Terminological methods in the history of terminology science

2 7Te minologija | 2011 | 18 Te minological Me hods in he His o y o Te minology Science SERGIUSZ GRINEV-GRINIEWICZ Uni e si yo Białys ok MoscowHumani iesPedagogicalIns i u e Keywo ds: his o y o e minology heo y, e minological me hods, ypology, semio ics, e e sibili y, an h opolinguis ics I is a well-es ablished ac ha special lexis is in some ways di e en om he e e yday wo d-s ock, special ocabula y being qui e p obably he only pa o language ha may be consciously manipula ed and con olled. Special ea u es o e minology de e mined he eme gence o a numbe o speci ic me hods o analysing and o de ing e ms. In a ce - ain sense we may ega d he his o y o e minology science h ough he p ism o he e olu ion o special me hodology. Since he beginning o scien i ic pe iod in human e olu ion e e y sci- ence bases i sel on he sys em o concep s and e ms. In such a sys em e e y concep and e m has a de ini e place, meaning o e e y e m being s ic ly de ined by he bo de s wi h o he e ms. Small wonde hen ha om he e y beginning o e minological esea ch and o de ing o e - minologies he sys emic app oach was used – much be o e i came in o ashion in he second hal o he 20 h cen u y and s a ed o be ap- plied in e e y possible ac i i y. Since e minology may be con olled and egula ed and bo h e mino- logical o ms and meanings consciously shaped, in he p ocess o de ec - ing and analysing e minological d awbacks o be co ec ed, ce ain de- si ed p ope ies we e de e mined al eady in he 1930s (Lo e 1937). Subsequen in en o y o a ibu es o special lexemes aimed a making lis s o desi ed p ope ies o an “ideal” e m ook o m o e minological equi emen s and lead o making ulle lis s o a ious e minological ea u es eaching 265 cha ac e is ics (G ine 1998, 2001). This coin- cided wi h in es iga ing di e ences be ween e ms and o dina y wo ds in he 1950s and he 1960s. 2 8 S. G ine -G iniewicz | Te minologicalMe hodsin heHis o y     | o Te minologyScience A he same ime he i s s eps o ypological app oach s a ed wi h i s es ablishing he di e ence be ween e ms and nomencla u e uni s o nomens as hey a e now called, ha la e lead o disco e y o a numbe o special uni s exis ing in language apa om e ms. I s a ed wi h G. O. Vinoku d awing a dis inc line be ween e ms and nomens as di e - en special lexical uni s (Vinoku 1939). La e A. A. Re o ma sky u he speci ied c i e ia o dis inguishing e minology and nomencla u e (Re o - ma sky 1959). Howe e , a i s nomencla u e uni s we e iewed as a ie y o e ms. Only a e in oduc ion by A. D. Haju in o he concep o e minoids – special lexical uni s naming he so-called “na u al concep s”, concep s “in s a u nascendi” which ha e no se led uni o mly unde s ood meanings, and he e o e do no ha e gene ally accep ed de ini ions (Haju in 1970), i became clea ha e minology science should no limi i sel o in es iga- ion o e ms p ope , o he e a e o he special lexical uni s. La e o he kinds o special lexical uni s we e in oduced and desc ibed, such as p o- essionalisms (Kuz’min 1970), uni s o p o essional slang – p o essional a go isms (Sk o so 1972) o p o essional ja gonisms (Gladkaja 77), quasi- e ms (Leichik 1981), p e- e ms (Leichik 1985) and inally p o o- e ms (G ine 1990). In he 1960s i was ound ha one o he mos p omising aspec s o p esen ing and in es iga ing e minological p oblems is based on semi- o ic app oach, which is iewing e minological signs om he poin o iew o he gene al heo y o signs. La e semio ic app oach due o i s being connec ed wi h he gene al heo y o in o ma ion and due o i s uni e sal cha ac e became almos as popula as he sys emic app oach. I has been ex ensi ely used in Russian e minology s udies o he las hi y yea s, he e o e i is expedien o sum up he expe ience. The i s a emp s o in oduce semio ic p inciples in o e minology we e made in Russia in he 1960s. In 1969 P. V. Veselo in oduced he idea o app aising e minological cha ac e is ics om he semio ic poin o iew. I was based on di iding e minological ea u es and equi emen s in o h ee g oups: seman ic, which included cha ac e is ics e lec ing e- la ions be ween lexical meanings o wo ds and wo d-combina ions used as e ms and con en s o co esponding concep s; syn ac ic, connec ed wi h pa e ns o e m o ma ion and hei p oduc i i y, and p agma ic, including hose cha ac e is ics o e m ha in luence i s unc ioning. 2 9Te minologija | 2011 | 18 Acco ding o P. V. Veselo such e minological equi emen s as in a i- ence (absence o synonymy o polysemy), co espondence be ween lexi- cal and concep ual meanings o e m (concu ence o a concep and e minological meaning o he co esponding e m) and classi ica ional conciseness ( e lec ion in e minological o m o only he necessa y cha - ac e is ics o he concep ) belong o seman ics. Requi emen s owa ds pa e ns o e m o ma ion (c ea ing o using homogeneous sings o he homogeneous concep s) and p oduc i i y o e minological o ms (pos- sibili y o o ming de i a i e e ms) P. V. Veselo iewed as belonging o syn ac ics. Cha ac e is ics which e lec ed con enience o using e m, such as b e i y (numbe o e m elemen s should no exceed he numbe o delimi ing cha ac e is ics), uniqueness (absence o homonyms), euphony, ansla abili y and he abili y o be used as desc ip o in compu e sys ems we e iewed as belonging o p agma ics (Veselo 1969). Ano he signi ican s ep in elabo a ion o semio ic aspec s o e min- ology is connec ed wi h publica ions o V. M. Leichik (Leichik 1971; Leichik, Smi no , Suslo a 1977). In hese publica ions ou main ypes o semi- o ic ela ions in e minology we e laid ou : 1) be ween e ms; 2) be ween e m as a sign and he co esponding concep ; 3) be ween e m as a sign and he co esponding objec ; 4) be ween e m as a sign and he use o his sign. I was s a ed ha he i s aspec - syn ac ics - p esupposes no only combinabili y o e m in linea speech sequence, bu also e m ela- ion wi hin a ce ain e minology. The nex wo ypes o ela ions, con- nec ed wi h seman ics, deal wi h e minological p ope y o exp essing concep s and deno ing classes o objec s. In con as wi h e e yday o- cabula y he o m o e m o en e lec s he essen ial cha ac e is ics o he concep and i s place in he concep sys em while he objec s deno ed by e ms a e connec ed wi h special ac i i ies (such as scien i ic esea ch, p oduc ion, e c.). The ou h ype o e minological ela ions is connec - ed wi h p agma ics and includes sociolinguis ic p oblems, such as he p oblem o p o essional ja gonisms, ela ions be ween e minological sys- ems and na u al language, e c. and is impo an om he poin o iew o no malising usage o e ms. The semio ic app oach o classi ica ion o cha ac e is ics o e ms la e was elabo a ed in publica ions o Veselo and o he e minologis s (Ves- elo , Chi ukhina 1974; G ine , Leichik, Nalepin 1985; G ine , Se geje 1987; G ine 1993). The nex s ep in applica ion o semio ic app oach 3 0 S. G ine -G iniewicz | Te minologicalMe hodsin heHis o y     | o Te minologyScience was i s usage in es ima ing and desc ibing cha ac e is ics o he whole e minologies (Leichik, Smi no , Suslo a 1977; G ine 1990, 1993, 1998). Such app oach o med he basis o ypological s udies and pa ame ical es ima ion o e minologies. A he end o he 1970s a new, pa ame ical app oach appea ed ( i s in lexicog aphy) which was based on he concep o lexicog aphic pa am- e e – he way o lexicog aphic ep esen a ion o a s uc u al elemen o a unc ional phenomenon o language and hei ex a-linguis ic co ela- ions – in oduced by Y. N. Ka aulo (Ka aulo 1981). The concep o pa ame e was bo owed in o e minology, whe e i was de ined as meas- u able e minological cha ac e is ic deno ing deg ee o mani es ing o a pa icula p ope y (G ine 1985). Pa ame ical app oach in desc ibing and analysing e minologies is based on he in en o y o e minological p ocesses and phenomena as well as on paying conside a ion o e m ea u es, o he majo i y o pa ame e s o a e minology o i s au onomous agmen depend on he espec i e ea u es o i s e ms. The need o in oducing pa ame ic app oach in desc ibing e minologies and hus making ounda ion o ypological s udies was caused by he s a e o e - minological heo y in he 1980s and beginning o 1990s. In his wo k en i led His o yo sciences S. Toulmin con as s desc ip i e and p esc ip i e phases o a science ha e iden ly ma k s ages o i s de- elopmen . E en a supe icial su ey o he si ua ion in e minological s udies a ha ime in he USSR showed ha he majo i y o esea ch p ojec s had a clea ly no iceable desc ip i e app oach. A g ea numbe o e minological publica ions in his coun y (a e aging mo e han 500 a yea ) we e con aining desc ip ions o some phenomena in a chosen seg- men o special lexis. Ano he ea u e o e minological s udies ha was wo h men ioning was he acciden al na u e o he choice o he objec o s udy, he subjec ield, a ge language and he e minological p ocess o phenomenon o be in es iga ed. A u he no iceable ea u e was he e iden incomple eness and incompa ibili y o he desc ip ions o e min- ologies, which uled ou a dependable compa ison o he esul s o sepa- a e s udies and d awing o gene al conclusions as o he deg ee o p es- ence o he obse ed phenomena in special lexis in gene al. The e was e e y eason o belie e ha his si ua ion esul ed om he absence o c i e ia and a well- ounded basis o he compa ison o he esul s o he sepa a e s udies. Howe e , while he lack o co-o dina ion 3 1Te minologija | 2011 | 18 and guidance o e minological esea ch in he USSR and Russia o ha pe iod may ha e been accoun ed o by he absence o an app op ia e compe en e minological body, o he ea u es seemed o ha e a uni e - sal cha ac e and e lec he s a e o he e minological science in gen- e al. The e o e he e was e iden a need o ansi ion om he s a e o me ely collec ing in o ma ion on isola ed e minological phenomena, esul ing in sepa a e incomple e and inexac desc ip ions o pa icula e minologies, o a sys ema ic pa ame ical es ima ion o e minologies as a p e equisi e o u he de elopmen o e minology science. To acili a e his de elopmen i was ound necessa y o es ablish a se o pa ame e s ha migh be used o measu e pa icula e minological p ope ies and which oge he would o m a sys em ensu ing comple eness and compa - ibili y o independen s udies o di e en e minologies. The lis o e minological ea u es ha we e supposed o se e as e - minological pa ame e s was a ha ime al eady qui e ex ensi e. In clas- si ying hem semio ic app oach was used allowing o di ide hem in o ce ain g oups. A he beginning he g oup o syn ac ic ea u es com- p ised such cha ac e is ics o e minological o ms as leng h (measu ed in wo ds and le e s), o mal s uc u e (mo phological o syn ac ic), pa - e ns o e m o ma ion, mo i a ion, p oduc i i y, in a iabili y o o m, linguis ic co ec ness, and g amma ical peculia i ies (such as he absence o singula o plu al). Fea u es o e minological meaning, such as nomina i e cha ac e o e m, i s compa a i e independence om he speech con ex , peculia i ies o seman ic s uc u e, ca ego ial ela ions and exac ness (including mono- semy and absence o disc epancy be ween lexical and e minological mean- ing, seman ic in eg i y), e c. we e iewed as belonging o seman ics. The g oup o p agma ic ea u es con ained such cha ac e is ics as b e i y, euphony, inculca edness (including equency o usage and con- en ionali y), ch onological s a us, no ma i e s a us, singleness (absence o synonyms), uniqueness (absence o homonyms), ansla abili y, easiness o o ming combina ions, place in espec i e e minology, sphe e o us- age, geog aphical a ea, cogni i e unc ion, e c. In he p ocess o applying semio ic app oach o classi ying e minological pa ame e s i became clea ha he h ee main aspec s in oduced by Cha les Mo is and based on ypes o iads sugges ed by Cha les Sande s Pei ce we e insu icien o comple e desc ip ion and analysis o lexical signs. 3 2 S. G ine -G iniewicz | Te minologicalMe hodsin heHis o y     | o Te minologyScience Fi s ly, exis ence o an impo an g oup o ea u es, connec ed wi h ap- pea ance and subsequen his o ical e olu ion o e ms showed necessi y o conside e olu iona y cha ac e is ics. Such ea u es as o igin, age ( ime o appea ance), pu pose o hei appea ance, e c. belong o his g oup. Sec- ondly, he exis ing iad did no p esen possibili ies o in es iga ing ea u es connec ed wi h he s uc u e o any ype o signs. The e o e i was el expedien o in oduce mo e aspec s enabling s udies o o ma ion and de elopmen o signs and sys ems o signs, which would make i possible o speci y hei cha ac e and endencies o hei de elopmen . I was p oposed o name his aspec which deals wi h e o- lu ion o signs e olu ics. In es iga ing signs om he poin o iew o hei e olu ion makes i possible o iew ypology o signs as hie a chy o s ages o e olu ion. Also such aspec s as mo phe ics, dealing wi h s uc u al cha ac e is ics o e ms and deno a ics, dealing wi h ela ions be ween e m as a sign and i s deno a e (lea ing in seman ics ela ion be ween he sign and he signi ica e) we e in oduced as he esul o ap- plying semio ic app oach in e minology (G ine 1996; Гринев 2000). As he esul o in en o y o ea u es o e ms inally he numbe o e ealed cha ac e is ics eached mo e han wo hund ed – 265 (G ine 1998). I was ound ha hese ea u es may be di ided in o h ee g oups: (a) p ope ies – immanen ea u es used in exac ly de ining he concep o e m; hey a e always p esen and canno change; (b) sho comings – unwan ed ea u es which se e as a basis o e minological equi emen s and which mus be elimina ed, and (c) he emaining ea u es, some o which a e a he bene icial, some neu al and some ha ing bo h posi i e and nega i e aspec s in a ious condi ions. The immanen p ope ies o e ms, as opposed o wo ds in e e yday language, a e de e mined by hei main unc ion – o name concep s and also include speci ici y o usage ( e m belonging o a special ield o knowledge), nomina i e unc ion (naming gene al concep s), de inabili y (p esence o scien i ic de ini ion), exac ness o meaning ( e minological meaning has p ecise bo de s de e mined by i s de ini ion), con ex ual s abili y (independence om he con ex esul ing om he exac ness o meaning), s ylis ic neu ali y (absence o conno a ions), con en ionali y (appea ance o e ms is o en he esul o con en ion on he pa o com- muni y), nomina i e cha ac e (mos ly nouns and nomina i e ph ases a e used as e ms), also s abili y and ecu ence o o m in speech (which 3 3Te minologija | 2011 | 18 allows no a ia ion o o m and also helps o di e en ia e e minological wo d-combina ions and combina ions o e ms). The numbe o desi ed p ope ies o an “ideal” e m o e minological equi emen s conside ed by a ious e minologis s a ies om 4 o 13 and includes desi ed o mal, seman ic and p agma ic (o unc ional) p ope ies. The mos impo an seman ic equi emen s a e seman ic consis ency and monosemy. Seman ic consis ency means no con adic ion be ween he lexical and he special meaning o a e m. In some e minologies we come ac oss such con adic ion – o example, seam as a common wo d means join ( igh connec ion) bu some imes in building e minology in cases, such as sedimen a ionseam,ea hquakeseam is used as issu e; Russian suhaja sh uka u ka (d y plas e ) in building is used in he meaning ‘d y plas e ed pa i ion’. By monosemy he exis ence o only one meaning in a gi en e min- ology is mean . I a lexical o m is used in di e en e minologies, his causes no incon enience – he wo d mo phology is used in linguis ics, geology and biology ha ing in e e y science a speci ic meaning. Bu many e ms a e polysemic, such as loo ing, oo ing,cladding,isola ion, moulding,coa ing, ehabili a ionmeaning bo h a p ocess and i s esul ; in linguis ics – bo owing,assimila ion, e c. The e a e also cases when he same e m has a b oade and a na owe meaning, such as in balneology wa e  ea men is di ided in omine alwa e  ea men andwa e  ea men  (p ope ); he same applies in building o inne walls ha a e di ided in o pa i ions and inne walls (p ope ). In lexicology he e a e cases such as a ixwo d meaning: 1) a wo d, which is an a ix, and 2) a wo d wi h an a ix; double s – 1) di e en wo ds e ymologically coming om he same wo d, and 2) species o absolu e synonyms. To he g oup o o m equi emen s belong such bene icial quali ies as sho ness, exac ness, absence o a ian s, mo i a ion. By sho ness o a e m we mean ei he he absence o unnecessa y elemen s (unde lined in he ollowing examples) - li ing la , auma ic inju y,me an- anks o sludge ea men ,ch onic o mo in luenza,con ac elephones,comme cialshops, eegi ,plans o  he u u e o p e e ence o he sho o ms (compa e Russian нейромезодерматодистрофия and ней- рофиброматоз). Exac ness means co espondence o he o m o a e m o i s meaning which is some imes lacking: Indian s anda d IS 1382:1961 (glass p oduc- 3 4 S. G ine -G iniewicz | Te minologicalMe hodsin heHis o y     | o Te minologyScience ion) uses he e m canal which has a e y b oad meaning o deno e a e y specialised concep ‘window glass ank canal’. Absence o a ia ion is a necessa y quali y o some new e ms ha may ha e se e al a ian s: e m g a i i has many a ian s – g a i i,sg a i i, sg a i i,sg a i o, e c. which some imes a e e en used in he same ex . The quali y o mo i a ion, ha is ha ing o m ha poin s o i s mean- ing, helps o easie unde s and and lea n he espec i e concep . Ou o he exis ing h ee main ypes o mo i a ion he mos ex ensi ely used in o ming new e ms a e s uc u almo i a ion ha occu s in wo ds consis - ing o he al eady known meaning ul pa s, such as penkni e, ail oad, loade , hei s uc u e poin ing o hei meaning, and seman icmo i a ion ha occu s in wo ds wi h seconda y meaning which can be guessed on he basis o he p ima y meaning. In he combina ions ae oplanewing, ae oplane ail,columnneck,heado aline,lego a able he wo ds wing, ail,headandleg ha e seconda y meaning. Using he p ima y, gene ally- known meaning we can guess whe e he wings and ail a e in an ai plane, o whe e a column neck is si ua ed e en i we see hese objec s o he i s ime. The mos impo an p agma ic equi emen s a e: es ablishedness – he quali y o being app o ed by specialis s and uni- e sally used, which could be judged by he equency o occu ence in communica ion; in e na ional o m which helps in in e na ional communica ion; euphoniousness - he quali y o ha ing no unpleasan conno a ions (compa e hini isand unningnose); e y impo an in ade-names: he So ie ca Zhiguli o a long ime would no sell in F ance whe e i s name was associa ed wi h gigolo– a hi ed lo e ; he Czech ca Shkoda (which in Polish means ‘ha m’) was changed in Poland o Skoda, which has no conno a ions; in he USA such names o p o essions asga bage collec o and a ca che we e changed osani a yenginee and e min con olo ice . Wi h he ask o choosing he mos e ec i e o ms o new e ms, one o he mos popula di ec ions o e minological esea ch in he USSR in he 1960s and he 1970s was he analysis o he exis ing o ms o e ms in a ious e minologies o many languages wi h he aim o es ablishing he mos p oduc i e means and pa e ns o e m o ma ion and elabo a - ing ecommenda ions o o ming new e ms. As he esul o his esea ch 3 5Te minologija | 2011 | 18 also a ious o ms o mo i a ion we e s udied and some endencies o usage o a ious means o e m o ma ion on ce ain s ages o de elop- men o e minologies we e e ealed. Howe e , i was ound ha synch onous esea ch does no p esen eli- able in o ma ion conce ning p oduc i i y o a ious ways and pa e ns o e m o ma ion and so diach onic app oach was sugges ed in he 1970s. Fi s ly, di e en means o e m o ming may esul in he same s uc- u al ype o e ms – among he simple, o oo e ms he e may be wo ds om he e e yday ocabula y – wa e ,hand, abb e ia ed – mo el,lase , scuba,dinky and bo owed – pizza,cas le. A he same ime usage o he same means – o example bo owing – may esul in e ms o a ious s uc u al ypes. Secondly, ela i ely low equency o a means o e m- o ma ion may signi y ei he means coming ou o usage o new, pe spec i e means ha ha e no ye a ained su icien le el o usage. Thi dly, he e was ound a ce ain ela ion be ween he p edominan o ms o e ms and ime o hei appea ance and also be ween deg ee o de elopmen o a ce ain ield o knowledge and p e alen means o o m- ing i s e ms (G ine 1979). I was also ound ha o assessing a chosen ype o e m- o ma ion i is e y use ul o es ablish mean ime o appea ance o e ms p oduced wi h i s help. This may be accomplished by using he exis ing his o ical dic iona ies con aining da es o i s appea ance in ex s and changes o meaning o wo ds and wo d-combina ions. In English such in o ma ion is p o ided by he exhaus i e 20- olume Ox o d English Dic iona y. To es ablish his cha ac e is ic a new me hod, es ed on a numbe o English, F ench and Russian e minologies was elabo a ed. The da e o i s appea ance o a lexical o m in ex is conside ed o be he da e o appea ance in language. Bu aking accoun o he ac ha usually w i - en ixa ion is p eceded by a ce ain pe iod o usage in o al speech i e yea s is sub ac ed om he da e o appea ance in w i en speech and he esul is app oxima ed o decade. In his way he condi ional ime o ap- pea ance o a lexeme is supposed o be wi hin he limi s o ± 5 yea s. Fo example a wo d i s eco ded in he yea 1572 is conside ed o appea in o al speech a leas in 1567, which is in ound igu es ( oughly) in 1560s and in s a is ic calcula ions only he i s h ee digi s a e aken in o conside a ion. 4 2 S. G ine -G iniewicz | Te minologicalMe hodsin heHis o y     | o Te minologyScience Te MInoLoGIJos MeTodAI Te MInoLoGIJos MoKsLo IsTo IJoJe S aipsnyje specialiosios leksikos y imo i a kybos me odų aidos požiū iu ap a- iama e minologijos mokslo is o ija. Pažymima, kad plė ojan is e minologijos moks- lui į ai iais jo aidos e apais bu o aikomi i obulinami am ik i me odai – sis emi- nis, ipologinis, semio inis, e e sinis, diach oninis i an opologinis. Tai leidžia e mi- nologijos y inėjimų is o iją apž elg i kaip e minologijos me odologijos aidą. ТЕРМИНОЛОГИЧЕСКИЕ МЕТОДЫ В ИСТОРИИ ТЕРМИНОВЕДЕНИЯ Рассматривается история терминоведения в аспекте развития методов исследо- вания и упорядочения специальной лексики. Отмечается, что, по мере развития терминоведения, на разных этапах преимущественно использовались и совершен- ствовались определенные методы – системный, типологический, семиотический, реверсийный, диахронический и антрополингвистический подходы, что позволя- ет рассматривать историю терминоведческих исследований как развитие терми- нологической методологии. Gau a 2011-11-02 Se giusz G ine -G iniewicz Uni e si y o Bialys ok Waska 4, m.20, Bialys ok, 15-481, Poland E-mail g iniewicz@w. kb.pl