„Terminas“ kontekste (žodžių junginio lygmuo)

7 3Terminology | 2016 | 23 Term in context (consonant of word combination) ASTA MITKEVIČIENĖ Lietuvių kalbos institutas KEY WORDS: term, context, word combination, text, scientific language, semantic relationships INTRODUCTION The term is not only the main term of terminology, but also a unit of metalanguage. If we consider the term as a linguistic term, its use in the language of other sciences can be understood as a metalinguistic commentary1. What else distinguishes the use of the term term? The subject of this article is the terminology term in context. Context can be perceived in different ways, narrower or broader. For example, the context of a word (in this case a term) can be a combination of words and a sentence (Vaskelienė 2007: 89). The article examines the use of the term at the level of the word combination, i.e. the syntactic relationships of the term are examined. The semantics of word combinations with the term term is analyzed. The semantic types of compounds that include this term, the main patterns of its use are identified. In this way, it is clarified which features and characteristics of the term are explicit in the context. That is the purpose of this article. The main source The material for the study was collected from the Lithuanian academic language textbook2 (Corpus Academicum Lithuanicum – CorALit, access via the Internet http://coralit. lt), compiled at Vilnius University. It is a special synchronous textbook of the written Lithuanian scientific language. The textbook includes texts from all fields – humanities, social sciences, physical sciences, biomedical sciences and technology. 1 Metallinguistic units have been analysed in detail in Kazimieras Župerka’s monograph (2012). K. Župerka classifies the terms of linguistics as metalinguistic vocabulary units. 2 From the publicly available online version. 7 4 Asta Mitkevičienė | Term in context (word combination) (organizers have classified according to the classification of scientific fields, approved by Order No. ISAK-2418 of the Minister of Education and Science of the Republic of Lithuania of 18 December 2007). According to the authors of the textbook, it now consists of about 9 million words. The textbook website lists the following types of texts: monograph, textbook, textbook, methodical aid; Article; an overview; review; the thesis of the report; chronic; preface (to a journal / collection); professional information; a scientific report; doctoral dissertation summary (a slightly wider list is given in Usonienė et al. 2008: 106). Thus, it can be assumed that the language of science is represented in the textbook by various types of texts (for more information about the textbook of Lithuanian language of science see http://coralit.lt; Usonienė et al. 2008). The text of the scientific language was chosen for the study because the actual use of terms is studied precisely in scientific texts (which is different if the object of the study is the determinologization of terms)3. This article describes the use of the term terminology in scientific texts. The textbook reflects the current Lithuanian scientific language – it consists of texts published in 1999–2009. Material selection and investigation process First of all, all instances of the word "term" are found in the text. Then, after looking at the context, the meanings of the word term are determined and those lines of the concordance are rejected, in which the term is used in other – irrelevant for this study – meanings4. It should be noted that the term with the relevant meaning is the most frequently used in the researched texts of scientific language (447 uses of the lema; representing 87% of all cases). It is used in all five of the above-mentioned texts. In terms of meaning, the concordance lines suitable for research are grouped according to the compounds (subjective, objective, attributive, circumstantial, predicative) in which the term is included. The semantic types of compounds are distinguished based on the classification of word compounds presented in Vito Labutis’s Lithuanian Language Syntax (1998)5. The term in the same line often belongs not to 3 terms of the Kalbotyra, including the term terminas, the use of which in publications has been studied by K. Župerka (see Župerka 2000). He found that the term is used in journalism in its "exact term meaning" (Župerka 2000: 177). 4 For example: ‘The party to the contract should not have performed the contract after its deadline if the late performance made it impossible to achieve the purpose for which the contract was concluded.’ ; “The context of the task can include scenarios, frames, schemes, the formulation of the task with positive and negative terms, etc.” 5 According to V. Labutis (1998), forms of words connected by a conjunctive are not considered compounds. 7 5Terminology | 2016 | 23 for one compound, for example, at the same time enters not only objective but also attributive compounds6. There are sentences in which the term is used more than once. As a result, the same sentences (one sentence is taken from each line of the concordance, although the maximum possible length of the concordance line – 300 print marks – was chosen when collecting the data) are in several places in the classification. MS Excel spreadsheet helped to manage the data. Only a qualitative, not a quantitative, use case study was chosen. It can be immediately emphasized that in semantic studies it is difficult to avoid subjectivity. In addition, the terms of reference may be different from one another. Some things are treated and divided somewhat differently than is usual in grammar studies. For example, in the context of terminology, such grammatically different compounds as an English term (adjective compound) and an English term (property compound) are in the same group according to their meaning. The value is determined by transformation and substitution methods. Before discussing the term term in text, it is advisable to briefly discuss examples of the use of this word in lexicography. In the English language, the term "alphabet" has three different meanings, according to the Dictionary of the English Language: 1. a word or a combination that precisely represents a scientific, technical or artistic concept; 2. the premise element of the syllogism; 3. the fixed time.’ In the Dictionary of Modern Lithuanian Language (DŽ6), the first meaning has the mark lingv. and is defined more broadly as “a word or combination of words expressing precisely a concept of science, technology, art, religion or other field”7. The sentences illustrating the meanings presented in the dictionaries are considered to be microcontext (see Vaskelienė 2007: 81). From the LKŽe use of the term (hereinafter only its first meaning, i.e. terminology term, is meant) 6 Compound word combinations and chains of word combinations (their concepts are left aside in linguistics) are, wherever possible, semantically divided into homogeneous combinations. According to the work of Laimutė Bučienė (Bunevičiūtė), a researcher of attributive compounds, extended postpositional signs are not considered to be part of a word combination – one of the most important features of a word combination is its integrity as a syntactic unit, and in the case of extended postpositional signs, intonation divides that integrity (Bučienė 1998: 31). 7 The definition of the term glossary in dictionaries and in linguistic and terminological literature has been reviewed by Regina Kvašytė (see Kvašytė 2013). 7 6 Asta Mitkevičienė | Terms in context (compound) According to examples and the LKŽe supplementation database (see LKIIS, also raštija.lt), the term belongs to: 1) attributive compounds; 2) objective compounds; 3) subjective compounds. 1) In attributive compounds, the term is either the principal (a) or the dependent (b). In the first case, the attribute identifies a subject area or topic – technical term, linguistic terms, kinship terms; Christian terms, family terms, the name of the term is an ethical term; Baltic term, humanist term, feature related to action (together with the reference, evaluation or place of the author) – terms created by the author, terms borrowed from other languages, terms created in a certain way, time – new terms, place – international or international terms (see 1.1.10), feature related to meaning – [humanist] term of this meaning. In summary, this can be represented as: (a) FIELD/THEME term, NAME term8, ACTION (+ AUTHOR, ASSESSMENT, PLACE) term, TIME term, LOCATION term. TA term, MEANS term. (b) In combinations such as glossary, Belarus, etc., the term is a dependent accent. The vocabulary can be seen as a container (see 1.2.4). The combinations of the examples presented in the cards of the LKŽ supplements catalog are the term Belarus, the term Vilnius region (source – 1993 monograph of Zigmas Zinkevičius Eastern Lithuania in the Past and Now), from which it is clear that the terms are also considered place names. In general, such usage can be described as the term PRONOUN. The question arises whether the term is used here in a deterministic or expanded sense. The term is the name of the concept, and traditionally in Lithuanian linguistics it is believed that placenames do not mean concepts (see article of the term toponimi in LKE). As Kazimieras Gaivenis illustratively states, “determination – the transformation of terms into ordinary words – is characterized by the fact that the determinized term does not disappear, but only releases a new offspring (an ordinary word) in another area of use” (Gaivenis 2014: 242). K. Gaivenis also mentions two determinologizations 8 Models NAME term and FIELD / THEME term expression of compounds may coincide, such compounds are characterized by ambiguity, cf. ethics term – * term is ethics, * term belongs to ethics. 7 7Terminologia | 2016 | 23 conditions: 1) the term must be widely known and not only among specialists; 2) some of the semantics of the term and the determinological word must coincide. Both terms are used in the terminology of the term and the term as a place name. In both cases, the general term NAME is appropriate. However, another question arises – whether the term in the combination with the name of the place is really a simple word, or still remains a term (only other meanings). By the way, actual words in ISO terminology standards are considered objects of terminology work as one of the types of markers. They are defined as word identifiers of unitary terms, distinguished from terms as generic names of terms (see ISO 1087-1:2000)9. 2) In objective compounds, the term is the object: used the term, many terms, most terms; find terms, popularized the term (2 examples). Thus, terms can be used, found, popularized, and also form a certain quantity. 3) In subjective compounds, the term is the subject: the terms vary and are of later origin; The terms make him an extremely difficult to access author, constitute the oldest layer of Slavisms in Lithuanian language terms. TERM IN THE LITHUANIAN SCIENTIFIC LANGUAGE TEXT 1. Term in attributive compounds The term in the study material often forms attributive compounds with specific terms, and in those compounds it is either the main focus (a), or the dependent (b), e.g. : (a) the withdrawal period, the ‘evacuation’ period, the first material period, the urinary tract infection period (collectively referred to as the ‘X period’); (b) the term collection, the term pressure groups, the term “tertiary isomelia”, the term “fishery” (collectively – the term X), etc. In the examples of the first group (a), the term is described by the name (X), and in the examples of the second group, the term is the secondary name of a specific term (X). In both cases, X is a specific term, in general – a name (a) NAME term, b) NAME term. In the first group of compounds, the dependent accent is expressed by the prefix of the name, e.g. : 9 It may be recalled that Jonas Klimavičius has written that “in Lithuanian the term ‘word’ in its meaning occurs only as a translation error” (Klimavičius 2002: 132). 7 8 Asta Mitkevičienė | Terminas kontekste (terminus in context) (1) The term “integration” expresses a possible threefold perception of this process: integration as preparation, as an immediate process of unification and as a process of re-integration. galint kliūtis ir siekiant tikslų ir integracija kaip tam tikras pasiektas būvis (Taljūnaitė 2005).“ (2) “In mathematical statistics, the term general population is often used instead of population, and members of a population are sometimes referred to as objects or elements.” (3) “Later, the term ‘logistics’ was used in various fields of activity, but most commonly in warfare and transport.” (4) “In the latter cases, the notion of essayism is used in breach of genre conventions, so in this article, which deals only with expressions of essayistic thinking, the terms es ei za ci jo s and es ei zm o ter mina will be used.” The compounds of the second group (b) are the so-called attributive compounds of the secondary name (see Bunevičiūtė-Bučienė 2001). The term in them is an apostrophe (in the conjunctive of the sentence it is a suffix), and the semantic relationship of such compounds is a description according to the class of the object11. In such cases, it is said that a particular unit of language is a term, i.e. it belongs to a class of terms. A term can replace an entire compound. As L. Bučienė states, “the opposition duplicates the indicative element in its syntactic function, but in terms of lexical meaning it is subordinate to the indicative element, because it highlights its certain characteristic” (Bunevičiūtė-Bučienė 2001: 10). From a pragmatic point of view, the attribute term is added because it makes it easier to include a specific name of the concept in the text, e.g.: (5) "In this article, the term information law identity is used when analyzing the definitions of the branches of law that systemize the legal regulation of public information relations from the point of view of information sciences." (6) “Thus, the term ‘all kinds of’ is used in the scientific literature in a wide variety of meanings.” (7) “Since we are examining the historical concept and system of evidence, the terms ‘evidence’, ‘types of evidence’, ‘evidence system’, ‘evidence hierarchy’ are used with reference to the specific forms of evidence (sources, means of evidence).’ 10 There is no italic in the text. The examples in the article are also presented without italics, because it is not possible to say exactly whether the original text has separated the terms by them. Noticed proofreading errors are corrected. Everything else is as in text. 11 In Lithuanian syntax, similar compounds are not always interpreted in the same way. In older works – LKG III, Vytautas Sirtautas and Česis Grenda’s textbook – proper names and conventional, symbolic names in combination with the noun denoting their class are considered prefixes (LKG III 430; Sirtautas, Grenda 1988: 103). DLKG, V. Labutis, L. Bučienė treat such names or names in the combination not as indicative, but as indicative elements, because they are primarily, essential (Labutis 1998: 332–333; Bunevičiūtė-Bučienė 2001: 13–14, also see Mikulskas 2009: 109). 7 9Terminology | 2016 | 23 Such expression is used especially when the text needs to say a certain non-Lithuanian language term, for example: (8) “In international maritime and fisheries organizations, where the official working language is English, when referring to fisheries in the broad sense, the term “fishery” is used.” (9) ‘TS was first described in 1862 by Von Reck linghausen, and the term sclerosis and tube erosion was first used by the French scientist Bourneville [1-3].’ (10) “Some authors consider them synonymous with the term “self” (Byrne, 1996; Hattie and Marsh, 1996), others argue that self-esteem is an evaluative component of self-image (Saigal et al., 2002) <...>.” It is unusual when a non-Lithuanian term (or any term not adapted in Lithuanian at all) is used before a term. Only one such case occurred in the study material: (11) “The most archaic dice are the so-called babkės (also used as ta li (Latin), knucklebones (English) or?12 (Russian) ter mi na i).” The study material usually does not deal with terms as such in general (non-linguists (or non-terminologists) are usually not concerned with the term itself), but with a specific term or terms. Thus, the attributive compounds of the secondary name (the term “district”), it can be assumed, correspond to the attributive compounds with the name’s ancestor (the term “district”) in the text. The apostrophe can replace the indicative word, therefore in this article, in cases where the term goes as the suffix of a specific term X, it is the term that is considered to be the representative of the secondary name compound and when examining the wider context of such a compound, we are talking about compounds with the term, not compounds with X (the term together with X is considered to be one point). For example, based on the 6th example, it is stated here that the term is used (not the image is used). This decision was also determined by the object of the article. The mere description of a language unit (concrete example) as a term indicates that that unit belongs to the category of terms (cf. the term image and the word image). The term in this context is metalinguistic commentary. Among the compounds of this group, the term Lithuania / Mažoji Lietuva / Vidurio Lietuva, used in humanities texts, e.g.: 12 Somewhere in the text there are unrecognized symbols. 8 0 Asta Mitkevičienė | Term in context (compound) (12) „Rėza’s term mina s Lietuva in the context of contemporary Lithuanian historiography corresponds to the term Mažoji Lie tu va, but it was not used at that time.“ Thus, the usage of the term (the term PRONOUN) recorded in the LKŽ supplementation record is confirmed and examined by the text of the scientific language. 1.1. The term is the main focus of attributive compounds. 1.1.1. Another group of compounds with a term close to the discussed ones are such attributive compounds13 of indicative characterization as this / that / that term (generally REFERENCE term). In them, a specific term is replaced by a substitute14, cf. this / that / that term ← X → X term, term X. The substitutes of terms in such combinations are demonstrative (definitive) pronouns, and the specific terms are indicated in the text earlier or they are said in the same sentence (the first case is more common), e.g.: (13) “The fact that criminal responsibility and criminal law itself cannot be effective without the application of sanctions for the crimes committed, using this term in a broad sense, whose material expression is criminal punishment, is chrestomatic truth.” (14) “Theodore R. Weeks paid particular attention to the rhetoric of officials, noting that it was customary to speak of ‘Russification of the country’ and that the term was not used when referring to specific ethnic groups.” (15) “Even the Grand Duke of Lithuania Gediminas himself, as we can assume by reading his letters, was a skilled specialist in international public relations, although such a t er mina s appeared in Lithuania only a few centuries later.” Other attributive compounds of the descriptive characterization consist of a term with indefinite pronouns: another term, some terms, e.g.: (16) “In addition, in cases where it was spoken of national policy with respect to a particular non-dominant ethnic group, more often than the term “rusization” used and other terms – “approximation”, “fusion”, “assimilation.” In the material under study, they are not usually the only attributes of the denoting word – term. 13 Attribute compounds of the denoting description – compounds that generally, without specifically indicating, mention the property of the object (Bučienė 2012: 26). 14 Substitute, substitute: “a language element that replaces another corresponding element without affecting the content. Substitutes are, for example, pronouns that can replace nouns or adjectives in the text” (CCJ). 8 1Terminology | 2016 | 23 1.1.2. Terminology states that there are no terms in general, there are terms for specific subject areas. Therefore, it goes without saying that the specific field of use, branch of science, theory, concept, theme, environment of use or similar things are indicated in the text. A term’s characteristic is its belonging to a subject area, expressed explicitly in the text by attribute combinations of belonging with the term. The dependent article is either the origin of a noun that also has dependent articles (a), or an adjective (b), e.g. : a) (17) “The speaker himself may not realize how conceptual metaphors influence his thinking process, but the analysis of metaphorical statements in the speaker’s texts may reveal the speaker’s worldview (or, in cognitive linguistics terms, the conceptualization of the speaker’s world).” (18) “It seems that, as the legal doctrine develops over time and as the legal norms are further systematized and codified, rights and mines will become more precise” (Meškauskaitė, 2004, p. 21).” b) (19) “The use of statistical us ter minus was guided by the terminology presented in V. Čekanavičius and G. Murauskas’ Applied Statistics handbook.” (20) ‘Although the same term is used, it may be applied to different categories of persons in different States.’ Looking at the expression of such combinations in terms of standardization, it can be recalled that Stasys Keinys wrote as early as 1977 that the internal laws and tendencies of the common Lithuanian language determine that “the fields of terminology, the terms themselves of those fields and the dictionaries of terms should be named by combinations of words of the noun’s origin” (Keinys 2005: 362). The examples just given show that this linguistic systematic is not always respected. Speech attribute compounds of belonging can be transformed15: FIELD term – term belongs to FIELDS or FIELD has a term, for example, cognitive linguistics term – *term belongs to cognitive linguistics or *cognitive linguistics has a term. The posesorius16 (SPACE) is abstract, and the meaning of the place can be seen: the transform term is in SPACE (*the term is in cognitive linguistics)17. Thus, 15 Attribute compounds of the property are considered derivatives; transformation of constructions not directly derived from each other (Antanas’ company → Antanas owns a company → Antanas owns a company) (Bučienė 2004: 13). 16 On the concept and types of possessiveness, the determination of the possessor see. 2006-2007 season. 17 See another example from the textbook: “š ioj e s r ity je t er minai nėra įsitvirtinę”. The area is described by the local circumstances. 8 8 Asta Mitkevičienė | Term in context (combined word) (50) „Each chapter or subsection of the publication begins with a short theoretical introduction, which indicates the main equations for solving problems, explains some essential moments, more important t er mina i, methods of solving problems.“ Only a partial evaluation feature could be seen in the combination nomenclatural term “term related to nomenclature”. 1.1.10. VIETA term (X). There are attributive compounds found in which the term is described by location. This place can be both abstract, e.g. a local/international term, and more specific – related to the text, e.g. an analysis term, e.g. : (51) “Too often Lithuanian authors, writing about old textiles, deal with popular, usually only local is ter mina is, in other words, local jargon.” (52) ‘The key term of the present analysis is national identity.’ As mentioned above, the subjects of some attributive compounds of the active characterization also have the circumstance of place – the term is characterized by the place, e.g.: terms proposed in the dictionary, terms used in the textbook / thesis, etc. In the case of a term, such as the term of analysis, it is clear that the term belongs to the corresponding place. That place is more specific than the space of use of the term – the field or language in which it is used. 1.1.11. Quantity term. The attributive compounds of quantitative description22 indicate the term's characteristic according to the relation to the number. The subordinate of such compounds is the adjective numeral. In addition to the above, there are also some other types of adjectives that have a suffix -ing (e.g., the same as the adjective "one"). Here are some examples: (53) ‘According to the Convention for the Safeguarding of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage and the Operational Guidelines for the Application of that Convention, two terms have been used since 1972 in the theory and practice of heritage conservation at international and national levels: cultural heritage and natural heritage.’ (54) “Since the process under consideration involved different categories of persons (war refugees, economic emigrants, Polish settlers, indigenous people, mixed families, etc.), it is difficult to describe the phenomenon under analysis in one word. nu terminu.“ 22 Apie kiekybinio apibūdinimo atributinius junginius plačiau žr. Bučienė 2012. 8 9Terminology | 2016 | 23 When the attribute is a decimal number, the function of the compounds is indicative, e.g. : (55) „Terminas „eductive“ kilęs iš lotyniško „educere“ ir reikštų „gebėjimą surasti prasmę painiavoje“, o an tr as is ter m in as skirtas aprašyti gebėjimą reproduce acquired information (Raven, 2000).’ In these cases, the compound is a substitute for the specific term. 1.2. A term is a dependent element of attributive compounds. 1.2.1. Compounds with objective shade23. The term is used as a dependent accent with the nouns use and use, mention, treatment, interpretation, understanding and conception, (pa)interpretation, translation, confusion24, discreditation, expertise, attitude (to), advantage (against), etc. The term in the depth of such compounds is the object of the action or state expressed by the main element of the compound (about the term as an object see. 2), such as: (56) “There is a lot of talk about the value of science at the moment.” (57) “Although the term ‘context’ is treated in various ways, most often in psychology the concept of this term is based on a clear separation of stimulus and environment (Davies, 1988; Lochart, 1988; Thomson, 1988).” (58) “In historiography, it is quite common that one or another Latin or other term’s meaning leads to different interpretations.” The more specific the meaning of the main element of the compound (e.g., concept, translation), the more pronounced the relationships of dependence (e.g., *the term has a concept, translation). 1.2.2. Attribute compounds of belonging. In the text, such combinations show that the term has definitions, synonyms, equivalents, parts and aspects. The term is also a whole, having components. These parts are content, meaning, meaning, semantics. Here are some examples: (59) “Scientists, in order to reveal the term ‘image’ and its basic characteristics, have given the following definitions of the term: ‘Image is the common attitude of many people towards something’ (Pranulis, 1998, p. 114).” 23 For an overview of the interpretation of verb noun combinations in Lithuanian linguistics, see Pace 2006. 24 In the confusion of terms there is also a subjective connotation (*the terms are confused). 9 0 Asta Mitkevičienė | Term in context (compound word) (60) „Concepts in the dictionary are linked by links, according to which it is possible to find the corresponding terms in another language, synonyms, generalizing concepts.“ (61) “It is understood that it is practically impossible to find a suitable Lithuanian equivalent or to precisely define the meaning of ter mi no in all cases (especially since the meaning of many of them – especially of different units of measure – has changed or has not been unified at all).” 1.2.3. Compounds with a subjective shade. The combinations of the term/terms (X) with the nouns appearance, formation, origin, change, instrumentality, differences, diversity found in the text allow us to look at the term as a subject (for more details on the term as a subject see chapter 3), e.g.: (62) „The process of the emergence and formation of the term terrorism is not yet clear.” (63) ‘L. Meškauskaitė, researching the law of public information in Lithuania, notes that “when new branches of law are created, the variety of terms is inevitable.” Unexpectedly appeared the combination instrumentality of (this) term, oriented to the term as a means: (64) “Considering the concept in question as a more general approximate model (rather an intermediate hypothesis), the author of this article would not, at least in this text, be inclined to engage in a discussion of this term as an instrument for considering the development of civilisations on a human-wide scale [...].” 1.2.4. A dictionary/glossary of terms and a terminology system for attributive compounds close to substance-meaning compounds (SRITIS). Terms are components (see transform *terms form a dictionary, a system). The dictionary can be perceived as a container (see *add to dictionary), and the system is merely an abstraction made up of terms. Some examples in context: (65) ‘The bubble theory of finance and mining is defined as the belief that the prices of securities occasionally rise well above their fundamental value until at some point the bubble bursts and the price falls rapidly.’ (66) “In order to preserve the Lithuanian system of toponymy, the Lithuanian equivalent kalnų vardai is used in this article in addition to the international term oronummai.” The meaning of the substance can be seen in the metaphorical combination (SRITIS) jungle of terms (cf. *terms form jungles). The metaphor probably means that there are many terms and they are confusing. 9 1Terminology | 2016 | 23 1.2.5. Compounds with a circumferential shade. The textbook material shows that the term is a cause for debate: (67) “The debate about the most appropriate term could continue, and we will call resilience resilience at this time: this term is the most common, though somewhat imprecise.” In summary, it should be emphasized that some of the attributive compounds discussed in the article are composite terminology terms, for example, composite term, compound term, international term; term content, glossary of terms, etc. These composite terms are included in R. Kvašytė’s Educational Terminology Dictionary (for more information on the term microsystem of root terms, see Kvašytė 2013). 2. Term in target compounds 2.1. Term – the object of use. One of the most common groups of objective compounds is the use / use / apply term. It has already become customary that terms, like other units of language, are used. This is confirmed by the research material – the term is usually connected to the verb to use and its forms, e.g. : (68) “Because of insufficiently developed terminology, Lithuanian (as well as other northern countries) researchers use the term “Late Paleolithic” to describe both the period 45-35-10 thousand years ago and the findings of the Final Paleolithic in Lithuania.” (69) ‘This article does not refer to the removal of life from a desperately ill person, but uses the term assisted suicide.’ (70) “Sometimes it can even be said that these terms can be used synonymously.” According to the textbook material, terms are used and applied, e.g.: (71) “Greta the latter’s new and international term is ‘fluid’ (from Latin ‘fluidus’ – flowing).” (72) ‘In its modern conception, the law of ethnicity applies to both majority and minority and migrant/non-migrant groups and communities, i.e. to various population groups.’ There is also a reference to the non-use of terms in text material, but less frequently, p.g. : (73) “This t er mine is not included in our state accounting system of heritage values.” 9 2 Asta Mitkevičienė | Term in context (compound form) 2.2 A typical model of the use of a term in objective compounds – a term as a means (instrument) in the broad sense25 – is named, called, described, described, can be said, pronounced, spoken. The term in such cases is a means of naming and speaking, e.g.: (74) “Formally similar self-analysis, naming ma self-reflection term m inu, becomes particularly relevant in postmodern theatre, when the theatre concentrates on itself, consciously reflects on its mechanisms of functioning.” (75) “Aristotle’s term ‘poetics’ is today called the branch of literary science that examines the forms and stylistic means of poetic creation.” (76) “In the scientific works of foreign authors, it is the api bū di na ma ter m inu ‘over stag ing’ means the increase of the stage.’ (77) “In the literature, the values are not rarely attributed to the motivational dispositions (interests, aspirations) of a person.” In addition to the aforementioned verbs, the term is used in the text together with the forms of the verbs (express), formulate, describe. They refer to actions related to expression, i.e. the term is perceived as a means of expression, e.g. : (78) ‘The ability of sodium and potassium to neutralise hydroxyl groups (OH-) and of chlorine to neutralise hydrogen ions (H+) is expressed by the term ‘milliequivalents’ (mEq), which comprises the atomic or molecular molecular weight of the element combined with the corresponding valence or charge.’ (79) ‘The real world can only be described in model terms, which describe the concept and procedures needed to translate the real world into the spatial data required by the system.’ The combinations with the verb mark orient to the term as a sign, e.g.: (80) “At the same time, it must be borne in mind that in the same sources quite different phenomena are often marked with the same t er mina is.” The material of the textbook shows that the term can be generalized, treated, defined and even legitimized. This is not the usual use of the term, e.g. : (81) „Karolis Klimka’s article analyses the thesis that political tensions are linked to a certain energy surplus, which can be reduced in the ‘private’ dimension of lust, therefore political phenomena are involved in the energy economy.” 25 Here, the means (instrument) is not identified with the semantic function (semantic role) of the instrument. In this article, the idea of dividing word combinations according to semantic functions (semantic roles) has been abandoned because, according to V. Labutis, “there are no clearly formulated criteria by which semantic roles and corresponding semantic groups of word combinations are determined and distinguished” (Labutis 1998: 79). 9 3Terminology | 2016 | 23 (82) “According to A. D. Smith, the idea of a nation is cultural and social in its essence, regardless of whether the nation is formed on a territorial or ethnic basis: it defines and legitimizes politics on the basis of culture, because a nation is a political community only insofar as it embodies a common culture and the common will of society (Smith 1999: 232).” 2.3 A term is an object that is sought, found, taken, given, which is brought into a certain space and taken out of it, and in the space itself something is done or happens with it. First of all, the term is sought, e.g.: (83) “Critics, in search of terms and words to describe this phenomenon of the performing arts, talked about a new aesthetic of the theatre, which was inspired not by the inherently dramatic material about the life of the priest and poet Antanas Strazdas, but by the way in which the dramaturge and director presented that material.” From the objective compounds with verbs aptikti, (su)rasti it is clear that the term can be found, e.g.: (84) „In Lithuania, the term of the overriding class can be found in the works of R. Grigas <...>.“ If there is a deadline, it may be charged. This is shown by compounds with the verbs take, take over, e.g. : (85) “We take this idea from the carnival as a historical phenomenon.” When a term is taken from another field, there is a phenomenon known as transterminologization. The term is also an object of giving. The combinations of the verbs (pa)siūlyti, pristatyti, suteikti, pateikti, skirti allow us to speak about giving. Such compounds, and especially those with the verbs to include, to introduce, related to the direction – are oriented towards the attempt to “insert” the term into some space, e.g.: (86) “The Scottish chemist and physicist J. J. Black, who can be considered the pioneer of calorimetry, constructed (in 1759) the first ice calorimeter (this term was proposed by the famous French scientists A. Lavoisier and P. Laplace, who later improved the device).“ (87) “Gordon’s work is classical in that it applies to te the elements of assimilation used in academic discourse to date, te r minus, but it is not a true theory.” (88) “He introduced the term average man, but the term biometrics was first mentioned in 1889 by Charles Darwin’s cousin Francis Galton (1822–1890). 1911) <...>.“ 9 4 Asta Mitkevičienė | Terminas kontekste (žodžių junginio lygmuo) Priešingą polių atspindėtų junginiai su veiksmažodžiais atsisakyti, išguiti, išstumti, pakeisti, kurie rodo, kad terminas gali būti kieno nors pašarais“, „chemodektomomis“, lintas iš erdvės. Keli pavyzdžiai: (89) „Nors minėti kaklo ir galvos navikai istoriškai vadinami „glomus tumosiūloma šių ter minų atsisakyti ir, pagal 2005 m. PSAO (WHO) rekomendacijas, juos vadinti paragangliomomis, nurodant anatominę naviko vietą („vagalinė paraganglioma“, „karotidinio kūno paraganglioma“ ir t. t.) [5, 6].“ (90) “At least in Europe, the term foresighting has recently fundamentally replaced the long-used term for future studies or futurology, ter minus.” Thus, the position of the term in space is not static, it can enter it (but not itself) and be removed from it. Also in the space itself something is done or happening with it. The objective combinations examined show that the term can be promoted, popularized, legitimized, confused, used to it or simply abandoned or even ignored, as well as translated, referred to, for example: (91) “The Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, adopted by the UNESCO General Conference in 1972, for the first time internationally legitimized the concepts of cultural and natural heritage and territories.” (92) “Medieval medicine did not make much progress; all its merit in preserving the instructions of ancient physicians has left some ter mi nus.” (93) ‘In the view of the Committee, ILO Convention No 87 should apply to all persons employed in the public sector and in the public service, except in respect of the terms used in the Member States.’ The term can be changed in space – this can be seen from the compounds with the verbs specify, adjust, expand, combine, etc. In general, it can be said that terms are managed – the term is the object of management, e.g.: (94) “In order to highlight the generative factor of melody in polyphonic music, the previously used terms “linear counterpoint”, “linear polyphony” were expanded, thus emphasizing the linear principle of polyphonic music space formation.” (95) “In addition, during this period, research into Lithuanian journalism, the preparation of the Lithuanian Journalism Encyclopedia, some journalistic terms, concepts and definitions were adjusted, historical data were clarified, and new facts were highlighted.” Incidentally, it is not always clear whether we are really talking about terms or about the concepts they refer to, because it happens that terms and concepts are used as contextual synonyms, cf. : (96) ‘J. Habermas’s ter mi na s of fe nt lickeit (openness, publicity) was later expanded into the concept of public sphere.” 9 5Terminology | 2016 | 23 2.4. The term, as shown in the previous examples, is the object of intellectual (mental) activity. Objective compounds with verbs definite, (not) explained indicate that the term is also an object of linguistic activity. Such combinations show that the focus is on the meaning of the term that is intended to be shown (deficiency – not shown), e.g.: (97) „Briefly about the terms used in the work.” (98) “The term ‘aerial photograph’ in the Explanatory Dictionary of Terms (Vainauskas 2000) is not used in the meaning of ‘aerial photograph’, but in the Lithuanian-Russian Dictionary of Geodesy Terms (Kazakevičius 1993) it is used in the meaning of ‘mapping’.” The term compounds with the verbs talk (about), discuss, comment, mention are also related to the linguistic activity, e.g.: (99) “Regarding t er minus, it is worth noting that the terms and concept of pilgrimage, pilgrim is much older than the understanding of tourism and tourist.” (100) ‘While the term ‘information technology’ (IT) is most commonly used to refer to technology based on computer equipment in one form or another, various technologies for processing information have existed since the early days of society.’ Not only the meaning of the term can be discussed and commented on, but also the form, usage, etc. The combination of the term and the verb to formulate: (101) ‘The report of the 5th Framework Programme project ENIRDGnet [3] suggests three different terms to be used to describe distributed electricity generation: distributed generation, distributed capacity and distributed energy resources.’ The term is not used in this context, but is used as an adjective. DG6 to formulate "concisely and precisely express" (e.g., a thought, conclusion). It is possible that in this combination the term performs the function of the result of the action. The term is not only spoken about, it is also heard, e.g.: (102) “Lately, ergonomics has been increasingly used, and products that meet the requirements of hygiene and comfort are often called ergonomic.” Of course, the written term may be visible, but the compounds with the verb are visible and its synonyms are not found in the text under investigation. With seeing somewhat associated are the already discussed objective term compounds with the verbs find, detect. 9 6 Asta Mitkevičienė | Term in context (compound form) 2.5. The term is an object of perception. The term as an object of perception appears from the compounds with the verbs understand, perceive, as well as interpret, treat. Interpretation and treatment are also probably inseparable from linguistic activity. This group also includes compounds with the verb to. A few examples: (103) “In the world, the term book culture is understood quite broadly.” (104) “Infrastructure is usually understood as the physical foundation, equipment, services necessary for the functioning and growth of a country, community or organisation.” (105) ‘According to him, the term ‘murder’ is most commonly associated by society with acts of a violent nature intended to cause death, whether intentional or reckless.’ 2.6. Term – recipient. The combinations of the verbs dati and (pri)značiti, in which the term is used in the beneficiary form, show that the term as an object can be the recipient. It acquires such different abstracts as meaning, meaningfulness and attention, for example: (106) “Although the term Europeanisation has a variety of meanings, as C. Hilson points out, it is most commonly used in the legal and political sciences to describe the influence of European law and policy on national systems.” (107) „In this textbook a great deal of attention is paid to Lithuanian biochemistry terms.“ 2.7. Term – result. Verb-conjugated compounds indicate that the term is the result of creation, e.g.: (108) “Dell Hymes coined the term communicative competence (quoted from Mesthrie, Swann, Deumert, Leap 2003, 5) to describe people’s ability to use different languages in different contexts.” It is possible to recall some of the mentioned attributive compounds, for example, the compound term, the cumulative term, the attribute of which describes the term according to the actions, the result of which is the term. These verbs and verb adjectives determine the origin of the term (the term is created, added, collided). An example of a textbook shows that a term is considered the result of a nomenclature: (109) “From a linguistic point of view, the above-mentioned terms are equally defined as terror.” 9 7Terminology | 2016 | 23 On the other hand, the term to name terms in a combination can be interpreted as an object of linguistic activity, but this would not be usual – concepts are named, not terms (the term, as mentioned, is a means of naming in the broad sense). 2.8. Term as a basis for comparison26. A term is also an object with which something is compared. The compounds used with the verbs (not) match, combine (with), associate (with), identify [with], adjective similar (to), e.g.: (110) „The way of weaving – „eglutė“ – is often mentioned by other archaeologists, usually associated with the term used in the terminology of material research te r minu ‘broken strip’.’ (111) ‘The ‘Glossary of Biochemical Terms’ is being developed and therefore the terms used in the textbook have been harmonised with the terms proposed in the glossary.’ It has been observed (see example 110) that not only other terms or words, but also non-verbal things are associated with a term: (112) “Corporatism itself is similar in its origin to the older term corporativism.” 2.9. Term – Quantitative content. The term performs the function of quantity content in combinations with the quantity-indicating words tens, several, parts, abundant, e.g. : (113) “To ensure that the newspapers did not distort the names of places and archaeological finds (some of these mines were new, unusual) and correctly indicated the chronology, J. Puzinas prepared several or several dozen typed copies of his report and distributed them to “press representatives.” (114) “It is not known whether all the novelties will be revived, but some of the main themes seem to be vibrant, pictorial and suggestive in terms of language norms.” 2.10. A term is part of a whole. This is shown by compounds with the pronoun ein, e.g.: (115) “One such te r min is “rusizing” (Russian: obrusenie), derived from the verb “rusinti” (obrusit’). The combinations of the latter types (2.9–2.10) are informative for this study only to the extent that they show that the terms are a calculated thing and form a whole. The wider context (see examples 113-114) provides more interesting information about the terms (terms are new, unusual, vibrant, visual, etc.). 26 This would correspond to the semantic function of the comparative (Sližienė 1994: 23), also called aspect function (Jakaitienė 1988: 63). 104 Asta Mitkevičienė | Term in context (compound form) TERMINAS IN CONTEXT (THE LEVEL OF WORD PHRASES) The article analyses usage of the main term of terminology terminas ‘term’ in academic Lithuanian. The material for the research has been extracted from the Corpus of Academic Lithuanian (available at http://coralit.lt/). The article deals with the usage of the term terminas at the level of word phrases, syntagmatic relations of terminas are investigated. Semantic types of phrases with terminas and the main usage models of terminas are identified. The aim is to clarify what characteristics and features of the concept ‘term’ are explicit in the context. In the Corpus of Academic Lithuanian terminas is used most frequently in its first lexicographical meaning – as a term of terminology (and linguistics). When the term terminas is used in reference to a particular term, it shows the estimation that particular unit belongs to the category of terms. Considering the usage of terminas in academic texts of different sciences, term can be treated both as a unit of metalanguage and a general term of science. In the texts of humanities terminas is used in determinologizated or expanded meaning – as the secondary name for toponyms (terminas Lietuva ‘term Lithuania’). In academic Lithuanian the term terminas has attributes, is an attribute itself, it is used as object, subject, and less often – as a predicative or adverbial modifier. Terminas in attributive phrases with particular terms is either a name possessor or a secondary name. The attributes of terminas show that term belongs to particular space (domain etc.), object, language (or nation), author (both individual and collective), etc. Term in attributive phrases is modified by a language it originates from, action whose object or subject it is, time and place. Term’s attributes express its evaluation, features regarding meaning, etc. as well. Term as a possessor has definitions, synonyms, equivalents etc. and its components are content, meaning, sense, semantics. Terms are components themselves (of dictionary, system). In deep structure term as an attribute is both an object and a subject of action or state as well as a cause for discussions. The analysis of objective phrases shows that term is the object of usage and the instrument (of nomination, speaking, expression, marking etc.), it is being sought, found, taken, given, brought into some space and eliminated from it, and in space something is being done or happens with it. Term is an object of linguistic activities and perception, also a receiver, a result, base for comparison, content of quantity and part of a whole. Term as a subject exists or not, means and marks, also performs processes related to linguistic activities, moves in some direction, takes particular place in space. It has something (or not), covers, fits, as well as undergoes various other states, is something or of some sort. Retrieved 2016-08-31. Asta Mitkevičienė Lietuvių kalbos institutas P. Vileišio g. 5, LT-10308 Vilnius, Lithuania E-mail asta.mitke[email protected]