e. he ac ual wo ds we hea o see, a e mu uallyconnec edwi hinasequence. The su ace componen s depend upon each o he acco ding o g amma ical o ms and con en ions, such ha cohe- sion es s upon g amma ical dependencies” (Beaug ande, D essle 1981: 3). Cohesion is a ex -cen ed no ion, meaning ha cohesion is p esen in he su ace elemen s o he ex (in i s g amma ical and lexical elemen s and cha ac e is ics) as hey appea in he physical ( e bal o w i en) o m o he ex . I can be s udied wi h linguis ic esea ch me hods. Halliday and Hasan unde s and cohesion as g amma ical and lexical ela ions; hey in oduce and explain he concep o lexicalcohesion,which indica es ha he concep ual ne wo k o he ex cons i u es cohesion (Halliday, Hasan 1976: 238–239; Hasan 1984). Hasan di e en ia es be ween wo ypes o lexical cohesion: gene al lexical cohesion and momen a y ela ions. Such ela ions can and should be s udied in bo h gene al language ex s and ex s w i en o speci ic pu poses. The s udy o lexical-seman ic ela ions is also impo an om he e minological poin o iew, as he designa o o he e m ha e e s o a concep usually appea s in he ex as some kind o lexical uni . The ecipien will conside he ex as a cohe en 5 5Te minologija | 2011 | 18 uni , i he e ms ound in i ac i a e he same men al pic u e (concep s and concep ual ela ions) o his o he p io knowledge. The e o e, e ms signi ican ly con ibu e o he cohesion o a ex by con eying concep ual in o ma ion. The linguis ic componen o he e m makes i possible o inse he e ms as essen ial elemen s o he linguis- ic code in o ex cohesion (Fó is 2010a). 2. “The second s anda d will be called cohe ence and conce ns he ways in which he componen s o he ex ual wo d, i.e. he con igu a ion o concep s and ela ions which unde lie he su ace ex , a e mu uallyaccessible and ele- an . A concep is de inable as a con igu a ion o knowledge (cogni i e con- en ) which can be eco e ed o ac i a ed wi h mo e o less uni y and consis - ency in he mind <...>. ela ions a e he links be ween concep s which appea oge he in a ex ual wo ld: each link would bea a designa ion o he concep i connec s o. <...> Some imes, hough no always, he ela ions a e no made explici in he ex , ha is, hey a e no ac i a ed di ec ly by exp essions o he su ace” (Beaug ande, D essle 1981: 4). Cohe ence is a ex -cen ed no ion, also in he sense ha i appea s in he physical exis ence o he ex , and i can be s udied and es ablished ia linguis ic ools. This la e cha ac e is ic makes his s anda d o ex - uali y – along wi h cohesion – belong o he ield o linguis ics. This ea u e e e s o he cogni i e con en o he ex , which appea s in bo h space and ime be ween wide limi s. Cogni i e con en is deli e ed by concep s, and hei comp ehension is acili a ed by he ela ions among hem. Te ms designa ing concep s ca y he special and empo al links be ween elemen s o knowledge encoded in a ex . A signi ican pu pose o scien i ic ex s is he cohe en p esen a ion o he concep ual sys em o he cogni i e con en . Te ms – as designa o s o concep s and a he same ime he ca ie s o hei meaning – play an im- po an ole in ex s, hei accu a e and consis en use acili a es cohe ence. 3. “The hi d s anda d o ex uali y could hen be called in en ionali y, con- ce ning he ex p oduce ’s a i ude ha he se o occu ences should cons i- u e a cohesi e and cohe en ex ins umen al in ul illing he p oduce ’s in- en ions, e.g. o dis ibu e knowledge o o a ain a goal speci ied in a plan” (Beaug ande, D essle 1981: 7). In en ionali y is conside ed a use -cen ed no ion in he sense ha al hough his p inciple cha ac e ises he ex , as i is deli e ed h ough a linguis ic code, bu i s s udy and he eason o i s exis ence lie ou side he linguis ic ea u es o he ex . The p oduce o a ex es ablishes he 5 6 Á. Fó is | Te minologyandTex Linguis ics cohesion and cohe ence ha se e he in en ion o he ex . I ollows ha he pu pose o a ex de e mines how cohesion and cohe ence a e mani es ed; o example he a ge audience and aim o a ex a e impo - an ac o s: he scien i ic ex can be w i en o expe s ha ing wide knowledge in he ield, o s uden s jus amilia ising hemsel es wi h he basics. The e o e, his s anda d o ex uali y is a key ea u e o a scien- i ic ex , as he in en ion o he p oduce o any such ex (e.g.: an a icle, a cou se book, a s anda d) is o p esen speci ic con en and amoun o knowledge o he ecei e . The knowledge exis ing in he ex p oduce ’s mind o ms he basis o in en ionali y h ough he use o e ms. The ex p oduce selec s he bi s ha i his o he in en ion. Pu pose ul cohesion and cohe ence can be achie ed h ough ap ly selec ed e ms and linguis ic s uc u es. In en ionali y s e ches beyond he physical limi a ions o he ex , and elies on he ela ions be ween he concep ual sys ems o he p oduce and he ecei e . The p oduce shapes he concep ual con en and lin- guis ic s uc u e o he ex based on his o he own knowledge and he knowledge a ibu ed o he ecei e , and hence cohesion and cohe ence a e es ablished. The e o e, in o de o p oduce a cohesi e and cohe en ex we need o be amilia wi h (o a leas suppose) he knowledge o he ecei e and he e ms such knowledge is encoded in. 4. “The ou h s anda d o ex uali y would be accep abili y, conce ning he ex ecei e ’s a i ude ha he se o occu ences should cons i u e a cohesi e and cohe en ex ha ing some use o ele ance o he ecei e , e.g. o ac- qui e knowledge o p o ide co-ope a ion in a plan. He e also, we could iew he main enance o cohesion and cohe ence by he ex ecei e as a goal o i s own, such ha ma e ial would be supplied o dis u bances ole a ed as e- qui ed. The ope a ion o in e encing <...> s ikingly illus a es how ecei e s suppo cohe ence by making hei own con ibu ions o he sense o he ex ” (Beaug ande, D essle 1981: 7–8). Accep abili y is a use -cen ed no ion, i assesses he ex om he iewpoin o he ecei e . Al hough i is a ea u e linked o he ecei e , a he same ime i a es he ex as i appea s in he ela ions be ween he ex and he ecei e . Whe he cohesion and cohe ence o he ex a e es ablished depends on he ecei e s, hei knowledge, aims, and in- e es s. The use o o e simpli ied s uc u es, o hose ha a e concep u- ally oo complex when c ea ing he su ace ex s ongly in luences i s 5 7Te minologija | 2011 | 18 usabili y o he ecei e . A le el o e ms and ela ions be ween e ms ha is inapp op ia e o he ecei e migh ail o c ea e cohe ence and hus es ic accep abili y. The accep abili y o a ex is de e mined by he ela ions o he p io knowledge o he ecei e o he knowledge encoded in he ex , and can be eached h ough a sha ed se o e ms. 5. “The i h s anda d o ex uali y is called in o ma i i y and conce ns he ex en o which he occu ences o he p esen ed ex a e expec ed s. unex- pec ed o known s. unknown/ce ain. <...> The p ocessing o highly in o ma- i e occu ences is mo e demanding han o he wise, bu co espondingly mo e in e es ing as well. Cau ion mus be exe cised les he ecei e s’ p ocessing be- come o e loaded o he poin o endange ing communica ion” (Beaug ande, D essle 1981: 8–9). In o ma i i y is also a use -cen ed no ion, and also a ea u e ha appea s in he ex and i can be e alua ed om he iewpoin o he ecei e . The same ex could be app oached in di e en ways depend- ing on he ecei e ’s p io knowledge. Fo example, knowledge en- coded in he ex o a cou se book mus ma ch he in o ma ion p ocess- ing capaci y o he ecei ing s uden s. I he e is oo much new in o - ma ion (be i concep ual o linguis ic) in a ex , he ecei e s could ail o p ocess i , and i he e is oo li le, hey ind i bo ing. The e o e, he p io knowledge, age e c. o he a ge audience a e key ac o s o in o ma i i y. C ea ing ex which has op imal in o ma i i y is made possible by he cohe en use o known e ms, and by adjus ing he in o ma ion ha ca - ies new concep s and e ms o he exis ing knowledge o he ecei e . 6. “The six h s anda d o ex uali y can be designa ed si ua ionali y and con- ce ns he ac o s which make a ex ele an o a si ua ion o occu ence” (Beaug ande, D essle 1981: 9). Si ua ionali y is a use -cen ed no ion, which is abou he ela ion o he gi en ex o he ou side wo ld in he si ua ion o occu ence. The a ainmen o si ua ionali y is signi ican ly in luenced by he ela- ion o e ms ha occu in he ex o e ms cus oma ily used in a gi en si ua ion. Fo example, in a iendly cha he use o o mal o poe ic e ms could be pe cei ed as i onic o o ensi e. In a scien i ic pape he use o echnical e ms migh make unde s anding he ex mo e di icul , bu a he same ime acili a es communica ion in he wo kshop. 5 8 Á. Fó is | Te minologyandTex Linguis ics 7. “The se en h s anda d o ex uali y is o be called in e ex uali y and con- ce ns he ac o s which make he u iliza ion o one ex dependen upon knowledge o one o mo e p e iously encoun e ed ex s. <...> In e ex uali y is, in a gene al ashion, esponsible o he e olu ion o ex ypes as classes o ex s wi h ypical pa e ns o cha ac e is ics” (Beaug ande, D essle 1981: 10). In e ex uali y is a use -cen ed no ion ha cha ac e ises he ela ion o he ex o o he ex s he ecei e has p e iously p ocessed. The e- cei e inds i easie o iden i y ela ions in ex s ha ha e simila s and- a ds o ex uali y; he applica ion o simila ames, schemas, and plans (ibid. 90) makes ex p ocessing much easie . The exis ence o a ious ypes o ex (a ecipe, a scien i ic pape , a echnical b ochu e, a no el, e c.) is he esul o he e o s o ex p oduce s o c ea e in e ex ual cha ac e is ics ha educe he p ocessing e o s o he ecei e . In e ex uali y is o key signi icance o ex s o s anda ds and cou se books. Educa ion con inuously builds he concep ual and e minological sys em, he ole o in e links be ween ex s is c ucial. Fo example, a concep o numbe s is o med o e se e al yea s. The p ocessing o a ex ha con ains a new e m (e.g.: i a ional numbe s) elies on o he ex s (on na u al numbe s, in ege s, ac ions) p ocessed yea s be o e, and p e- supposes hei knowledge. Such links a e o en no explici ly plan ed in he ex , and he ecei e e ie es he knowledge necessa y o unde - s anding he ex while p ocessing i . In he ex o cou se books i is impo an o build app op ia ely in e ex ual ex s ha mee he equi e- men s o cohe ence. Well-w i en cou se books o subjec s augh in pub- lic educa ion ul il he equi emen o in e ex uali y, bo h each indi- idually and as a whole, by elying on p e ious cou se book ex s bo h wi h ega ds o hei s uc u e and hei con en . All o he se en s anda ds o ex uali y discussed abo e a e impo an o o he ole played by ex s in he communica ion p ocess. Di e en ex s can be e alua ed using di e en app oaches, and he e o e di e en p inciples play a mo e impo an ole in one case han in ano he . How- e e , e e y s anda d has o be obse ed while composing a ex , and all o hem ha e o be conside ed when e alua ing a ex . The e ec o each p inciple needs o be weighed depending on he gi en si ua ion. Quan i a i e esea chme hodsallow o he s udy o he su ace ex . Ca e ully planned s udies on de ails o cohesion p o ide aluable da a o be used in c ea ing ex s and e alua ing hem. 5 9Te minologija | 2011 | 18 Quali a i e esea chme hods allow o he s udy o concep s, knowledge encoded in ex s, and hei ela ion in he ex . In o de o decide whe he a ex mee s he equi emen s o encoding, s o ing and dis ibu - ing concep s, we ha e o s udy i s con en , a he han jus he su ace s uc u e. This includes he s udy o in e nal concep ual sys ems en- coded in he ex and o he ex e nal concep ual ne wo ks (i.e. he en i e concep ual sys em o he domain) ha a e linked o hem. These concep- ual ela ions a e mani es ed in e ms, which a e app oached by ex lin- guis ics om he iewpoin o he s anda ds o ex uali y and by e min- ology based on he ea u es o he e m. Bo h app oaches emphasize he signi icance o concep ual aspec s o e alua ing ex s. 4. MEANING AND SENSE Being amilia wi h he basic concep s o ex linguis ics and e min- ology (e.g.: concep , meaning) i is necessa y o go in o de ails on he ole o ex s and e ms in he complex p ocess o communica ion. In he s udy o he con en o ex s, cohe ence plays he key pa . Co- he ence enables unde s anding he ela ions be ween e ms, and acili a es he dis ibu ion o he cogni i e con en o he ex . In o de o s udy he cogni i e con en , we ha e o elabo a e on he concep o meaning. Beau- g ande and D essle (1981: 84) di e en ia e be ween meaning and sense in he ollowing way: “I meaning is used o designa e he po en ial o a language exp ession (o o he sign) o ep esen ing and con eying knowledge (i.e. i ual meaning), hen we can use sense o designa e he knowledge ha ac ually is con eyed by exp es- sions occu ing in a ex . Many exp essions ha e se e al i ual meanings, bu unde no mal condi ions, only one sense in a ex . I he in ended sense is no a once clea , non-de e minancy is p esen . A las ing non-de e minancy could be called ambigui y i i is p esumably no in ended, o poly alence i he ex p oduce did in ac in end o con ey mul iple senses a he same ime” (Beau- g ande, D essle 1981: 84). In he ex linguis ics app oach by Beaug ande and D essle , he sense o a language exp ession is a speci ic ealisa ion o an elemen o i ual meaning. Fo example, he e m a he could ha e one o he ollowing meanings in a gi en ex : ances o ha a he s a child, he s ic educa o o a child, he ca ing and lo ing gua dian o a child. In any gi en ex he e m a he occu s in one o he abo e senses.