Apie terminografiją ir terminų standartizaciją

On Terminography and Terminology Standardization JOLANTA GAIVENYTĖ-BUTLER Institute of the Lithuanian Language KEYWORDS: terminography, terminology standardization, methods of terminology ordering, terminological dictionary, terminology standard In the book Lithuanian Terminology: An Outline of Theory and Ordering, published in 2002, Kazimieras Gaivenis distinguished four methods of terminology ordering: terminography (the preparation and publication of terminological dictionaries), terminology standardization, computerized terminology ordering, and textual terminology ordering (Gaivenis 2002: 63). This article focuses on the first two methods. Terminography has quite a long tradition in Lithuania: in a few years, we will mark the bicentenary of the first manuscript terminological dictionary, and the first printed terminological dictionary is already more than a hundred years old. By 2018, more than 600 printed terminological dictionaries had been published. Lithuanian linguists have studied numerous terminological dictionaries, written about the principles and history of terminography, and compiled bibliographies of terminological dictionaries. Much less attention has been paid to terminology standardization. This area of terminology work is still quite new in Lithuania—the first Lithuanian terminology standards were published only in 1993. The aim of this article is to examine and assess the concepts of terminography and terminology standardization. The following objectives are set: 1) to review how the terms terminography and terminology standardization are defined in dictionaries, terminology standards, scholarly and educational publications; 2) to discuss the relationship between terminography and terminology standardization, and the similarities between terminological dictionaries and terminology standards; 3) to offer proposals on how to interpret the concepts and distinguish methods of terminology ordering. The study mainly employs the analytical-descriptive method. The Concept of Terminography The term terminography is frequently used in the works of Lithuanian lexicologists and terminologists, and its meaning is readily inferred; perhaps this is why it is discussed more broadly Terminologija | 2018 | 25 23 does not comment on it, and the term itself is rarely defined. What does the concept of terminography encompass? The word terminografija does not appear in general Lithuanian dictionaries—it is found neither in the Lietuvių kalbos žodynas (LKŽe), nor in the various editions of the Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas (DLKŽ₂ 1972, DLKŽ₃ 1993, DLKŽ₇ 2017), nor in the dictionaries of international words compiled by different authors (TŽŽ 2001, TŽŽ 2008, TŽŽ 2013), nor in the headword list of the Bendrinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas (BŽ), which is currently being compiled. The term is also not explained in more specialized publications—the Kalbotyros terminų žodynas (KTŽ 1990) and the Lietuvių kalbos enciklopedija (LKE 1999, LKE 2008). The dictionaries and encyclopedia mentioned above explain only terms related to terminografija: terminologija, leksikografija, leksikologija. The Mokomasi terminologijos žodynėlis (MTŽ 2005), compiled by Regina Kvašytė in 2005, is perhaps the only Lithuanian dictionary with terminografija as a headword. In this publication, it is defined as “the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries of terms; terminological lexicography.” Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija includes an article on terminografija compiled by Evalda Jakaitienė, where it is defined as “the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries of terms” (VLEe). Terminography has been discussed mainly in the works of terminologists and lexicologists; it is briefly introduced in almost all textbooks on language for specific purposes published in Lithuania over the past fifteen years for higher education. How is terminografija explained in the works of Lithuanian linguists? Terminologists have been using the term terminografijos for several decades—Jonas Klimavičius mentions this term, along with terminizacija, transterminizacija, determinizacija, which he brought back from Kyiv in the autumn of 1970 (the terms had been proposed by I. Kovalik at a meeting on terminology held there), and notes that “[t]erminological lexicography—terminografija—has come into use recently, but universally” (Klimavičius 2005 [2002]: 249)1. In his 2003 article “Lithuanian Terminography: Features of the Past, Difficulties and Tasks of the Present,” J. Klimavičius discussed in detail the development of Lithuanian terminology, its creation, and the history of dictionary compilation, but did not define terminografijos, stating only at the end of the article: “terminographic work in Lithuania is not considered scientific—even when carried out by the best specialists (professors, academics). The planning, organization, and coordination of terminographic work are not institutionalized; it belongs to no one— 1 The term terminografija began to be used and spread in various languages in the 1970s. Terminological literature generally states that the term was proposed in the works of A. D. Chajutin and A. Rey (Leйчик 2007: 204; Rey 1995: 23; Warburton 2014: 6), but there may have been earlier proposals. 24 Jolanta Gaivenytė-Butler | Apie terminografiją ir terminų standartizaciją this important work is not being done. The Lietuvos mokslo ir technologijų baltoji knyga (2001), prepared by the Department of Science and Studies at the Ministry of Education and Science, contains none of the concepts terminija, terminologija, terminografija, although “terms are the red threads running through the fabric of all sciences” (Klimavičius 2005 [2003]: 273). Terminography is defined in K. Gaivenis’s book Lietuvių terminologija: teorijos ir tvarkybos metmenys. In the subsection “The concepts ‘term,’ ‘terminija,’ ‘terminologija,’ and their correlates,” K. Gaivenis describes terminography as follows: “The term terminologija is closely related to the term terminografija. It is most often understood in the sense of ‘terminological lexicography,’ that is, the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries of terms”2 (Gaivenis 2002: 16). Terminography is explained as “the preparation and publication of dictionaries of terms” terminografija in the chapter of this book devoted to methods of terminology ordering (Gaivenis 2002: 63). In textbooks on standard language and language for specific purposes intended for higher education, terminografija is most often defined as in K. Gaivenis’s book: “the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries of terms” (Kazlauskienė et al. 2008: 202; Bielinskienė et al. 2014: 138; Petrėtienė 2016: 26; Vladarskienė 2013: 127) or “the preparation and publication of dictionaries of terms” (Celiešienė, Džežulskienė 2009: 55; Kazlauskienė et al. 2008: 212; Kazlauskienė et al. 2010: 223; Vladarskienė 2013: 44). Lina Rutkienė defines terminography as “the science of preparing and publishing dictionaries of terms” (Rutkiene 2015: 54). Gintautas Akelaitis describes the object of terminography more broadly—besides dictionary compilation, he also includes term banks in the field of terminography: “<...> terms from individual fields are presented in dictionaries of terms and electronic term banks—the theoretical principles and practice of compiling dictionaries of terms and term banks are the object of the science of terminografijos” (Akelaitis et al. 2009: 37). Terminography has also been discussed in the works of lexicologists and lexicographers. Vincentas Drotvinas regards terminography as a branch of lexicology and describes it as “the collection and publication of terms” (Drotvinas 1987: 52). E. Jakaitienė’s monograph Leksikografija (2005) discusses in considerable detail the concept of terminography and its relationship to lexicography. The subsection “The concept of a term and terminography” states: “[t]erminological dictionaries are the result of term creation and ordering. Their preparation and publication is called t e r m i n o g r a p h y. Terminography is sometimes understood as a kind of part of lexicography, just as a term 2 K. Gaivenis’s book also mentions another meaning of terminografijos (the historiography of terms), but does not discuss it in greater detail. In his review of the book, J. Klimavičius wrote that this meaning is “unknown in Lithuanian terminology and, in my view, erroneous” (Klimavičius 2005 [2002]: 133). Terminologija | 2018 | 25 25 alongside the word, terminology alongside lexicology, although the relationship between the concepts word and term, lexicology and terminology, lexicography and terminography is not strictly one of genus and species. <...> Thus, terminography, i.e. the theory and practice of terminological dictionaries, also has features that distinguish it from other types of lexicographical activity” (Jakaitienė 2005: 188–189). Later, writing about terminological dictionaries, E. Jakaitienė broadens the scope of terminography: “the result of the work of a contemporary terminographer <...> is considered to be an electronic database, i.e. a methodically organized set of entries for terms in a particular subject field, or a collection of such sets” (Jakaitienė 2005: 207). In standards devoted to terminology, terminography is also defined more broadly. LST ISO 1087-1:2005 Terminology work. Vocabulary. Part 1. Theory and application (identical to ISO 1087-1:2000) gives the following definition of terminography: “the part of terminology work concerned with the recording and presentation of terminological data.” The entry for this term also includes the note: “[t]erminological data may be presented in the form of term banks, translation dictionaries, systematic dictionaries or other publications.” LST 1695:2001 Computer applications in terminology. Creation and use of terminology databases and corpora (identical to ISO TR 12618:1994) provides an adapted definition from ISO 1087-1:2000: “the recording, processing and presentation of terminological data.” Terminography is similarly defined in several non-Lithuanian dictionaries. Dictionnaire de linguistique gives the following explanation of terminography: “La terminographie enregistre, traite et présente les donnée obtenues par la recherche terminologique. Il s’agit donc de l‘activité dictionnairique du terminologue” (Terminography records, processes and presents the data obtained through terminological research. It is therefore the dictionary-making activity of the terminologist) (DL 2001). In the glossary of terminology terms published in the scholarly journal Terminology by John Benjamins, terminography is defined as follows: “the study and practice of describing the linguistic, conceptual, and pragmatic properties of terminological units of one or more than one language in order to produce reference works in printed or electronic form” (the study and practical activity of describing the linguistic, conceptual and pragmatic properties of the terminological units of one or more languages in order to produce printed or electronic reference works) (GTUT 1997). The online Collins English Dictionary gives the following definition of terminography: “compilation of the terminology used in a specific field” (a collection of the terminology of a specialized field) (CED). In the works of terminologists and lexicologists in other countries, terminography, too, is more often characterized not as the preparation of term 26 Jolanta Gaivenytė-Butler | Apie terminografiją ir terminų standardizaciją dictionaries, but as the recording and presentation of terminological data (Felber 1984: 13; Rey 1995: 135; Thomas 1993: 44; Antia 2000: 139; Cabré 1999: 115). In general Lithuanian dictionaries, terminography could be defined as “the theory and practice of compiling terminological dictionaries,” but when explaining this term or discussing this area of activity in specialized literature, the discussion should not be limited to terminological dictionaries—contemporary terminography encompasses any accumulation, organization and presentation of terminological data: compiling dictionaries, creating terminological databases and banks, and standardizing terminology. TERMINOLOGY STANDARDIZATION The development of terminology is closely linked to terminology standardization. In the view of K. Gaivenis and A. Kaulakienė, international terminology standardization prompted the formation of terminology as an applied branch of science (Gaivenis, Kaulakienė 2014 [1997]: 235). The standardization of terminology at the international level began as early as the beginning of the 20th century. The first terminology standards in Lithuania were published more than twenty years ago, but terminology standardization has received little study. K. Gaivenis is perhaps the only Lithuanian linguist who not only worked for several years with specialists from other fields to prepare terminology standards, but also wrote more extensively about terminology standardization3. He identified terminology standardization as one of the more important methods of terminology management and considered standards authoritative sources of terminology, but believed that “terminology standardization is nevertheless a limited area of terminology management. This is because only terms in manufacturing and technology are standardized, whereas terminology in the social sciences, humanities and many other fields is not inventoried or regulated by this method” (Gaivenis 2002: 63, 81). Terminology standardization in Lithuania has been presented in a couple of survey articles, but they do not explain the concept of standardization (Maslauskienė 2004; Dudlauskienė 2005). Terminology standardization has been discussed to some extent in several textbooks on language for specific purposes. They consider the object of terminology standardization to be narrow 3 K. Gaivenis points out that “the English term standardization means not only ‘standardization’ but also ‘regulation’ <...>, and therefore terminology standardization should not be understood too broadly. The concept ‘terminology standardization’ refers only to the preparation of terminology standards” (Gaivenis 2002: 81). This article adopts a similar approach, discussing standardization as the preparation of standardized terminological data. A broader understanding of language standardization is presented in Rita Miliūnaitė’s article “On the relationship between terminology standardization, regulation and codification in contemporary prescriptive linguistics” (Miliūnaitė 2017). Terminologija | 2018 | 25 27 gamybos ar technikos sritys (Cელiešienė, Džežulskienė 2009: 59; Vladarskienė 2013: 45), ši veikla tapatinama su terminų standartų rengimu (Rutkienė 2015: 54; Kazlauskienė et al. 2008: 213; Celiešienė, Džežulskienė 2009: 58). MTŽ 2005 standartizavimas taip pat apibrėžtas kaip „terminų standartų rengimas“4. How is terminų standartizaciją defined in standards prepared by international standardization organizations for this area of activity? ISO 15188:2001 Project management guidelines for terminology standardization and its Lithuanian edition LST ISO 15188:2003 Guidelines for project management in terminology standardization give the following definition: “terminology standardization – establishment of terminology standards or of terminology sections in technical standards, and their approval by an authoritative body” (ISO 15188:2001); “terminology standardization – the development of terminology standards or terminology sections in non-terminology standards and their approval by a reliable institution” (LST ISO 15188:2003). In the subsequently published ISO 10241-2:2012 Terminological entries in standards – Part 2: Adoption of standardized terminological entries, the definition of the term terminology standardization was refined: “development of terminological entries in terminology standards and of terminology sections in other standards, and their approval by a standardizing body” (the preparation of terminological entries presented in terminology standards or in the terminology sections of other standards, and their approval by a standardization body). As these definitions show, the scope of terminology standardization is broader; this activity is not limited to terminology standards. Most of the standards prepared by organizations working in the field of standardization—ISO (the International Organization for Standardization), IEC (the International Electrotechnical Commission), CEN (the European Committee for Standardization), CENELEC (the European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization), and ETSI (the European Telecommunications Standards Institute)—are not terminology standards. In the International Classification for Standards (ICS), in addition to the general subject area, which includes terminology standards and standardization activities, thirty-nine other areas are distinguished (electrical engineering, information technology, aircraft and spacecraft engineering, chemical technology, food technology, civil engineering, etc.). Not all these areas have their own terminology standards, but 4 This glossary distinguishes two meanings of standardization: the first is broader, covering the development of general requirements in a particular field; the second is narrower and associated with terminology work. 28 Jolanta Gaivenytė-Butler | Apie terminografiją ir terminų standartizaciją most of the standards published contain a section entitled “Terms and definitions”. This section may include: terms specific to a narrow field and relevant to a particular standard; terms common to several parts of one standard; terms common to a group of standards. Entries for such terms are often transferred unchanged into related standards, with a reference to the original source. The “Terms and definitions” section of non-terminology standards usually contains from a few to several dozen terms. Approximately half of the terms currently listed in the Lithuanian Standards Board’s terminology database5 are terms from non-terminology standards. The preparation and presentation of terminological entries in non-terminology standards is an important part of terminology standardization, but definitions of terminology standardization mention terminology standards first. Terms presented in non-terminology standards are primarily intended for the needs of those standards, whereas terminology standards aim to systematize and harmonize terminology on a broader scale. What is a terminology standard? In standard LST EN 45020:2007 Standardization and related activities. General vocabulary (ISO/IEC Guide 2:2004), a terminology standard is defined as “a standard that presents terms, usually together with their definitions, and in some cases also notes, illustrations, examples, etc.” In ISO 10241-2:2012 Terminological entries in standards – Part 2: Adoption of standardized terminological entries, the definition of this term is further specified: “standard that is concerned with terms accompanied by their definitions, and sometimes by explanatory notes, illustrations, examples, etc.” (a standard presenting terms and their definitions, and in some cases also notes, illustrations, examples, etc.). Terminology standards may be national (prepared by a country’s standardization body and applicable in that country) or international (prepared by international standardization organizations and applicable in countries that have adopted them). Terminology standards began to be published in Lithuania in 1993. All the terminology standards approved by the Lithuanian Standards Service that year were original6. 5 Since 2005, the Lithuanian Standards Board’s terminology database has been freely accessible online. By mid-2018, it contained about 70,000 terms from terminology and non-terminology standards. 6 Lithuanian national standards are also called original standards. Terminologija | 2018 | 25 29 In mid-1993, the first four terminology standards came into force: LST 1249–93 Metallic and non-metallic inorganic coatings. Terms and definitions, LST 1279–93 Bread and bakery products. Terms and definitions, LST 1280–93 Dependability of equipment. Terms and definitions, and LST 1281–93 Metrology. Terms and definitions. LST 1279–93 provides Russian equivalents for the terms; the other three standards also provide German, English, and French equivalents. The publication data state that LST 1249–93, LST 1280–93, and LST 1281–93 were prepared on the basis of ISO standards and GOST standards. In total, 15 terminology standards containing nearly 600 terms were published that year. They were prepared by working groups made up of practicing specialists, staff of research institutions, or university lecturers. The compilers, reviewer, and approver were identified in the first original terminology standards. For example, LST 1249–93 was prepared by A. Jagminas, E. Davidavičius, and G. Šimkevičiūtė (Institute of Chemistry), reviewed by Associate Professor Zenonas Mačionis (Faculty of Chemistry, Vilnius University), and approved by K. Gaivenis (Institute of the Lithuanian Language). After Lithuania became a member of international standardization organizations, the need to prepare original standards declined, as standards issued by these organizations began to be adopted as Lithuanian standards. Over time, they replaced most of the original standards. In 1994, the first international terminology standard was published in Lithuanian, adopted as a Lithuanian terminology standard; in 1995, the first European terminology standard was adopted as a Lithuanian terminology standard (Maslauskienė 2004: 263). Terminology standards issued by international standardization organizations are most often prepared as: • separate dictionaries, for example: LST ISO Guide 73:2018 Risk management. Vocabulary (identical to ISO Guide 73:2009), LST EN ISO 13943:2017 Fire safety. Vocabulary (ISO 13943:2017), LST EN ISO 14532:2017 Natural gas. Vocabulary (ISO 14532:2014), LST EN ISO 11145:2016 Optics and photonics. Lasers and laser-related equipment. Vocabulary and symbols (ISO 11145:2016); such dictionaries may consist of several parts. For example, the standard LST CEN ISO/TS 80004 Nanotechnologies. Vocabulary consists of thirteen parts, while LST ISO 4046 Paper, board, pulp and related terms consists of six parts; • the first parts of series of standards. For example, the series of standards on information security begins with LST EN ISO/IEC 27000:2017 Information technology. Security techniques. Information security management 30 Jolanta Gaivenytė-Butler | Apie terminografiją ir terminų standartizaciją systems. Overview and vocabulary (ISO/IEC 27000:2016); other standards in this series address various aspects of information security (ISO/IEC 27001 specifies requirements for information security management systems, ISO/IEC 27002 addresses information security controls, and so on); • the first parts of a standard. For example, the vocabulary is the first of the seven parts of LST EN 764 Pressure equipment, and the first of the six parts of LST EN ISO 16140 Microbiology of the food chain. Method validation. International terminology standards are prepared by working groups of specialists from different countries. Drafts of these standards are made available to national standardization institutions, and specialists participating in their work can submit comments. The opportunity to synthesize the experience of several countries and discuss terms at the international level helps avoid the subjectivity that may characterize terminology dictionaries prepared by one or several authors. In the chapter on terminology dictionaries in her monograph Lexicography, E. Jakaitienė drew attention to another feature characteristic of terminology standards: “Although terminologists consider this work to be a rather limited area of terminology management <...>, terminology that has been properly standardized has the most consistent terminological system” (Jakaitienė 2005: 210). Terminology standards published by ISO, IEC, or European standardization organizations are a rich source of terminology systematized at the international level; unfortunately, only a few of them are translated into Lithuanian. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TERMINOGRAPHY AND TERMINOLOGY STANDARDIZATION In 1993 (the same year in which the first Lithuanian terminology standard was published), K. Gaivenis wrote: “For us, ‘terminology standardization’ primarily means the preparation of terminology standards. This work is only now beginning in Lithuania. It is one of the branches of terminology ordering. It differs from terminography primarily in scope and purpose. Terminology standards cover microsystems of terms from a particular narrow field of manufacturing or technology, whereas explanatory terminology dictionaries present not only macrosystems of terms, but also certain general scientific terms, elements of compound terms, etc. Terminology standards are intended for manufacturers and are mandatory. They are especially necessary for us now in order to implement the status of Lithuanian as the state language and to transition to record keeping in Lithuanian” (Gaivenis 2014 [1993]: 201). Vilija Celiešienė drew a stricter distinction between terminology dictionaries and terminology standards: Terminologija | 2018 | 25 31 “[T]erminology standards should not be confused with terminology dictionaries. Terminology standards differ from dictionaries primarily in scope and purpose. Terminology standards cover only microsystems of terms from a particular narrow field of manufacturing or technology <...>” (Celiešienė, Džežulskienė 2009: 59). Such distinctions between terminology dictionaries and terminology standards were more characteristic of the last decade of the 20th century, when original Lithuanian terminology standards were being actively prepared, but today such a distinction seems questionable. Can a terminology standard be considered a terminology dictionary? In the Glossary of Terminology, R. Kvašytė defines a terminology standard as “a collection prepared by consensus and recognized, adopted by a standardization institution, which establishes terms suitable for general and repeated use and is intended to introduce optimal ordering of terminology use in a particular field,” while a terminology dictionary is defined as “a collection of terms in one or more languages that complies with the principles of terminography and is intended for users of the terminology of a particular field of science or activity” (MTŽ 2005). Both definitions share the words collection of terms. If the phrase “adopted by a standardization institution” were removed from the first definition, either definition could apply both to a terminology dictionary and to a terminology standard. Terminology standards and terminology dictionaries have more similarities than differences. A terminology standard is a dictionary of standardized terms, prepared according to the same principles of terminography as terminology dictionaries. Even before terminology standardization work began in Lithuania, the standard Lietuvos RST 1115-90 Principles and Methods of Terminology, prepared by staff of VU and the Institute of the Lithuanian Language on the basis of ISO 704-87 and adapted for the Lithuanian language, had been published. Terminologists adhered to the provisions of this standard when assisting both the authors of terminology standards and terminology dictionaries, and also relied on them when evaluating these publications. The list of recommended literature and sources in the General Requirements for the Preparation of Terminology Dictionaries approved by VLKK includes several standards intended for terminology work, which are recommended as a basis for preparing terminology dictionaries. The Terminology Subcommission usually reviews and submits for VLKK approval those terminology dictionaries whose preparation is supported by VLKK. Many terminology dictionaries are published in Lithuania without seeking such approval, and some lack serious terminological editing. The quality of terminology standards is more consistent: since 1993, original Lithuanian terminology standards and international terminology standards translated into Lithuanian have been approved by the Terminology Department of LKI; in 1998 this function was transferred to VLKK. 32 Jolanta Gaivenytė-Butler | Apie terminografiją ir terminų standardizaciją As terminology grows both quantitatively and qualitatively, the need for specialized dictionaries increases. The size of a collection of term entries and the narrowness of a field can hardly be regarded as criteria for distinguishing a terminology dictionary from a terminology standard; for example, the Terminology Bank includes Saulius Maskeliūnas’s (VU) Glossary of Knowledge Technology Terms, which is no larger or less specialized than standards (about 60 terms). Some terminology standards are indeed small and cover a narrow field, for example, LST EN 472:2008 Pressure gauges. Vocabulary (55 terms) or LST EN 1885:2004 Feathers and down. Terms and definitions (43 terms), but there are many international terminology standards that do not differ from terminology dictionaries in either purpose or scope. Such standards include both more general terms and elements of compound terms. For example, alongside management terms such as audit conclusion, quality management system, concession of nonconformity, project management plan, the standard LST EN ISO 9000:2015 Quality management systems. Fundamentals and vocabulary also defines general terms, such as data, document, competence, organization, objective. The terms in this standard (with a reference to it) are included not only in management standards, but also in standards in many other fields; for example, quality assurance in LST EN ISO 16559:2014 Solid biofuels. Terminology, definitions and descriptions; quality management system; Medical laboratories. Requirements for quality and competence; validation in LST EN ISO 15198:2013; and Information technology. Security techniques. Information security management systems. Overview and vocabulary in LST EN ISO/IEC 27000:2017. Some standards are comparable in scope to terminology dictionaries; for example, LST EN ISO 13943:2017 Fire safety. Vocabulary contains more than 400 terms, while LST ISO 5127:2017 Information and documentation. Foundation and vocabulary contains about 2,000 terms (a comparable size to, for example, the first edition of the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Computing (2005)). It is often thought that standards are intended only for narrow fields of manufacturing or technology, but it is not only the terms of these fields that are standardized. Marija Teresa Cabré points out that terminology standardization is relevant to all fields—the humanities, social sciences, exact sciences and technology—as well as to activities such as trade, where it is most commonly applied (Cabré 1999: 200). There are standards intended, for example, for various areas of management (quality management, risk management, human resource management, knowledge management), library activities, preservation of cultural heritage, environmental protection, banking and finance, tourism, health care, as well as translation, terminology and terminography. Terminologija | 2018 | 25 3 3 Terminology standards are no longer documents intended only for manufacturers and requiring mandatory application (as was the case with GOST standards), access to which was very limited. The terms in all terminology standards published in Lithuania are available online in the freely accessible terminology database of the Lithuanian Standards Board; the terms in terminology standards approved by the State Commission of the Lithuanian Language are also available in the Terminology Bank of the Republic of Lithuania. Many university lecturers participate in standardization activities; it could therefore be assumed that standardized terminology is used in scholarly publications, teaching materials, and student papers. There is no doubt that microsystems of standardized terms are incorporated into terminological dictionaries. For example, standards on thermal insulation, metrology, quantities and units are listed among the main sources of the Fizikos terminų žodyno (2007), while the bibliography of the Statybos terminų žodyno (2002) includes more standards than dictionaries. The compilers of other major terminological dictionaries have also drawn on terminology and non-terminology standards, for example, the Radioelektronikos terminų žodyno (2000), the Aiškinamojo telekomunikacijų terminų žodyno (2004), the Automatikos terminų žodyno (2004), the Penkiakalbio aiškinamojo metrologijos terminų žodyno (2006), and the Aiškinamojo elektrotechnikos terminų žodyno (2010). More than one specialist in terminology work has both compiled terminological dictionaries and participated in terminology standardization activities. Members of the Technical Committee on Terminologija (TK 37) of the Lithuanian Standards Board included Julius Riaubūnas (one of the co-authors of the Rusų–lietuvių–anglų kalbų skaičiavimo technikos terminų žodyno (1979), which became the basis for later computing dictionaries, and the four-language dictionary Informatika (1997)), Kalikstas Vytautas Paulauskas (author or co-author of the Aiškinamojo kompiuterijos žodyno (1995), the dictionary Informatika (1997), and the Aiškinamojo kompiuterijos terminų santrumpų žodyno (2000)), Zenonas Mačionis (co-author of the Chemijos terminų aiškinamojo žodyno (1997 and 2003)), Antanas Kudzys (co-author of the Rusų–lietuvių kalbų statybos terminų žodyno (1992), the Anglų–lietuvių kalbų statybos terminų žodyno (1993), and the Statybos terminų žodyno (2002)), Vytautas Valiukėnas and Vilius Palenskis (both co-authors of the Kineskopų gamybos terminų penkiakalbio žodynėlio (1990), the Ryšių technikos terminų penkiakalbio žodyno (1994), the Radioelektronikos terminų žodyno (2000), the Fizikos terminų žodyno (2007), and the Aiškinamojo elektrotechnikos ir elektronikos gaminių terminų žodyno (2014)); V. Valiukėnas also prepared, with co-authors, the Tarptautinį pagrindinių ir bendrųjų metrologijos terminų žodyną (1997), the Penkiakalbį aiškinamąjį metrologijos terminų žodyną (2006), the Aiškinamąjį telekomunikacijų terminų žodyną (2004), and other dictionaries. 34 Jolanta Gaivenytė-Butler | Apie terminografiją ir terminų standartizaciją If we consider the scope of terminography to be broader than the compilation of terminological dictionaries, terminology standardization could be regarded not as a separate method of terminology ordering alongside terminography, but as one of its methods. In distinguishing methods of terminology ordering, we can again draw on K. Gaivenis, though this time not on his book Lietuvių terminologija: teorijos ir tvarkybos metmenys, which discusses four methods of ordering—terminography, terminology standardization, computerized terminology management, and text-based terminology management—but rather on an article published a decade earlier, which identifies two directions of terminology ordering: informational (creating a sphere for the recording of terms) and corrective (regulating the sphere of term usage). The former direction in that article includes compiling and publishing terminological dictionaries, preparing terminology standards, and creating terminology banks; the latter includes standardizing the terminology of various texts and spoken language (Gaivenis 2014 [1990]: 179). In light of the emergence of new approaches, methods, and tools for terminology ordering, the scope of these directions could be refined somewhat. The first direction (terminography) should include the compilation of printed (although their number is decreasing) and electronic terminological dictionaries, terminology standardization (preparing terminology standards and term entries presented in non-terminology standards), and the creation of terminological databases and terminology banks. The second direction (text-based terminology management) would encompass the systematization and standardization of terms in writing, translating, and editing various texts (as distinguished by K. Gaivenis in the book Lietuvių terminologija: teorijos ir tvarkybos metmenys). CONCLUSIONS 1. In the works of Lithuanian linguists, terminography is most often defined as the theory and practice of compiling terminological dictionaries, but this conception is too narrow: contemporary terminography encompasses not only the compilation of conventional printed dictionaries, but also electronic terminological dictionaries, terminological databases and terminology banks, as well as terminology standardization. Terminografiją could be defined as the theory and practice of compiling sets of terminological data. 2. Terminology standardization encompasses not only the preparation of terminology standards, but also the preparation and presentation of term entries in non-terminology standards. Standards prepared by international standardization organizations are authoritative sources of terminology, containing terminological data systematized at the international level. The Lithuanian Standards Board publishes Lithuanian translations of standards prepared by international standardization organizations Terminologija | 2018 | 25 35 terminology standards, but these constitute only a small proportion of the international terminology standards adopted. 3. It is commonly assumed that terminological dictionaries and terminology standards differ in scope and purpose: dictionaries present macrosystems of terms, whereas terminology standards present microsystems of terms from a particular narrow field of manufacturing or technology. However, the scope and coverage of terminology standards (as well as terminological dictionaries) can vary considerably. As terminology develops, the need for specialized dictionaries grows. The size of a set of term entries and the narrowness of its subject area can hardly be considered distinguishing features of a terminological dictionary and a terminology standard. Both a terminological dictionary and a terminology standard are sets of term entries for a particular field, organized according to the same terminographical principles. Terminology standards could be considered a type of terminological dictionary. 4. Terminology standardization can be regarded not as a separate method of terminology ordering alongside terminography, but as one of the methods of terminography. Two directions of terminology ordering could be distinguished. The first direction—terminography—would encompass the recording of terms, that is, the compilation of printed and electronic terminological dictionaries, terminology standardization, and the creation of terminological databases and terminology banks. The second direction—text-based terminology management—would involve implementing terms in usage, that is, systematizing and standardizing terms in the preparation of texts. LITERATURE AND SOURCES Akelaitis G. et al. 2009: Akelaitis G., Pečkuvienė L., Žilinskienė V. Specialybės kalba. Administracinės kalbos vadovėlis, Vilnius: Mykolo Romerio universitetas. Antia B. E. 2000: Terminology and language planning: an alternative framework of practice and discourse, Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Bielinskienė A. et al. 2014: Bielinskienė A., Kazlauskienė A., Rimkutė E., Tamošiūnaitė A. Lietuvių bendrinė kalba: normos ir vartosena. Vadovėlis aukštųjų mokyklų studentams, Kaunas: Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas. BŽ – Dictionary of Standard Lithuanian, Vilnius: Institute of the Lithuanian Language. Available online: http://bkz.lki.lt/ [accessed 2018-06-12]. Cabré M. T. 1999: Terminology: Theory, methods and applications. Edited by J. C. Sager, Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. CED – Collins English Dictionary, HarperCollins Publishers. Available online: https://www.collins-dictionary.com [accessed 2018-07-12]. Celiešienė V., Džežulskienė J. 2009: Profesinės kalbos pagrindai. Vadovėlis, Kaunas: Technologija. DL 2001: Dubois J., Giacomo M., Guespin L., Marcellesi Ch., Marcellesi J.-B., Mével J.-P. Dictionnaire de linguistique, Paris: Larousse. DLKŽ₂ 1972: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas. Ats. red. J. Kruopas, 2-asis papild. leid., Vilnius: Mintis. DLKŽ₃ 1993: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas. Vyr. red. St. Keinys, 3-iasis patais. ir papild. leid., Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla. DLKŽ₇ 2017: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas. Vyr. red. St. Keinys, 7-asis patais. ir papild. leid., Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas. Prieiga per internetą: http://lkiis.lki.lt/dabartinis [žiūrėta 2018-06-12]. Drotvinas V. 1987: Lietuvių kalbos leksika ir frazeologija. Mokomoji knyga, Vilnius: LTSR aukšt. ir spec. vid. mokslo m-ja. 36 Jolanta Gaivenytė-Butler | Apie terminografiją ir terminų standartizaciją Dudlauskienė N. 2005: Lietuviškų technikos terminų standartizacija. – Pabaltijo tautų terminologijos problemos ir Europos Sąjunga, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos instituto leidykla. Felber H. 1984: Terminology Manual, Paris: Unesco. Gaivenis K. 2002: Lietuvių terminologija: teorijos ir tvarkybos metmenys, Vilnius: LKI leidykla. Gaivenis K. 2014 [1990]: Terminologija ir dabartis. – Kazimieras Gaivenis. Rinktiniai raštai, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 179–181. Gaivenis K. 2014 [1993]: Keletas pastabų dėl terminijos ugdymo. – Kazimieras Gaivenis. Rinktiniai raštai, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 199–204. Gaivenis K., Kaulakienė A. 2014 [1997]: Kalbinis ir dalykinis technikos terminijos vertinimas. – Kazimieras Gaivenis. Rinktiniai raštai, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 235–240. GTUT 1997: Bessé B. de, Nkwenti-Azeh B., Sager J. C. Glossary of Terms Used in Terminology. – Terminology 4(1), 117–156. Prieiga per internetą: https://benjamins.com/series/term/term.gloss.pdf [žiūrėta 2018-06-26]. ISO 10241-2:2012 Terminological entries in standards – Part 2: Adoption of standardized terminological entries. ISO 15188:2001 Project management guidelines for terminology standardization. Jakaitienė E. 2005: Leksikografija, Vilnius: Mokslų ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas. Kazlauskienė A. et al. 2008: Kazlauskienė A., Rimkutė E., Bielinskienė A. Bendroji ir specialybės kalbos kultūra. Mokomoji knyga, 3-iasis patais. ir papild. leid., Kaunas: Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas, Pasaulio lietuvių centras. Kazlauskienė A. et al. 2010: Kazlauskienė A., Rimkutė E., Bielinskienė A. Bendroji ir specialybės kalbos kultūra. Vadovėlis, Kaunas: Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas, Pasaulio lietuvių centras. Klimavičius J. 2005 [2002]: [Rec.:] Kazimieras Gaivenis. Lietuvių terminologija: teorijos ir tvarkybos metmenys. – Leksikologijos ir terminologijos darbai: norma ir istorija, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos instituto leidykla, 246–258. Klimavičius J. 2005 [2003]: Lietuvių terminografija: praeities bruožai, dabarties sunkumai ir uždaviniai. – Leksikologijos ir terminologijos darbai: norma ir istorija, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos instituto leidykla, 259–276. KTŽ 1990: Gaivenis K., Keinys St. Kalbotyros terminų žodynas, Kaunas: Šviesa. LKE 1999: Lietuvių kalbos enciklopedija. Parengė K. Morkūnas, red. V. Ambrazas, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas. LKE 2008: Lietuvių kalbos enciklopedija. Parengė K. Morkūnas, red. V. Ambrazas, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas. LKŽe – Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language. Editor-in-chief G. Naktinienė, Vilnius: Institute of the Lithuanian Language, 2005 (updated version 2017). Available online: www.lkz.lt [accessed 2018-06-12]. LST 1695:2001 Kompiuterių panaudojimas terminologijoje. Terminų duomenų bazių ir tekstynų kūrimas bei naudojimas (tapatūs ISO TR 12618:1994). LST EN 45020:2007 Standardization and related activities. General vocabulary (ISO/IEC Guide 2:2004). LST ISO 9000:2015 Quality management systems. Fundamentals and vocabulary. LST ISO 1087-1:2005 Terminology work. Vocabulary. Part 1. Theory and application (identical to ISO 1087-1:2000). LST ISO 15188:2003 Guidelines for project management for terminology standardization. Maslauskienė R. 2004: Terminų standartizavimas. – Terminologijos istorijos ir dabarties problemos, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos instituto leidykla, 256–270. Miliūnaitė R. 2017: Dėl terminų standartizacija, norminimas ir kodifikacija santykio dabartinėje norminamojoje kalbotyroje. – Bendrinė kalba 90. Prieiga per internetą: http://www.bendrinekalba.lt/Straipsniai/90/Miliunaite_BK_90_straipsnis.pdf [žiūrėta 2018-07-09]. MTŽ 2005: Kvašytė R. Mokomasis terminologijos žodynėlis, Šiauliai: Šiaulių universiteto leidykla. Petretienė A. 2016: Transportininkų kalbos kultūra: teorija ir praktika. Mokomoji knyga, Vilnius: Technika. Rey A. 1995: Essays on terminology. Translated and edited by J. C. Sager, Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Rutkienė L. 2015: Technologijų specialistų profesinė kalba: sistema ir vartosena. Vadovėlis, Vilnius: Technika. Thomas P. 1993: Choosing headwords from language-for-special-purposes (LSP) collocations for entry into a terminology data bank (term bank). – Terminology: applications in interdisciplinary communication, Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 43–68. Terminologija | 2018 | 25 37 TŽŽ 2001: Vaitkevičiūtė V. Tarptautinių žodžių žodynas, 2-asis patais. ir papild. leid., Vilnius: Žodynas. TŽŽ 2008: Tarptautinių žodžių žodynas. Ats. red. A. Kinderys, Vilnius: Alma littera. TŽŽ 2013: Tarptautinių žodžių žodynas, Vilnius: Alma littera. Vladarskienė R. 2013: Kūrybinių industrijų specialybės kalbos kultūra. Vadovėlis, Vilnius: Technika. VLEe – Universal Lithuanian Encyclopedia. Available online: www.vle.lt. [accessed 2018-07-02]. Warburton K. C. 2014: Narrowing the gap between termbases and corpora in commercial environments. Prieiga per internetą: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275111020_Narrowing_the_gap_between_termbases_and_corpora_in_commercial_environments [žiūrėta 2018-07-02]. Лейчик В. М. 2007: Терминоведение: предмет, методы, структура, 3-е изд., Москва: ЛКИ. ON TERMINOGRAPHY AND TERMINOLOGY STANDARDIZATION In the works of Lithuanian linguists terminography and terminology standardization (preparation of terminology standards) are commonly viewed as two different branches of terminology ordering. Terminography is usually defined as the practice and theory of compilation of terminological dictionaries and terminology standardization is viewed as the preparation of terminology standards. The scope of both terminography and terminology standardization is wider: terminography covers not only compilation of terminological dictionaries but also sets of term entries presented in various forms; terminology standardization deals with terminology standards and sets of term entries presented in non-terminology standards. It is a common perception in Lithuanian linguistics that terminology standards cover microsystems of terms of very narrow fields of manufacturing or technology and are used by a small number of specialists, while terminological dictionaries present macrosystems of terms and have a much wider use. This is true only to some extent. The development of new fields of knowledge and the growth of terminology create the need for specialized dictionaries. There are highly specialized terminological dictionaries comprising a small number of terms as well as large terminology standards which include terms widely used in several fields. Terminology standards and terminological dictionaries are not so different – they both comprise a set of term entries compiled according to the same terminographical principles. Therefore, terminology standardization could be viewed as part of terminography. Terminology standardization is a relatively new kind of terminology work in Lithuania – the first national terminology standards were published in 1993. During the following few years a large number of national terminology standards were prepared each year, but when Lithuania became a member of international standardization organizations this number decreased significantly. At the same time publication of Lithuanian versions of international terminology standards has been started, but the number of translated standards comprises only a small proportion of all adopted standards. Received 2018-07-13 Jolanta Gaivenytė-Butler Lietuvių kalbos institutas P. Vileišio g. 5, LT-10308 Vilnius E. paštas [email protected] 38 Jolanta Gaivenytė-Butler | Apie terminografiją ir terminų standartizaciją