Analysis of Term Formation in Lithuanian, Russian and English Terminology Works

5 2 Liudmila Mockienė Analysis o Te m Fo ma ion in Li huanian, Sigi a Racke ičienė Russian and English Te minology Wo ks Analysis o Te m Fo ma ion in Li huanian, Russian and English Te minology Wo ks LIUDMILA MOCKIENĖ Mykolas Rome is Uni e si y SIGITA RACKEVIČIENĖ Mykolas Rome is Uni e si y KEYWORDS: e minology, e m- o ma ion, ways o e m o ma ion, means o e m o ma- ion, sou ces o e ms, con as i e analysis INTRODUCTION The a icle p esen s a con as i e esea ch o app oaches o he analysis o ways and means o e m o ma ion as discussed in Li huanian, Russian and English e minology wo ks. The esea ch ocuses on an o e iew o a ious classi ica ions o ypical linguis ic means o e m o ma ion p es- en ed in e minology wo ks in Li huanian (Keinys 1980, 2005a; Gai e nis 2002, 2014), Russian (Даниленко 1977; Лейчик 2009; Суперанская, Подольская, Васильева 2005, 2012; Гринев-Гриневич 2008) and English (Sage 1990, 1997, 2004; ISO 704:2009 (E)). Te m o ma ion as a p ocess is usually consis en wi h he p ocesses o wo d o ma ion used in a pa icula language. None heless, e m o ma- ion di e s om wo d o ma ion in he sense ha , as a ule, i is a de- libe a e and conscious ac i i y a he han a spon aneous p ocess. Mo e- o e , e m o ma ion is a b oade no ion as i encompasses o ma ion o bo h wo ds and ph ases. The esul o he o me p ocess is one-wo d e ms, while he la e esul s in mul i-wo d e ms. The Li huanian e minologis S asys Keinys claims ha e ms a e c e- a ed and s anda dised consciously (Keinys 1980: 60). Acco ding o S . Kei- nys, e minology is a pa o he s anda d language, howe e , i is in some aspec s dis inc and independen o i . On he one hand, e minology is consis en wi h he gene al ends in he language de elopmen ; on he o he hand, i is cha ac e ised by speci ic ea u es, ce ain equi emen s and de elopmen (Keinys 2005g: 231). 5 3Te minologija | 2016 | 23 The idea ha e m o ma ion is a egula ed, con olled and conscious ac i i y is also discussed by Russian linguis s, such as Vale ija Danilenko (Даниленко 1977: 91, 93), Vladimi Lei chik (Лейчик 2009: 62), Alek- sand a Supe anskaja, Na alija Podolskaja, and Na alija Vasilje a (Суперан- ская e al. 2012: 194). Acco ding o V. Danilenko, e m o ma ion in he domain o he language o science elies on he sys em o wo d-building o he Russian s anda d language. Ne e heless, he e is a numbe o ea u es ha dis inguish e m o ma ion in he language o science and wo d-build- ing in he s anda d language and he ac ha e ms a e c ea ed pu pose- ully and consciously is one o hose ea u es (Даниленко 1977: 90–97). Juan C. Sage also sha es he iew ha e m o ma ion is a “conscious human ac i i y and di e s om he a bi a iness o gene al wo d o ma ion p ocesses by i s g ea e awa eness o p e-exis ing pa e ns and models <…>” (Sage 1997: 25). This p ocess no only elies on he exis ing lexical ele- men s and combines hem in pa icula ways, bu can also be desc ibed in e ms o pa e ns acco ding o which hese elemen s a e combined, which in u n can be used o subsequen e m o ma ion (ibid). Since e m o ma ion is a delibe a e, conscious, con olled and egula ed p ocess, i is necessa y o be awa e o he ypical pa e ns and models o o ma ion o new wo ds in a pa icula language o be able o c ea e new e ms and e alua e hei sys ema ici y and co ec ness. Thus he aim o he esea ch is o e iew he majo app oaches o he analysis o ways and means o e m o ma ion in Li huanian, Russian and English and o conduc a con as i e analysis he eo . By he e m ways o e m o ma ion we mean he use o modi ica ion o in e nal/ex e nal sou ces o e m o ma ion while he e m means o e m o ma ion in he a icle e e s o speci ic ypes o e m o ma ion, e.g., e minologiza ion, ans e minologiza ion, a ixa ion, compounding, con e sion, di ec bo owing, loan ansla ion, e c. The a - icle analyses and compa es he main c i e ia applied by e minologis s o classi ica ion o e m o ma ion pa e ns wi h he aim o e eal simila i ies and di e ences o e m o ma ion analysis in di e en languages. CLASSIFICATION OF WAYS AND MEANS OF TERM FORMATION IN SOME WORKS OF LITHUANIAN TERMINOLOGISTS This sec ion p esen s analysis o he wo ks o wo mos p ominen Li huanian e minologis s S asys Keinys and Kazimie as Gai enis who ounded he basis o mode n Li huanian e minology. I also p esen s 5 4 Liudmila Mockienė Analysis o Te m Fo ma ion in Li huanian, Sigi a Racke ičienė Russian and English Te minology Wo ks some ideas om he wo ks by Al ydas Umb asas who in es iga ed he Li huanian legal e minology and i s his o ical de elopmen . The Li huanian e minologis s dis inguish h ee ways o e m o ma ion: 1) using he exis ing ocabula y o s anda d language and dialec s, 2) c e- a ing new wo ds (neologisms), and 3) bo owing e ms om o he lan- guages (Gai enis 2002, 2014; Keinys 2005a). I is no ewo hy ha he i s wo ways o e m o ma ion a e based on in e nal sou ces, meanwhile he hi d one elies on he use o ex e nal sou ces. Using he exis ing ocabula y o s anda d language and dialec s as a way o e m o ma ion is based on he use o ocabula y o na i e o igin. I means ha ei he a wo d which has al eady exis ed in he language o i s dialec is e minologized, o a e m which has al eady exis ed in an- o he e minological ield is ans e minologized (Keinys 2005g: 231). Te minologiza ion o a wo d om he gene al language o i s dialec can be achie ed in wo ways: i s lexical meaning is ei he ex ended o na - owed (Gai enis 2002: 52–53). In his case he con en , use and alency o e minologized wo ds is usually changed. When wo ds o he gene al language o i s dialec a e used as e ms, hey usually acqui e new ele- men s o meaning, which hey do no ha e in he gene al language (ibid), e.g. banga ‘wa e’ (‘wa es o a sea/a lake’ → ‘ adio wa es’). The majo i y o e ms which consis o a single wo d and a e simple in s uc u e, in ac ha e been e minologized wo ds o he gene al language o i s dialec . Mo eo e , he me e ac ha a e m is complex in s uc u e does no mean i has been c ea ed as such by means o wo d-building. As K. Gai enis claims, he e a e cases when e ms wi h a complex s uc- u e (i.e. hey a e o ma ions) canno be a ibu ed o he ca ego y o e ms c ea ed by means o wo d-building, because in ac hey we e e - minologized, i.e. he wo d as such was o med in gene al language (o i s dialec ) and hen i was used as a e m (Gai enis 2002: 56). Thus i migh be qui e di icul o es ablish whe he a e m has been o med as a esul o he p ocess o wo d o ma ion o is a e minologized o ans e mi- nologized wo d. One o he c i e ia which could help he e is aking in o conside a ion he ield o science and he his o y o de elopmen o e - minology o ha pa icula ield. None heless his c i e ion o ‘newness’ o a e m is no qui e eliable, because he same means can be used o c ea e a new wo d in di e en loca ions whe e he language is spoken and a di e en pe iods. E en he ac ha a wo d exis ed in he pas and was 5 5Te minologija | 2016 | 23 used in some his o ic documen does no signi y ha he wo d was aken om ha old sou ce and no c ea ed as a new en i y (Keinys 2005d). S . Keinys sugges s ha all e ms ha can be synch onically iewed as o ma ions should be ea ed as a esul o wo d o ma ion a he han e minologiza ion (Keinys 2005d: 22). He gi es wo a gumen s o his posi ion: 1) in many cases i is impossible o es ablish whe he a e m was c ea ed as a neologism, o was aken om he gene al language; 2) e ms which we e o med on he basis o o dina y wo ds ne e heless e lec ce ain wo d o ma ion ypes, hus i would be inaccu a e no o con- side hem as ep esen a i es o hose ypes o wo d o ma ion (Keinys 2005d: 22; Keinys 2005e: 113). Al ydas Umb asas, who analysed Li hua- nian legal e minology used in he pe iod om 1918 o 1940, also sha es his iew and does no dis inguish be ween e ms o complex s uc u e as e minologized wo ds and e ms o complex s uc u e o med o spe- ci ic pu poses; his app oach is o mal and he a ibu es all e ms o com- plex s uc u e (de i a i es and compounds) o he same ca ego y (Umb- asas 2010: 67-68). The e o e, in he wo ks o S . Keinys and K. Gai e nis wo ds o complex s uc u e a e mos o en asc ibed o he second ca ego y o e m o ma ion – c ea ing new wo ds (neologisms). C ea ing new wo ds (neologisms) on he basis o he exis ing wo ds in acco dance wi h all main ypes o wo d o ma ion is ano he p oduc i e way o c ea ing new e ms in Li huanian. The e a e ou main means o e m o ma ion in Li huanian: p e ixa ion, su ixa ion, lexional de i a ion and wo d compounding (Gai enis 2002: 54; Keinys 2005g: 232; EC 2006). Acco ding o S . Keinys, who conduc ed an ex ensi e analysis o e m o ma ion means in di e en ields o science, he majo i y o e ms a e o med by means o su ixa ion, mos o which a e de e bal. The e a e se - e al cha ac e is ic ea u es o e ms o med by means o su ixa ion, namely, hey a e usually abs ac nouns, hey lack emo ional conno a ion, and qui e a lo o hem a e hyb ids (Keinys 2005d). Hyb ids, which a e e ms ha consis o a o eign base and na i e su ix, a e analysed as de i a i es and a ibu ed o he same g oup as o ma ions o na i e o igin (Keinys 2005d: 75). Howe e , A. Umb asas, who applies he e ymological c i e ion as a s a ing poin , dis inguishes hyb ids as a sepa a e ca ego y, which a e dis inc om e ms o na i e o igin o med by means o su ixa ion (e.g. kon aban- dininkas ‘smuggle ’ (← kon abanda ‘smuggling’ + a na i e su ix -ininkas), and discusses such means o e m o ma ion as a sub ype o e m o ma ion based on elemen s o o eign o igin (Umb asas 2010: 132-133). 5 6 Liudmila Mockienė Analysis o Te m Fo ma ion in Li huanian, Sigi a Racke ičienė Russian and English Te minology Wo ks One mo e means o o ma ion which is e y o en used o c ea e new e ms in Li huanian is compounding. S . Keinys claims ha compounding is he second mos p oduc i e means o e m o ma ion a e su ixa ion and is qui e popula in ce ain a eas o p o essional language (Keinys 2005c: 129). The ac ha compounding is so p oduc i e in e m o ma ion can be ac- coun ed o by he necessi y o e e o a complex concep . Mo eo e , com- pounds comply wi h such i ally impo an equi emen s o e ms as ac- cu acy, cla i y and conciseness. Al hough hese equi emen s o e ms can be me by using a mul i-wo d e m, one-wo d e ms a e mo e con enien o use and can be c ea ed as ela i ely sho gene ic names wi hou using a ibu i es. The mos usual pa s o speech used o c ea e compounds in e minology a e a combina ion o wo nouns, a combina ion o a noun and a e b, and a combina ion o an adjec i e and a noun (Gai e nis 2002; Keinys 2005c), e.g. meds aig is ‘sc ewnail’ (medis ‘wood’ + s aig as ‘sc ew’), anden- iekis ‘wa e -supply line’ ( anduo ‘wa e ’ + iek i ‘ o supply’). Ano he qui e p oduc i e means o e m o ma ion, which is peculia o Li huanian, is lexional de i a ion. In con as o English, whe e lex- ion se es only as a unc ional a ix, in Li huanian i can be used o de i a ion. As a means o wo d o ma ion, lexional de i a ion is e y simila o su ixa ion in na u e, de i a ional meaning and o m (Keinys 2005b). Te ms o med by means o lexional de i a ion a e e y con- enien o use because o hei simple s uc u e. Thus lexional de i a ion could be used mo e ex ensi ely as a means o e m o ma ion (Keinys 2005b). The majo i y o e ms o med by lexional de i a ion a e de e - bal and deadjec i al, whe eas nouns, p onouns and nume als a e e y a ely used as he de i a ion basis, e.g. sąnaudos ‘consump ion, expend- i u e’ (← sunaudojo ‘used’). A ela i ely less p oduc i e means o e m o ma ion in Li huanian is p e ixa ion, because i is used o o m denominal nouns only (Keinys 2005e); in con as , su ixa ion and lexional de i a ion a e used o o m de e bal, deadjec i al and denominal nouns. None heless, he ole o p e ixa ion in e m o ma ion is a he signi ican (Keinys 2005e), e.g. į ė is ‘adop i e a he ’ (← į + ė as ‘ a he ’), neda bas ‘unemploymen ’ (← ne ‘no’ + da bas ‘wo k’). The las way o e m o ma ion discussed in he wo ks o he Li hua- nian e minologis s is bo owing o e ms om o he languages. The p o- cess o bo owing o a concep oge he wi h he e m which signi ies ha concep is qui e usual in language in gene al and in e minology science 5 7Te minologija | 2016 | 23 speci ically (Keinys 2005g). As K. Gai enis claims, i is a he ha d o a oid bo owings in e minology, besides i is no always necessa y o do ha (Gai enis 2002: 57). Wha is necessa y is o p e en o e use o bo owings in cases when hey may supe sede he exis ing e ms o na i e o igin, and, in addi ion, bo owings should con o m o he ules o phonology, mo - phology and spelling o he Li huanian language. Bo owed e ms can be classi ied acco ding o he deg ee o hei assimila ion in o h ee g oups: 1) old bo owings; 2) in e na ional wo ds; and 3) ba ba isms. Old bo ow- ings ha e been absolu ely assimila ed and adap ed o he language sys em, e.g. s iklas ‘glass’ (Gai enis 2002: 58). In e minology hey a e no consi- de ed as eal bo owings, in ac hey a e e minologized wo ds o gene al ocabula y. Ano he ca ego y, in e na ional wo ds, se e as e ms o di - e en ields o science. They ha e been bo owed in o Li huanian mainly om classical languages, such as G eek and La in, ei he di ec ly o h ough in e media y languages, e.g. hipo eka ‘mo gage’ ( om G eek), espublika ‘ epublic’ ( om La in). The las ca ego y, ba ba isms, a e wo ds which do no comply wi h he no ms o he language (Gai enis 2002: 57). Ba ba isms ne e become pa o s anda dized lexis. I was also obse ed ha he dis- ibu ion o bo owings in di e en ields o e minology is une en. I is a gued ha he amoun o bo owings in he la es scien i ic and echnical b anches o e minology is highe han in ields which ha e long adi ions and ely la gely on he indigenous ocabula y (Keinys 2005 ). S . Keinys also discusses loan ansla ions/calques (Keinys 1980: 92-96). Mos o such e ms do no comply wi h he no ms o he Li huanian language and a e no ecommended o usage. Those which con o m o he no ms o he language and a e o med on he basis o a p oduc i e model o wo d- o ma ion a e also o en p oblema ic as i is o en di icul o de e mine whe he a e m is a loan ansla ion o a na i e o ma ion. Simila i y o he s uc u e o a wo d in se e al languages does no neces- sa ily indica e an ins ance o loan ansla ion. Mos o en such e ms a e pe cei ed as na i e o ma ions (Umb asas 2010: 134). The Li huanian e minologis s classi y e ms acco ding o hei o mal s uc u e in o one-wo d e ms and mul i-wo d e ms. One-wo d e ms may be u he classi ied acco ding o hei s uc u e in o simple and o ma ions, whe eas mul i-wo d e ms a e g ouped acco ding o he num- be o cons i uen wo ds (Keinys 1980: 16-17; Gai enis 2002: 17) and a e analysed acco ding o hei o igin and he syn ac ic ela ion o wo ds wi hin he e m (Umb asas 2010). 5 8 Liudmila Mockienė Analysis o Te m Fo ma ion in Li huanian, Sigi a Racke ičienė Russian and English Te minology Wo ks Bo h one-wo d e ms and cons i uen s o mul i-wo d e ms a e o med acco ding o he same p inciples (using in e nal o ex e nal sou ces and a ious means o e m o ma ion) which a e summa ized in Scheme 1. Scheme 1. Classi ica ion o he main ways and means o e m o ma ion in Li huanian (based on wo ks o K. Gai enis and S . Keinys) Te m o ma ion in Li huanian (based on wo ks o K. Gai enis and S . Keinys) In e nal sou ces Ex e nal sou ces Using exis ing C ea ing Bo owings Loan sou ces o s anda d new wo ds ansla ions/ language and dialec s (neologisms) calques Te minologiza ion De i a ion Bo owing o e ms T ans e minologiza ion Compounding Te minologiza ion o bo owed wo ds To sum up, Li huanian schola s, such as K. Gai enis and S . Keinys, suppo he iew ha he main sou ce o e ms should be in e nal: ei he he na i e language, i.e. he gene al ocabula y o i s dialec s, o he na- i e means o wo d-building. Thus he basis o e m o ma ion in Li hua- nian is seman ic means ( e minologiza ion o wo ds o he na i e language and old bo owings), mo phological means (wo d- o ma ion) and syn ac- ic means (mul i-wo d e ms). CLASSIFICATION OF WAYS AND MEANS OF TERM FORMATION IN SOME WORKS OF RUSSIAN TERMINOLOGISTS This sec ion p esen s analysis o he wo ks o he Russian e minologis s V. Danilenko, М. Lei chik, A. Supe anskaja, N. Podolskaja, N. Vasilje a, and Sie giej G ine -G iniewicz. Russian e minologis s, like he Li huanian e minologis s, usually dis- inguish h ee main ways o e m o ma ion. The i s wo ely on he use o in e nal sou ces, namely, he use o an exis ing wo d o he language (i.e. ei he e minologiza ion o a wo d o he gene al ocabula y o ans- 5 9Te minologija | 2016 | 23 e minologiza ion o a eady-made e m om one ield o ano he ) and e m o ma ion by wo d-building means and syn ac ic means; whe eas he las one is based on he use o ex e nal sou ces, namely, bo owing a e m om ano he language by adap ing i phone ically and mo phologically o he no ms o he language (Лейчик 2009: 81–84; Суперанская e al. 2012: 194, 203). A. Supe anskaja, N. Podolskaja and N. Vasilje a claim ha al hough he e is a mo e ex ensi e use o e minologiza ion o wo ds o he gen- e al language in ce ain ields, he dominan means o e m o ma ion is wo d-building (Суперанская e al. 2012: 201). They sugges o combine wo pa ame e s when designing a classi ica ion o ways e ms a e o med, namely, he sou ce language (na i e s. o eign) and he lexical p inciple which is used as he basis o o m a e m (a eady-made wo d s. an in en ionally c ea ed wo d) (Суперанская e al. 2012: 196). This would esul in a scheme o ways o e m o ma ion, which, as he au ho s claim, is o a e y gene al cha ac e , as i does no include ans e mi- nologiza ion (see Scheme 2). Scheme 2. Classi ica ion o he main ways and means o e m o ma ion in Russian (based on wo ks o A. Supe anskaja e al.) Te m o ma ion in Russian (based on wo ks o A. Supe anskaja e al.) Resou ces o na i e language Resou ces o o he (s anda d language and dialec s) languages Te minologiza ion Wo d-building Bo owing Te m o ma ion o eady-made on he basis e ms o bo owed elemen s Simila ly, V. Lei chik also dis inguishes h ee ways o e m o ma ion, namely, o ma ion o e ms on he basis o esou ces o he na i e language by wo d-building and syn ac ic means; e minologiza ion o wo ds o non-special (s anda d language and dialec s) and special ocabula y; and bo owing o e ms om o he languages whe e hey we e c ea ed as e ms o bo owing wo ds and e minologizing hem (Лейчик 2009: 81–84). 6 0 Liudmila Mockienė Analysis o Te m Fo ma ion in Li huanian, Sigi a Racke ičienė Russian and English Te minology Wo ks As V. Lei chik no es, al hough he models o e m o ma ion a e he same as he means o wo d-building o he gene al language, some o hem a e mo e p oduc i e, whe eas o he s a e less. When classi ying e ms, i s , he dis inguishes one-wo d and mul i-wo d e ms. Al hough p oduc i i y o composi ion as a means o wo d-building is no ha high in Russian, V. Lei - chik obse es a gene al end o using wo-wo d and h ee-wo d e m ph as- es (especially in he domain o in o ma ics) and e en ou - o i e-wo d e ms (especially in he domain o philosophy). The cons i uen s o he majo i y o mul i-wo d e ms in Russian a e nouns and adjec i es. A com- bina ion o se e al nouns can be used wi h o wi hou p eposi ions, hus nouns can be dependen on o he nouns (Лейчик 2009: 48–62). Scheme 3. Classi ica ion o he main ways and means o e m o ma ion in Russian (based on wo ks o V. Lei chik) Te m o ma ion in Russian (based on wo ks o V. Lei chik) Resou ces o he na i e language Resou ces o o he (s anda d language and dialec s) languages Te mino- Wo d- Syn ac ic Bo owing Te minologiza ion logiza ion building means o e ms o bo owed wo ds The wo p e iously discussed classi ica ions di e in he app oach o bo owings. Alongside he p ocess o bo owing eady-made wo ds, A. Su- pe anskaja e al. also dis inguish e m o ma ion on he basis o bo owed elemen s. The posi ion o he la e is no clea in V. Lei chik’s classi ica- ion. Howe e , alongside he p ocess o bo owing e ms he dis inguish- es he p ocess o e minologiza ion o bo owed wo ds o o eign gene al ocabula y, which means, ha hose bo owed wo ds we e no used as e ms in he sou ce language and became such only in he a ge language. Ano he dis inguished Russian linguis , V. Danilenko a gues ha in es- sence e ms a e o med on he basis o wo ds o gene al and special o- cabula y in acco dance wi h all s uc u al ypes o wo ds ha a e cha ac- e is ic o a pa icula na ional language (simple wo ds, de i a i es and compound wo ds). She dis inguishes he same means o naming concep s 6 7Te minologija | 2016 | 23 new en i ies, because new e ms ha e o e lec he ela ionships o new concep s wi h he exis ing ones, ha is he p ocess o c ea ion o new e ms has o be sys ema ic, which can be easily achie ed by means o a ixa ion and compounding. A his poin J. C. Sage no es ha in Eng- lish i is o en p oblema ic o make a dis inc ion be ween he c ea ion o genuine neologisms by means o de i a ion using La in o G eek wo d elemen s and bo owing o e ms as eady-made wo ds om La in, G eek and F ench. Mo eo e , i is no always possible o de e mine he sou ce o bo owings, because English has had “such a long adi ion o bo ow- ing om all h ee languages ha i is e y o en impossible o say whe he a wo d has come in o English ia F ench o whe he i has been aken di ec ly om one o he classical languages” (Sage 1990: 38). In con as , in mode n English bo owing om o he languages is qui e a e. I is usually mode n English which becomes he sou ce o bo ow- ing o new e minology in o o he languages. Alongside di ec bo owing, J. C. Sage discusses loan ansla ion, o calque, which is he esul o li e al ansla ion, wo d- o -wo d subs i u ion o he lexical componen s o compounds. J. C. Sage claims ha ‘loan ansla ion is p e e ed o di ec bo owing, bu nei he o m o e m c ea ion is accep able i i iola es he na u al wo d o ma ion echniques o a linguis ic communi y’ (Sage 1990: 87). This means ha bo h di ec bo owings and loan ans- la ions ha e o con o m o he equi emen s o he a ge language. The Scheme 6 summa izes he ways and means o e m o ma ion de- sc ibed by J. C. Sage in his wo ks in 1990, 1997 and 2004: Scheme 6. Classi ica ion o he main ways and means o e m o ma ion in English (based on wo ks o J. C. Sage ) Te m o ma ion in English (based on wo ks o J. C. Sage ) Use o exis ing Modi ica ion C ea ion o new sou ces o exis ing sou ces linguis ic en i ies (neologisms) Ex ension o meaning De i a ion To ally new c ea ions Simile Compounding In e lingual bo owing Me apho C ea ing ph asal e ms Loan ansla ion/calques Te minologiza ion Con e sion In e disciplina y bo owing Comp ession 6 8 Liudmila Mockienė Analysis o Te m Fo ma ion in Li huanian, Sigi a Racke ičienė Russian and English Te minology Wo ks Ano he uni e sal classi ica ion o ways and means o e m o ma ion is p esen ed in he In e na ional S anda d ISO 704 (Te minology wo k – P inciples and me hods) o he In e na ional O ganiza ion o S anda diza- ion (ISO 704:2009 (E)). The main ways o e m o ma ion p esen ed in ISO 704, which apply o he English language, a e: • c ea ing new o ms, • using exis ing o ms, • anslingual bo owing (see Scheme 7). C ea ing new o ms co e s such means o e m o ma ion as de i a ion (adding one o mo e mo phological elemen s, o a ixes, o a oo o a wo d), compounding ( esul ing in complex e ms, ph ases o blends) and abb e ia ed o ms (sho o ms, clipped e ms, abb e ia ions, ini ialisms, and ac onyms). Using exis ing o ms includes such means o e m o ma ion as con e - sion (i.e. change in pa -o -speech), e minologiza ion (assigning new, equen ly analogous o me apho ic meanings o exis ing e ms in ela ed ields o gene al language wo ds), seman ic ans e wi hin a special lan- guage, and ans-disciplina y bo owing (me apho s). Finally, anslingual bo owing is o wo ypes: di ec loans and loan ansla ions. Scheme 7. Classi ica ion o he main ways and means o e m o ma ion in English (based on ISO 704:2009 (E)) Te m o ma ion in English (based on In e na ional S anda d ISO 704) C ea ing new o ms Using T anslingual (Neo e ms) exis ing o ms bo owing De i a ion Con e sion Di ec loan Compounding Te minologiza ion Loan ansla ion Abb e ia ion Seman ic ans e wi hin a special language T ansdisciplina y bo owing The compa ison o he wo classi ica ions abo e shows ha ca ego isa- ion o he main ways and means o e m o ma ion in English is qui e 6 9Te minologija | 2016 | 23 simila . The classi ica ions ely on he ollowing opposi ion: he use o modi ica ion o exis ing (in e nal) sou ces o c ea e new e ms is opposed o he use o ex e nal sou ces ( anslingual bo owing). S ill, he classi ica ions ha e some di e ences. Fi s , he s a us o such means o e m o ma ion as con e sion is di e en . J. C. Sage a ibu es con e sion o modi ica ion o exis ing sou ces, alongside a ixa ion and compounding; meanwhile, in ISO 704:2009 (E) s anda d con e sion is a ibu ed o he use o exis ing o ms, alongside e minologiza ion and ans e minologiza ion. The di e en app oach o he posi ion o con e - sion in hese classi ica ions is qui e cong uous wi h he di e en concep- ions o con e sion in he heo y o wo d-building. Con e sion is iewed by some linguis s as a sub ype o de i a ion (Plag 2003: 17); o he linguis s discuss i as a sepa a e ca ego y dis inc om de i a ion and compound- ing (Jackson & Zé Am ela 2012: 100; Šeškauskienė 2013: 123). One mo e di e ence lies in he in e p e a ion o neologisms and hei place in he classi ica ion. J. C. Sage ea s bo owings om o he lan- guages as neologisms (Sage 1997: 38), meanwhile, he new de ini ion o he e m neologism by ISO/TC37 [1087-1:2009] s a es ha only newly coined e ms, ei he simple o complex, which appea in a language o he i s ime and ha e been c ea ed by means o linguis ic mechanisms such as de i a ion, compounding o blending, can be conside ed neologisms (Vale- on is, Man za i 2006). Thus, bo owing om o eign languages should no be a ibu ed o he means o c ea ing neologisms. In his ein, he dis inc- ion be ween na i e and o eign sou ces used o e m o ma ion is c ucial. I should be no ed ha he abo e classi ica ions o he Li huanian, Rus- sian and English ways and means o e m o ma ion a e applicable o special languages in gene al, i.e. hey p esen ways and means o e m o ma ion o be ollowed when o ming e ms in any domain o science and echnology. Unequi ocally, hey may di e depending on he domain and he s uc u e o a pa icula language. CONCLUSIONS The analysis o he desc ip ions and classi ica ions o ways and means o e m o ma ion in he wo ks on e minology in Li huanian, Russian and English allows o d aw he ollowing conclusions: 1. In he wo ks o he Li huanian e minologis s (S . Keinys, K. Gai e nis), he main c i e ion o classi ica ion o ways and means o e m o ma ion 7 0 Liudmila Mockienė Analysis o Te m Fo ma ion in Li huanian, Sigi a Racke ičienė Russian and English Te minology Wo ks is he opposi ion o in e nal and ex e nal sou ces: he use o exis ing ocabula y o s anda d language o dialec s and c ea ing new ocabula y using na i e wo d-building means (in e nal sou ces) as opposed o he use o bo owings (ex e nal sou ces). 2. The app oaches o he Russian e minologis s may be di ided in o wo g oups. One g oup (A. Supe anskaja, N. Podolskaja, N. Vasilje a, V. Lei chik) use he opposi ion o in e nal and ex e nal sou ces o e ms as he main c i e ion o classi ica ion o ways and means o e m o ma- ion. Ano he g oup (V. Danilenko, S. G ine -G iniewicz) has a di e en s a ing poin and base hei classi ica ion on he ype o means o e m o ma ion: seman ic, mo phological, syn ac ic and mo phological-syn ac ic. 3. In he wo ks on he English e minology (J. C. Sage , ISO 704:2009 (E)), se e al c i e ia a e used in he classi ica ion o pa e ns o e m o ma ion: opposi ion o exis ing o ms and bo owings as well as a ious means o e m o ma ion. Howe e , hey in e p e di e en ly he p ocess o con e - sion and o ma ion o neologisms and, he e o e, he ca ego ies o e m o ma ion in hei classi ica ions do no coincide. The esul s o he analysis e eal ha he wo ks on Li huanian, Russian and English e minology p o ide simila app oaches o he analysis o e m o ma ion, howe e , hei s a ing poin s migh be di e en : based on e y- mological c i e ion o he ype o e m o ma ion p ocess (mo phological, syn ac ic, seman ic). The choice o p inciples o e m classi ica ion depends on he p e ailing e minology adi ions and he language s uc u e. Clas- si ica ion o e minology o one language migh be unsui able o pa ially sui able o classi ica ion o e minology o ano he language. The e o e, con as i e analysis o e m o ma ion o se e al languages equi es de el- opmen o a speci ic classi ica ion which would co e all e m o ma ion ways and means in he languages unde in es iga ion and se e as a basis o hei compa ison. REFERENCES EC 2006: Te minologijos ado ėlis Eu opos komisijos e imo aš u gene alinio di ek o a o lie u ių kalbos depa amen o e ėjams, Liuksembu gas: EC DGT LT. Gai enis K. 2002: Lie u ių e minologija: eo ijos i a kybos me menys, Vilnius: Lie u ių kalbos ins i u as. Gai enis K. 2014: Rink iniai aš ai, Vilnius: Lie u ių kalbos ins i u as. ISO 704:2009 (E) 2009: Te minology wo k — P inciples and me hods (3d ed.), ISO. Jackson H. & Zé Am ela E. 2012: Wo ds, Meaning and Vocabula y: An In oduc ion o Mode n English Lexicology. 2nd ed., London, New Yo k: Con inuum. Keinys S . 1980: Te minologijos abėcėlė, Vilnius: Mokslas. Keinys S . 2005a: Daba inė lie u ių e minologija, Vilnius: Lie u ių kalbos ins i u o leidykla. 7 1Te minologija | 2016 | 23 Keinys S . 2005b: Galūninė lie u iškų e minų da yba. – Daba inė lie u ių e minologija, Vilnius: Lie u ių kalbos ins i u o leidykla, 77-112. Keinys S . 2005c: Lie u iškų sudu inių e minų da yba. – Daba inė lie u ių e minologija, Vilnius: Lie u ių kalbos ins i u o leidykla, 129-182. Keinys S . 2005d: P iesaginė lie u iškų e minų da yba. – Daba inė lie u ių e minologija, Vilnius: Lie u ių kalbos ins i u o leidykla, 21-76. Keinys S . 2005e: P iešdėlinė lie u iškų e minų da yba. – Daba inė lie u ių e minologija, Vilnius: Lie u ių kalbos ins i u o leidykla, 113-128. Keinys S . 2005 : Ta p au iniai elemen ai lie u ių e minologijoje. – Daba inė lie u ių e minologija, Vilnius: Lie u ių kalbos ins i u o leidykla, 193-201. Keinys S . 2005g: Te minologijos kū imo šal iniai. – Daba inė lie u ių e minologija, Vilnius: Lie u ių kalbos ins i u o leidykla, 231-233. Keinys S . 2012: Lie u ių e minologijos aida, Vilnius: Lie u ių kalbos ins i u o leidykla. Plag I. 2003: Wo d- o ma ion in English, Camb idge, New Yo k: Camb idge Uni e si y P ess. Sage J. C. 1990: A P ac ical Cou se in Te minology P ocessing, Ams e dam: John Benjamins Pub. Co. Sage J. C. 1997: Te m o ma ion. – G. Budin & S. E. W igh (Eds.). Handbook o e minology managemen , Ams e dam: J. Benjamins, 25-41. Sage J. C. 2004: Te minology in Special Languages. – W. Kesselheim, S. Skope eas, J. Mugdan, G. E. Booij & C. Lehmann (Eds.). Mo phologie: Ein In e na ionales Handbuch zu Flexion und Wo bildung [Mo phology: An In e na ional Handbook on In lec ion and Wo d-Fo ma ion], Be lin: De G uy e Mou on, 1924-1928. Šeškauskienė I. 2013: Ways wi h Wo ds: Insigh s in o he English Lexicon and Some C oss-Linguis ic Aspec s o S udy, Vilnius: Vilnius Uni e si y Publishing House. Umb asas A. 2010: Lie u ių eisės e minija 1918-1940 me ais: Pag indinių kodeksų e minai, Vilnius: Lie u ių kalbos ins i u as. Valeon is K., Man za i E. 2006: The Linguis ic Dimensions o Te minology: P inciples and Me hods o Te m Fo ma ion. – 1s A hens In e na ional Con e ence on T ansla ion and In e p e a ion T ansla ion: Be ween A and Social Science, 13 -14 Oc obe 2006, A hens, G eece, 1-20. Гринев-Гриневич С. В. 2008: Терминоведение, Москва: Академия. Даниленко В. П. 1977: Русская терминология: Опыт лингвистического описания, Москва: Наука. Лейчик В. М. 2009: Терминоведение: Предмет, методы, структура. 4 h ed., Москва: Либроком. Суперанская А. В., Подольская Н. В., Васильева Н. В. 2005: Общая терминология: Терминологическая деятельность, Москва: УРСС Эдиториал. Суперанская А. В., Подольская Н. В., Васильева Н. В. 2012: Общая терминология. вопросы теории. 6 h ed., Москва: Либроком. TERMINŲ KŪRIMO ANALIZĖ LIETUVIŲ, RUSŲ IR ANGLŲ TERMINOLOGIJOS DARBUOSE S aipsnyje analizuojamos i g e inamos žymiausių lie u ių e minologų S . Keinio i K. Gai enio, usų e minologų A. Supe anskajos, N. Podolskajos, N. Vasilje os, V. Lei chiko, V. Danilenko i S. G ine -G iniewicziaus, e minologo J. C. Sage io, y- inėjusio anglų kalbos e miniją, bei Ta p au inės s anda izacijos o ganizacijos pa eik- os e minų kū imo būdų klasi ikacijos. A lik a e minologų da bų analizė leidžia da- y i okias iš adas: 1. Lie u ių e minologų (S . Keinio i K. Gai enio) da buose pag indinis e minų kū imo būdų klasi ika imo k i e ijus y a opozicija a p idinių i išo inių šal inių: e - minai ski s omi į da omus, panaudojan sa ąją leksiką ( e minologizuojan ga a us žo- džius bei ku ian naujada us, pasi elkus sa osios kalbos žodžių da ybos in en o ių), i į pasiskolinamus iš ki ų kalbų. Pagal o maliąją sanda ą e minai ski s omi į ien isi- nius ( ienažodžius) i sudė inius (keliažodžius). 2. Rusų e minologai A. Supe anskaja, N. Podolskaja, N. Vasilje a, V. Lei chikas i- dinių i išo inių šal inių p iešp iešą aip pa laiko pag indiniu e minų kū imo būdų 7 2 Liudmila Mockienė Analysis o Te m Fo ma ion in Li huanian, Sigi a Racke ičienė Russian and English Te minology Wo ks klasi ika imo k i e ijumi. Tuo a pu ki i usų e minologai V. Danilenko, S. G ine - G iniewiczius klasi ika imo pag indu enkasi e minų da ybos p iemones, ski s ydami jas į seman ines, mo ologines, sin aksines i mo ologines-sin aksines. 3. J. C. Sage is, ku is y inėjo anglų kalbos e miniją, bei a p au inio s anda o ISO 704 engėjai, klasi ikuodami e minų kū imo būdus, sujungia kele ą k i e ijų: e minų šal inius bei e minų da ybos p iemones. Tačiau jie ski ingai in e p e uoja kon e siją bei neologizmus, odėl e minų kū imo modeliai jų klasi ikacijose nesu ampa. Analizės ezul a ai odo, kad e minologijos da buose, ski uose lie u ių, usų i an- glų e minijai, laikomasi panašių k i e ijų, klasi ikuojan e minų kū imo būdus: e- miamasi idinių i išo inių šal inių p iešp ieša bei e minų da ybos p iemonių ipolo- gija. Tačiau e minologai dažnai enkasi ski ingus klasi ika imo išei ies aškus, akcen- uodami a ba e minų kilmę, a ba jų da ybą. Ne e ai jie ski ingai in e p e uoja i uos pačius e minų da ybos p ocesus. Te minų klasi ika imo p incipų pasi inkimą lemia iek y aujančios e minų kū imo adicijos, iek kalbos, ku ios e minai klasi ikuoja- mi, s uk ū a. Vienos kalbos e minų kū imo būdų klasi ikacija gali isai ne ik i a ba ik iš dalies ik i ki os kalbos e minų kū imo būdų klasi ikacijai. Todėl, a liekan g e- inamąją kelių kalbų e minų analizę, eikia suda y i i iamoms kalboms inkamą kla- si ika imo sis emą, ku i apim ų isus i iamų kalbų e minų kū imo būdus i suda y ų pag indą jų sug e inimui. Gau a 2016-08-22 Liudmila Mockienė Mykolo Rome io uni e si e as A ei ies g. 20, LT-08303 Vilnius E. paš as liudmila@m uni.eu Sigi a Racke ičienė Mykolo Rome io uni e si e as A ei ies g. 20, LT-08303 Vilnius E. paš as sig[email p o ec ed]