Įvardžiuotinės formos makroekonomikos terminijoje: vartojimo dėsningumai ir svyravimų priežastys

doi.org/10.35321/term26-06 Pronominal Forms in Macroeconomic Terminology: Usage Patterns and Causes of Fluctuations RAMUNĖ VASKE LAITĖ Institute of the Lithuanian Language A B S T R A C T Although, when defining the norms for the use of pronominal forms (hereinafter PFs), there is a tendency to state that PFs must be used in terminology, the author of this study has observed that they are also used irregularly in terminology; this article further investigates the use of PFs to denote terms. Usage patterns and the causes of fluctuations are examined using the terminology of macroeconomics, a component of economic theory—more specifically, macroeconomics textbooks intended for higher education institutions. By comparing PF usage at the intertextual and textual levels, the study seeks to identify objective factors that determine fluctuations in the use of PFs to mark terms. It also considers a subjective factor: the varying levels of linguistic quality in textbook preparation. KEYWORDS: pronominal forms, compound term, subordinate constituent. A B S T R A C T Although while defining the norms of the usage of pronominal forms (hereinafter referred to as PF), there is a tendency to state that the usage of PFs in the terminology is a must, the author of the article has noticed that PFs are used irregularly in the terminology, and this article investigates their usage in the terminology further. Usage patterns and reasons for fluctuations are investigated by using the terminology of macroeconomics, which is a component of economic theory, i. e. textbooks in macroeconomics for higher schools. By comparing the PF usage on the intertextual and textual levels, it is aimed to establish objective factors determining fluctuations in PFs usage in terms, and it is also focused on the factor of a subjective nature – different qualities of textbook preparation in linguistic terms. KEYWORDS: pronominal forms, complex term, subordinate constituent. Terminologija | 2019 | 26 103 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. PRONOMINAL FORMS IN TERMINOLOGY Pronominal forms in Lithuanian (hereinafter PFs) continue to raise many questions for representatives of both diachronic and synchronic language research. It seems that researchers of language history have still not reached a consensus on whether the *io- pronoun with which they were formed was anaphoric or relative, and accordingly, whether pronominal adjectives arose as a means of expressing determination and are by origin equivalent to the articles of Indo-European languages that perform a defining function, or whether they nevertheless emerged to emphasize the object denoted—that is, for emphasis (e.g., Valeckienė 1986; 1990; Rosinas 1975; 2009: 237–241)1. Grammars recognize both defining and emphatic meanings (LKG 1965: 505–510; DLKG 1997: 174–175), but grammatical-level studies increasingly tend to explain PFs solely as a means of expressing definiteness (Holvoet, Tamulionienė 2006; Mikulskas 2006; Spraunienė 2008a, b; 2011), and it remains quite difficult to explain why PFs are used so irregularly in Lithuanian. However, terminology studies do not address such problems, so it may seem that PFs pose no problems in this field. Nevertheless, this impression is only superficial. First, when the terminology of one field or another is selected for study, attention is sometimes drawn to the fact that PF usage fluctuates there, among other things (e.g., Andriuškaitė 2000: 73; Umbrasas 2002: 87; 2003: 69; 2004: 109; Kaulakienė 2002: 73; 2006: 93). Admittedly, this fact is mentioned rather infrequently, but that would be consistent with the codified norm, which stipulates that terms must be used only in PFs (Pupkis 1980: 136; Piročkinas 1990: 86; KKP 1998: 123; KP 2002: 26; Šukys 2003: 113; Paulauskienė 2004: 204). Still, it is only the fact that is mentioned infrequently; regardless of which aspect of compound terms is chosen for study, examples are usually provided that show that adjectival or participial modifiers in terms are also expressed in simple forms (e.g., Kazlauskaitė 2004: 216; Mitkevičienė 2006: 141; Zemlevičiūtė 2014: 164). This indirectly demonstrates that PFs are also used irregularly in terminology, and this tendency toward irregularity accords more closely with the tendency, attested in descriptive and research studies, for PFs to disappear in dialects (Valeckienė 1957: 301–304; LKG 1965: 513; DLKG 1997: 177) or to disappear altogether (Paulauskienė, Tarvydaitė 1986: 138; Paulauskienė 1994: 222–223). 1 A comprehensive overview of studies on the origin of pronominal adjectives, which have tended toward one theory or another, is presented in A. Valeckienė’s (1857) article. 104 Ramunė Vaskelaitė Įvardžiuotinės formos makroekonomikos terminijoje: vartojimo dėsningumai ir svyravimų priežastys Second, it is not only regularity of usage that raises questions. The fluctuation between pronominal and non-pronominal forms (hereinafter NFs) in terminology is most often referred to as variation (e.g., Umbrasas 2004: 109; Kaulakienė 2006: 93) or variants (e.g., Andriuškaitė 2000: 73; Kaulakienė 2002: 73). Angele Kaulakienė explicitly states that adjectival or participial classificatory modifiers in compound terms, some of which are expressed by PFs and others by NFs, may be called variants (Kaulakienė 2002: 73). However, in three articles published in the 2004 issue of Terminologijos, such cases are called pseudovariants (Mitkevičienė 2004: 136; Umbrasas 2004: 109; Zemlevičiūtė 2004: 97). Thus, PFs in terminology also raise the question of how to name the phenomenon. However, the element pseudo– means spurious or apparent, suggesting that the question concerns not only how the phenomenon is named but also how it is evaluated. The brief remarks accompanying the use of the term pseudovariantai confirm this: “Pronominal and simple forms theoretically cannot be considered variants, because in the language system they are units of language with different meanings” (Mitkevičienė 2004: 136). As becomes clear, the impetus for treating PFs as spurious variants comes from the theoretical interpretation of PFs—more precisely, from the perceived theoretical difference in meaning, which conflicts with the tendency in terminology to regard as variants terms that differ only in expression (Mitkevičienė 2004: 121–124; Stunžinas 2008: 111–112; Stankevičienė 2012: 22; Zemlevičiūtė 2012; Sirvidienė 2015). Įvardžiuotinių būdvardžių vartoseną išsamiai tyrusi Adelė Valeckienė (1957) iš tikrųjų yra skyrusi specialias įvardžiuotinių būdvardžių reikšmes, o ir Lietuvių kalbos gramatikoje (toliau – LKG) pasakyta: „Įvardžiuotiniai būdvardžiai turi specifines reikšmes ir savo vartosena skiriasi nuo paprastųjų“ (LKG 1965: 505). Vis dėlto ne visi morfologai esminį reikšmės skirtumą yra linkę pripažinti: „Jeigu tarp paprastųjų ir įvardžiuotinių būdvardžių būtų didelis (esminis) reikšmės skirtumas, tai nebūtų bendrine kalba kalbančių žmonių, galinčių išsiversti be įvardžiuotinių būdvardžių, o dabar tie, kurie kilę iš įvardžiuotinių būdvardžių nevartojančių tarmių, ir kalbėdami bendrine kalba be jų išsiverčia, tuo prisidėdami prie įvardžiuotinių būdvardžių nykimo apskritai“ (Paulauskienė 1994: 222). ĮF vertinant kaip apibrėžtumo raiškos priemonę, reikšmės skirtumo klausimas vėlgi būtų sprendžiamas kitaip. Štai Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos gramatikoje (toliau – DLKG) teigiama, kad ir ĮF, ir NF žymi daikto ypatybę, tik ĮF ne tik ją žymi, bet ir nurodo, kad daiktas yra žinomas (DLKG 1997: 174). Tačiau teorinė ĮF traktuotė veikiausiai remiamasi ir ĮF besiskiriančius terminus Terminologija | 2019 | 26 105 when considered variants. Indeed, in morphology textbooks, PFs are generally treated as a morphological category of the adjective and discussed alongside its other categories, such as gender and number (Paulauskienė 1983: 207–213; 1994: 198–232)2, while terms that differ in gender or number are considered variants in terminology (Stunžinas 2008; Zemlevičiūtė 2012). If a category of definiteness is distinguished in the morphological description of a language, it too is discussed in the section on adjectives and is distinguished as an adjective category (DLKG 1997: 168–177), although distinguishing this category solely on the basis of adjectival PFs and NFs has been criticized3. In a separate study on grammatical categories, definiteness is already described as a morphosyntactic category (Judžentis 2012: 99). All this suggests that the grammatical interpretation of PFs is not very clear, and the fluctuation between the terms variantai and pseudovariantai most likely reflects this uncertainty. Nevertheless, the latter term appears only in that one issue of Terminologijos, and this may also indicate that the term is shaped by some subjective factors, for example, those related to editing the issue, preparing it for publication, or the like. Third, some terminology studies offer normative remarks on the use of PFs, and these too reveal a certain contradiction. Kazimieras Gaivenis, for example, argued that it is often difficult to determine whether a term requires a PF, although PFs are generally necessary in terminology: “Pronominal forms are unnecessary in terminology only when the classificatory modifier itself has an adverbial modifier” (Gaivenis 1995: 8). Other terminologists, however, point out that PFs are not necessary in all cases, much less indispensable, in terminology (Keinys 2004: 81), or that PFs are sometimes excessively popular in contemporary terminology (Umbrasas 2002: 87). It would follow that even terminologists assess the need for PFs in terminology differently, and the contradictions would become even more apparent if these claims were compared with statements formulated in anticipation of general norms for PF usage. As already noted, the latter tend toward the view that every term must be marked with a PF: “Pronominal forms are an essential marker of compound terms (except for those words, 2 In A. Paulauskienė’s Lietuvių kalbos morfologijoje, the agreeing categories of the adjective (gender, number, case) and its inherent grammatical categories (PF, gender-neutral form, degree forms) are distinguished (Paulauskienė 1994: 198–200). 3 A. Paulauskienė criticized the identification of the definiteness/indefiniteness category with the opposition between simple and pronominal adjectives on the grounds that this opposition is observable at both the lexeme and grammatical-form levels (Paulauskienė 1994: 225); developing a conception of the noun phrase different from the one characteristic of traditional Lithuanian linguistics, it was argued that this is a category of the noun phrase, not of the adjective (Holvoet, Tamulionienė 2006: 12). 106 Ramunė Vaskelaitė Įvardžiuotinės formos makroekonomikos terminijoje: vartojimo dėsningumai ir svyravimų priežastys which cannot be pronominal forms, e.g., adjectives with the suffix -inis). Even when the form of an adjectival word itself indicates distinction, a term must be in the pronominal form. For instance, marked degrees of comparison already distinguish a characteristic from others, but in terms we will have only vyresnysis inžinierius, aukščiausiasis teismas, etc.” (Pupkis 1980: 136); “Simple forms are unsuitable for indicating a type and forming terms” (KKP 1998: 123); “Thus, the rule to be followed is this: if an adjective or some other word can have a pronominal form, then only the pronominal form is suitable in terminology, without any exceptions” (Paulauskienė 2004: 204). And from an article published in one issue of Kalbos kultūroje, it becomes clear that this idea was first advanced by terminologist A. Kaulakienė, with a focus on terminological dictionaries. Having discussed the general features of the use of pronominal adjectives denoting types, in an article published in 1973 she argued that these features should be even more pronounced in terminology; therefore, when compiling terminological dictionaries, registers, etc. (where almost all terms denoting types are presented), only pronominal adjectives should be used throughout. The proposal was based on the pursuit of systematicity: such usage “would help ensure the systematicity of terms, which usually reflects the relationship between the corresponding concepts. On the other hand, it would be possible to avoid variation, which is undesirable in terminological dictionaries” (Kaulakienė 1973: 30–31). Regarding the use of PFs in texts of a taxonomic nature, it was stated that phrases with non-pronominal forms (NPFs) should be used when the intention is not to emphasize the type of objects or phenomena, but to state their characteristics or quality; when the intention is to convey a distinguishing, i.e. terminological, meaning, PFs should also be used in texts (Kaulakienė 1973: 31). As can be inferred from that article, the argument is based on taxonomic meaning and, in pursuit of terminological systematicity, the linguistic feature of PFs marking a type is inclined to be presented as a universal principle for marking a term. A. Valeckienė, who distinguished taxonomic meaning as a subtype of a certain marked meaning, later renamed definitional meaning (Valeckienė 1986; 1998; DLKG 1997: 174–175),4 had this to say about the use of PFs in terminology: “Since taxonomic modifiers most often indicate certain individual characteristics generalized for a group of objects, and together with the modified word denote the name of that group, terms are very often formed with such pronominal adjectives, e.g., terms in linguistics” (Valeckienė 1957: 186). 4 A. Valeckienės (1997) straipsnyje, kur pateikiama išsami įvardžiuotinių būdvardžių klasifikacija, pirmiausia skiriama pabrėžiamoji ir pažymimoji reikšmė. Pastarosios nurodomi du porūšiai – nurodomoji ir išskiriamoji reikšmė, o tada atskirai aptariamas išskiriamosios reikšmės reiškimas išskiriamaisiais pažyminiais ir jos reiškimas rūšiniais pažyminiais. Panaši klasifikacija perkelta ir į LKG, tik rūšinės reikšmės žymėjimas kaip pažymimosios reikšmės porūšis čia skiriamas tiesiogiai: skiriamas daiktų rūšies žymėjimas, daiktų nurodymas ir daiktų išskyrimas (LKG 1996: 505–510). DLKG pažymimoji reikšmė pervadinama į apibrėžiamąją, o rūšies reiškimas vėl labiau susiejamas su išskyrimu: kaip apibrėžtumo reiškimo būdą išskyrus išskyrimą, pasakoma, kad įvardžiuotiniai būdvardžiai su tam tikrais pažymimaisiais žodžiais reiškia daiktų rūšį (DLKG 1997: 174–175). Terminologija | 2019 | 26 107 This statement was also carried over into LKG (1965: 507), and later into DLKG (1997: 174)5. Both A. Valeckienė’s article and LKG identify three ways of defining objects by means of taxonomic modifiers: 1) distinguishing one object by a greater degree (amount) of a characteristic; 2) contrasting different characteristics, i.e. distinguishing one object from another similar object by one characteristic that is opposite to the other object’s characteristic; 3) distinguishing an object by an individual, specific characteristic that is not typical of other objects of the same type (Valeckienė 1957: 176–183; LKG 1965: 505–506). A. Kaulakienė’s article reveals that all these ways of marking a type are also discerned in terminology and that, on the basis of the distinction between marking a type and marking a characteristic or quality, it is proposed that terms be marked with PFs. However, not all works emphasize this particular distinction as a criterion. K. Gaivenis, for example, mentions the contrast between temporariness and permanence: gyvenamasis namas ‘residential house’ may be uninhabited at a given time, but it is still called a gyvenamuoju namu, geriamojo vandens ‘drinking water’ may currently be drunk by no one, but it will still be geriamasis vanduo, i.e. water of a certain quality (Gaivenis 1995: 8)6. Generally, however, when terms are proposed for marking with PFs, or when the necessity of such marking is questioned, the criterion is usually not formulated. Nor are exceptions to the use of PFs explicitly identified. Only Kalbos patarimuose it is stated that, to express a distinguishing quality of an object in compound terms, PFs are not used with the suffixes –(ut)inis, -ė, –(ur)inis, -ė (KP 2002: 26–27). However, the author of this article has drawn attention to exceptions implied indirectly through the presentation of a classification of meanings (Vaskelaitė 2016). In this classification, taxonomic meaning is treated as a subtype of definitional meaning or a way of expressing definiteness, and discussions of definitional meaning or definiteness generally mention cases of neutralization of the PF–NPF opposition: that dialects tend not to add PFs to superlative adjectives; that PFs do not occur with certain suffixes, for example, derivatives with the suffix –iškas, or adjectives with figurative meanings; and that, in general, the opposition between PFs and NPFs 5 A. Valeckienė prepared the adjective section of both grammars, where PFs are also discussed. 6 Arnoldas Piročkinas has also mentioned this contrast: “In the first case the characteristic may be accidental and temporary, whereas in the second it will be permanent and essential. Therefore, pronominal forms are to be used when forming terms, by adding to the base noun a modifier expressing an essential characteristic, as in the phrase greitasis traukinys ‘express train’” (Piročkinas 1990: 86). 108 Ramunė Vaskelaitė Įvardžiuotinės formos makroekonomikos terminijoje: vartojimo dėsningumai ir svyravimų priežastys nėra ryški ir nuosekli (LKG 1965: 511–512; Valeckienė 1986: 171–172; DLKG 1997: 175). Logiškai samprotaujant, jei jau rūšies žymėjimas yra vienas iš apibrėžiamosios reikšmės ar apibrėžtumo reiškimo būdų, tai pogrupiui neturėtų būti svetimi grupės polinkiai. O vienas neutralizacijos atvejis, būtent polinkis tarmėse ĮF nereikšti labai specifinės reikšmės išskiriamųjų ir rūšinių pažyminių, galinčių vien savo leksine reikšme išskirti daiktus (juodas pūdymas, kanapėta višta), su rūšine reikšme susiejamas ir tiesiogiai (Valeckienė 1957: 303; LKG 1965: 511; DLKG 1997: 175). This overview makes clear that PFs also pose problems in terminology, and the impression that they do not is created because such problems are not examined. To the author’s knowledge, there is not a single article in the field of terminology that takes the use of PFs in terminology as its direct subject. This article will attempt to examine this subject. It is true that the author has already examined it to some extent, but only from a normative perspective—to determine the degree of correspondence between actual usage and the codified norm (Vaskelaitė 2016). An examination of the use of PFs in articles on economics and in decontextualized terminological environments, i.e. in dictionaries of economic terms and glossaries of terms presented in legal acts, revealed in the article published in Bendrinėje kalboje that, at least in economic terminology, PFs are used irregularly; possible connections between irregularity and codification were also identified. It was also concluded that the use of PFs should be further investigated, and the influence of context was mentioned as one factor that may determine non-use of PFs. Thus, the study is being continued using material that provides context, but this article will focus not on the relationship between usage and the norm, but on patterns of PF use in terminology and the causes of irregularity. More specifically, in examining usage patterns, the aim will be to establish what may determine fluctuations in the use of PFs in terminology and their non-use. F E A T U R E S O F T H E R E S E A R C H M A T E R I A L A N D M E T H O D As in the previous article, the use of PFs is investigated on the basis of economic terminology; however, the scope will be narrower—only macroeconomic terms and texts of a single genre, namely macroeconomics textbooks intended for higher education. The expression macroeconomics textbooks is, admittedly, somewhat conditional. Although macroeconomics is usually taught as a separate course in higher education, macroeconomics and microeconomics are constituent parts of economic theory Terminologija | 2019 | 26 1 0 9 and therefore the two courses may also be presented in a general textbook on economic theory. When such textbooks were also selected as sources, the relevant part in which macroeconomics is taught was selected. For convenience and concision, the general expression textbooks will be used unless it is relevant to emphasize the domain in which a term is used. Eight textbooks were selected (all are listed in the source list), six of which were prepared by different authors. Two further textbooks, prepared by the same authors, were used to test the author's hypothesis that the use of PFs may also be affected by the level of language editing or text preparation. All the textbooks were published relatively recently—in the last decade or two; the oldest dates from 1997. The textbook authors describe macroeconomics as a part of economic theory concerned with the economy (economic system) as a whole, and distinguish it on this basis from microeconomics, which examines the behaviour of individual economic agents and the market mechanism. Macroeconomics textbooks discuss the gross national product and gross domestic product, considered the principal measures of macroeconomics, as well as topics such as general equilibrium, unemployment, inflation, monetary and fiscal policy, money and banking, international trade, and exchange rates. The shared coverage of these topics makes it possible to assess intertextual similarities or fluctuations in PF usage. Several textbooks also include a chapter reviewing the development of economic theories, but this chapter is not typical of all textbooks, so its terminology will not be included. The choice of continuous texts is primarily motivated by the aim of assessing how terms function in text. A textbook is a versatile text: concepts are not only defined but also explained in detail, bringing to light tendencies in both the selection of terms that designate concepts and their use in text. Since several textbooks have been selected, it is understood that PF usage will be examined not only at the textual but also at the intertextual level. More specifically, once the intertextual level has established which terms tend to have their subordinate components presented in textbooks only as PFs or NF forms, and which vary, such cases will be examined at the textual level. Nevertheless, the analysis should not be regarded as a conventional study of variation, because, first, that is not its aim. The fact that PF usage fluctuates considerably at the intertextual level has already been demonstrated by the author, and this article will focus not on counting fluctuations but on their causes. Second, in conducting a study of variation, one would first need to choose among the terms used to designate the object of study— 110 Ramunė Vaskelaitė Įvardžiuotinės formos makroekonomikos terminijoje: vartojimo dėsningumai ir svyravimų priežastys variants and pseudovariants. In the author's view, the question of designation should be resolved on the basis of the real, rather than theoretical, difference in meaning; however, the extent of that difference can become clear only after analysis. USAGE AT THE INTERTEXTUAL LEVEL In examining whether PFs are marked in terms at the intertextual level, the focus will be on terms denoting the main concepts of macroeconomics. Their status as such is often indicated not only by the formulation of a definition, but also by a formal marker: the term is highlighted in a textbook or set in italics: Free Trade (Free Trade) – international trade without any customs duties or restrictions Dril 163; Employed population (L – Employment) – those working in enterprises, institutions and organizations of all forms of ownership, including those working on farms, as well as those performing military service or held in penal institutions Dril 33. However, there is no complete correspondence between the formal marking of a term and the formulation of its definition. A definition can also be formulated indirectly, in which case the term is not highlighted, for example, in the indirect formulation of the definition of the term net taxes: This so-called automatic stabilizer arises because, in reality, our net tax system (net tax system) (net taxes are equal to taxes T less transfer payments and subsidies) is such that net tax revenues change directly with changes in GNP Čieg 189. On the other hand, a term may be highlighted without its definition being formulated: In the production process, financial capital plays an important role; it is divided into fixed and nominal (securities) capital Dav 12. Priority will be given to defined terms; thus, terms that are not highlighted but are defined will be analyzed, whereas highlighted terms that are not defined will be excluded. It is true that terms in textbooks may be explained rather than formally defined: Full-employment budget (full-employment budget) indicates what the budget surplus or deficit would be if the economy were operating at full employment Sn2 191. Explanatory terms, like defined terms, will be included. Thus, analysis of term usage at the intertextual level should essentially reveal tendencies in the marking of terms with PFs when concepts are explained and definitions formulated. In analyzing PF usage at the intertextual level, the source page cited will be the page on which a definition is formulated or an explanation of a concept is given. In some cases, a definition is formulated twice; in such cases, both pages will be cited. Terminologija | 2019 | 26 111 Terms denoted by pronominal forms Some textbooks define the term gross national product Luk 73, Jak₁ 155, Jak₂ 162, Čieg 73; others define gross domestic product Sn₁ 88, Sn₂ 93, or define both terms (gross national product Dav 235 and gross domestic product, Dav 236); but whichever is included, the adjectival constituent gross in both terms is expressed only by the PF. The adjectival constituent in the term net exports Dav 234, Jak₁ 163, Jak₂ 160, Čieg 58, or its longer variant net exports of goods and services Dril 13, Sn₁ 81, Sn₂ 85, is likewise expressed only by the PF. The definition of the term net taxes is not formulated in all textbooks, but the term net taxes Dril 82, Dav 251, Sn₁ 179, Sn₂ 165, Čieg 189 is also marked with the PF, as is the term cash Dril 43, 92, Luk 154, Dav 295, Jak₁ 209, Jak₂ 207, Sn₁ 199, Sn₂ 205, Čieg 218, although the latter is defined in only a few textbooks. The tendency to mark with the PF instances of the adjective net in macroeconomic terminology is also confirmed by terms included in textbooks, such as personal net income Luk 73 or net personal income Dav 237, net domestic income (national income) Sn₂ 94, net factor income flow (net property income flow) Sn₂ 67. In some textbooks, the term net personal income is given as a synonym for disposable income Dril 59, Sn₂ 95, Čieg 76; however, there is no tendency to express its secondary constituent with the PF, which makes the tendency to use the adjective net with the PF all the more apparent. The term gross national product Dril 11, 18, Luk 65, Dav 231, Jak₁ 153, Jak₂ 152, Sn₁ 61, Sn₂ 67, Čieg 51 is marked with the PF in all textbooks, as are gross domestic product Dav 232, Jak₂ 162, Sn₁ 38, 61, Sn₂ 67, Čieg 57, or gross internal product Dril 18, Luk 70, gross internal (domestic) product Jak₁ 154. The adjective gross is also used with the PF in the terms gross income Dav 25, Čieg 73, gross expenditure Dav 25, Sn₁ 141, Sn₂ 126, gross national expenditure Jak₁ 153, Jak₂ 160, Čieg 73, but these terms are defined and used only in some textbooks. Some textbooks give the term aggregate expenditure Čieg 62, Jak₁ 153. The terms aggregate demand Dril 24, Sn₁ 141, Sn₂ 126 and aggregate supply Dril 25, Sn₁ 153, Sn₂ 141 are likewise found only in some textbooks; others use aggregate demand Luk 99, Dav 244, Jak₂ 166, Čieg 87 and aggregate supply Dav 246, Jak₂ 172, Čieg 13; only some textbooks also use aggregate equilibrium Dril 25. Some textbooks provide synonyms such as aggre- 112 Ramunė Vaskelaitė Įvardžiuotinės formos makroekonomikos terminijoje: vartojimo dėsningumai ir svyravimų priežastys aggregated demand and aggregate supply Jak2 165, but their dependent element, although it can also be expressed in the definite form, is expressed in the simple form, which likewise shows that in macroeconomic terminology there is a stronger tendency to express the adjectival element with the definite form general or aggregate. Not all textbooks are the same length, so neither is the number of terms used in them, but they include many terms whose specifying element is general or aggregate, net, and in every case it is expressed in the definite form. Thus, distinct types of investment or expenditure are designated as gross domestic investment Luk 72, gross private domestic investment expenditure Čieg 59, gross investment and net investment Jak₁ 152, Jak₂ 159, Čieg 60, gross domestic investment Dril 12 and net investment Dril 13; elsewhere, gross private domestic investment Sn₁ 79, Sn₂ 83 and net private domestic investment Sn₁ 80, Sn₂ 83 are distinguished. In all cases, the adjectival elements gross and net are expressed in the definite form, whereas the adjective private, used as a dependent element in these compound terms, is not expressed in the definite form. The tendency in this terminology to use the definite form specifically for the adjectives net and gross is unaffected by the number of elements in a term: examples include pure capitalism Čieg 33, net debtor Sn₁ 87, net interest Jak₂ 132, Čieg 75, general duties Luk 143, and aggregate demand for money Dav 345, Čieg 229, aggregate demand curve Sn₁ 141, Sn₂ 126, aggregate supply curve Sn₁ 154, Sn₂ 141, autonomous aggregate demand Sn₁ 147, Sn₂ 133, net public goods Dav 219, net economic welfare Sn₁ 92, Sn₂ 96, negative net investment Čieg 61, net domestic (national) income Sn₁ 82, and net economic welfare measure Čieg 71, net foreign creditor Sn₁ 87, Sn₂ 86, net personal (disposable) income of households Čieg 77, even short-run aggregate supply curve Sn₁ 155, 360, Sn₂ 142, long-run aggregate supply curve Sn₁ 155, Sn₂ 143, short-run aggregate supply line Sn₂ 328, net difference between payment-balance debits and credits Dav 367. As can be seen, the position of the elements is also immaterial. The examples presented show that the terms short run, long run are also marked with the definite form. In fact, the concepts they denote are explained not in macroeconomics textbooks but in microeconomics textbooks or in the introductory chapters of economics textbooks7, yet these terms are used 7 The short production run is defined as the period during which it is impossible to change a firm’s productive capacity, that is, its fixed capital, whereas the long production run is the period during which productive capacity can also be changed Dav 50–51. Terminologija | 2019 | 26 113 in macroeconomics textbooks as well, and as components of other terms short run and long run are marked with the definite form: long-run monetary neutrality Čieg 320, short-run consumption function and long-run consumption function Sn₁ 112. The adjectival element of the term long waves Jak₁ 179, Jak₂ 188, Sn₁ 413, Sn₂ 374, Čieg 175, included in some textbooks, is likewise expressed in the definite form. The term free trade is marked with the definite form and defined in seven textbooks Dril 163, Luk 141, Dav 334, Jak₁ 246, Jak₂ 261, Sn₁ 575, Sn₂ 532. Where the terms free economic zone Luk 142 and free trade zone Luk 141, Sn₁ 624 are given, their adjectival element is likewise expressed in the definite form. In discussing money and the money market, the terms money in the broad sense Dril 92, Dav 299, Sn₁ 226, Čieg 219 and money in the narrow sense Dav 299, Jak₂ 207, Sn₁ 221 are also marked with the definite form, as are the terms major economic cycles Čieg 174 and minor economic cycles Čieg 175, which appear in one textbook. The term public corporations Čieg 40 is defined in one textbook, and public goods Čieg 38, Dav 217 is discussed in greater detail in two, but the adjectival element of both terms is expressed in the definite form. In the textbooks, the term human capital Luk 83, Dav 12, 405, Jak₁ 233, Jak₂ 247 is marked with the definite form, although it is not defined in every textbook. Among adjectives of non-Lithuanian origin in the terminology under discussion, there is a somewhat stronger tendency to use the definite form for special or special: special drawing rights Dav 355 or Special Drawing Rights Jak₁ 270, “Special Payment Rights” Luk 171, as well as special duties Luk 143 and special banks Luk 157. However, not only adjectival but also participial elements are expressed in the definite form. Admittedly, these are mostly limited to passive participles with more specialized meanings (purpose and suitability, specifying the concept of an instrument). For example, the terms purchasing power Dril 170, Sn₂ 474, purchasing power of money Luk 154, Dav 273, Čieg 318, purchasing power parity Dril 170, Sn₁ 537, Sn₂ 474, theory of purchasing power parity Dav 365, Jak₁ 257, Jak₂ 275, purchasing power parity (equality) rate Sn₁ 537, Sn₂ 474, high-purchasing-power money Sn₁ 266, Sn₂ 238 are marked with the definite form. When discussing the balance-of-payments account, the participial element of the term naming one of its component items is likewise given only in the definite form: current account Dril 159, Dav 366, Sn₁ 87, Sn₂ 91. The term retains the definite form when included in another term as well—current account deficit Dav 367, 368. The passive participle transitional is used only in the definite form: traditional transitional economy Sn₁ 37, Sn₂ 32, new-type transitional economy Sn₁ 37, Sn₂ 33. A term defined in the discussion of international trade is marked with the definite form: comparative advan- 114 Ramunė Vaskelaitė Įvardžiuotinės formos makroekonomikos terminijoje: vartojimo dėsningumai ir svyravimų priežastys ness Dav 42, Sn1 564 or comparative advantage Sn2 517. Terms marked with PFs also include theory of comparative advantage Jak1 243, Jak2 258, law of comparative advantage Sn1 564, law of comparative advantage Sn2 518, law of comparative costs Luk 138. Terms marked with PFs also include multiplier effect Dav 305, GDP multiplier Dav 266, inverse multiplier Dav 266, adjustment operations Dav 393, replacement investment Sn2 83 or restorative investment Dav 13, 234, servicing operations Luk 157. If one type of unemployment is designated as transitional unemployment Dril 35, Luk 113, its modifying element is also given in PF form. However, this term is highly synonymous, so only two textbooks designate one type of unemployment as transitional (frictional) unemployment Dril 35 or transitional or frictional unemployment Luk 113. Also distinguished are hidden unemployment Luk 113, Dril 38, Čieg 120, and discouraged unemployment Dril 38, Čieg 119. Two textbooks each provide several terms whose secondary component is a pronominal participle with dependent words: partially convertible currency Luk 172, currency convertible into any other currencies Luk 172, managed floating exchange rates Jak1 261, indirectly related exchange rates Jak1 261, basket-related exchange rates Jak1 261. Under the current norms for the use of PFs, such use of PFs is considered undesirable (KP 2002: 27), yet such terms occur only in those two textbooks. NF is used in the others, and also in those same textbooks: indirectly related exchange rates Jak2 281, basket-related exchange rates Jak2 281, freely convertible currency Dav 350, partially convertible currency Dav 350, freely fluctuating exchange rate Dav 352, strictly fixed exchange-rate system Luk 173, conditionally assigned value Čieg 54, inflationary phase and recessionary phase Čieg 110, inflationary gap and recessionary gap Jak1 177, profit-push inflation Čieg 326. Terms not marked by the pronominal form Having studied the use of pronominal adjectives, A. Valeckienė identified as one of three ways of defining objects by means of pronominal adjectives the use of such adjectives to define objects by contrasting their different features (Valeckienė 1957: 184–485). Nevertheless, in textbooks, the adjectival or participial modifiers of terms formed by contrasting features are often given in the non-pronominal form. Terminologija | 2019 | 26 115 Only non-pronominal forms are used in terms formed with the adjective flexible and the participle fixed, although these form a contrast when designating exchange rates and their systems (regimes). Indeed, the term flexible exchange rate is not established; terms formed with participial modifiers are also used, such as floating exchange rate, fluctuating exchange rate, and synonyms of the term fixed exchange rate also occur, but all these terms have a non-pronominal modifier. Thus the exchange rates and their systems under discussion are designated as flexible exchange rateDril 171, fluctuating exchange rateLuk 173, freely fluctuating, or flexible, exchange rateDav 352, floating exchange rateLuk 171, floating exchange rateSn₂ 469, floating-rate regimeSn₂ 468, floating exchange-rate regimeSn₂ 555, flexible exchange-rate systemJak₁ 255, Jak₂ 272, flexible or freely floating exchange-rate systemDril 171 and fixed exchange-rate systemDav 352, fixed exchange-rate regimesJak₁ 256, Jak₂ 273, Sn₂ 550, fixed or pegged exchange-rate systemDril 171, Dav 352, fixed exchange-rate maintenance systemLuk 171, fixed adjustment rateDril 195, fixed exchange rateDav 352. Only one textbook attempts to give a synonym in the pronominal form: fixed (set) rate regimeSn₂ 468. Incidentally, there is little inclination to define these terms; textbooks explain them more often, using them when discussing differences between exchange-rate systems or their development. Terms formed with the adjective private also generally have a corresponding pair: private investment expenditure and government investment expenditureDril 12, private sector and public sectorLuk 107, private sector and public sectorČieg 39. Nevertheless, this adjective is not used in the pronominal form in either these or other cases. The term is also used in the non-pronominal form when defining gross private domestic investment expenditureČieg 59, gross private domestic investmentSn₁ 79, Sn₂ 79, net private domestic investmentSn₁ 80, Sn₂ 83, private transfer paymentsČieg 61, Sn₂ 81, private transfer paymentsSn₁ 78. The adjective absolute, which designates one of the contrasting features, is never used in the pronominal form: relative advantage and absolute advantageLuk 137, comparative advantage and absolute advantageDav 328, comparative advantageSn₂ 517 and absolute advantageSn₂ 517, relative poverty line and absolute poverty lineDav 229, conditional convergence hypothesis and absolute convergence hypothesisČieg 398. The pair of terms perfect competition and imperfect competition is likewise not marked with PFs in the textbooks. In macroeconomics textbooks, these terms are not defined, 116 Ramunė Vaskelaitė Įvardžiuotinės formos makroekonomikos terminijoje: vartojimo dėsningumai ir svyravimų priežastys they are merely used (Luk 94, Dav 358, Čieg 26, 41, 42). However, they are defined or discussed in the microeconomics chapters of general economics theory textbooks, and the discussion shows that perfect competition is not a case of stating a feature of competition, but rather the designation of an abstract theoretical model applied to the study of economic reality. When referring to the model, the PF should be used; however, even when it is discussed in detail, the NF is used, i.e. perfect competition Jak2 74, 75, 76, 85, even if this model is contrasted with another theoretical model designated by the term pure monopoly Jak2 85. In another textbook, the perfect competition market is identified as one of four forms of market organization (the perfect competition market, the monopolistic competition market, the oligopolistic market, and the monopoly market); as an extreme form of market organization, it is contrasted with the monopoly market, but even in such cases the PF is not marked—the NF perfect competition is used (Dav 99). The non-Lithuanian-origin adjective optimal is also used in terms in the NF, i.e. optimal rates of economic growth Sn2 346, optimal pollution norm Jak2 313, but terms formed with it are rarely defined. Definitions of the terms stable state of the economy Čieg 395, stationary state Čieg 363, constant rate of time preference Čieg 377, and constant returns to scale Sn2 101 are found only in individual textbooks; however, the wording chosen for these terms suggests that the PF terminology probably also tends to avoid the adjectives stable, stationary, constant. Only two textbooks define the terms sustainable development Čieg 371, sustainable growth Sn1 381, but their adjectival element is given in the NF, as are the adjectival elements in terms defined in individual textbooks: strong sustainability Čieg 371, weak sustainability Čieg 372, potential output Čieg 121, negative rates of economic growth Sn2 346, neutral technical progress Sn2 351, non-neutral technical progress Sn2 351. In PF, adjectival elements may be expressed. Nor are adjectival elements expressed in the PF in the following pairs of terms that occur: passive policy and active policy Sn2 408, passive policy and adaptive policy Čieg 325, passive labor-market policy Čieg 128 and active labor-market policy Čieg 129, extensive economic growth and intensive economic growth Čieg 345, extensive path of economic growth Luk 81 and intensive path of economic growth Luk 82, favorable (positive) trade balance Luk 139 and unfavorable (negative) trade balance Luk 140. When discussing cases of neutralization of the definiteness opposition, it is noted that PF tends to avoid derivatives with the suffix –iškas (Valeckienė 1986: 172; DLKG 1997: 175). The terminology of the selected textbooks confirms this. Terminologija | 2019 | 26 1 1 7 of these: the term full employment Dril 27, 37, Dav 271, Jak1 217, Jak2 230, Sn2 399, Čieg 121. In the textbooks, the subordinate component, with one exception, is presented in NF, as are the terms full-employment budget Dav 283, Čieg 193, Sn2 191, voluntary unemployment Sn2 388, 403, unconditional mobility Čieg 327, consumer demand Luk 99, consumer credit Sn2 117, actual investments Jak1 170, Jak2 180, actual growth rates Sn2 361, actual real interest rate Sn2 450 are subordinate adjectival components formed with the suffix –iškas. In one textbook, the term lender of last resort Sn2 261 would correspond to another case of neutralization of opposition: the pronominal formant is not added to a superlative adjective because such adjectives, as explained in discussing this case of neutralization (DLKG 1997: 175), are close in meaning to pronominal adjectives that distinguish things by the highest degree of the denoted property. In three textbooks, the term last lender Dav 394, Sn1 292, Čieg 236 would correspond not only to a case of neutralization but also to an exception stipulated by the codified norm: a derivative with the suffix –utinis is non-pronominal. Textbooks tend not to express the PF in certain participial elements either; these participles, however, do not have instrumental or suitability meanings, or other more specialized meanings. As already mentioned, the terms disposable income, fixed exchange rate, floating exchange rate, fluctuating exchange rate are not marked with the PF. The NF is especially characteristic in the case of the participle balanced: balanced growth Čieg 391, balanced-growth trajectory Čieg 394, balanced budget Dav 282, Jak2 197, unbalanced budget Dav 282, balanced-budget multiplier Čieg 168, balanced development Sn2 346. The PF is not expressed in the terms guaranteed growth rate Čieg 391 or guaranteed growth rates Sn2 561, unwanted accumulation of inventories Jak1 171, Jak2 180, unwanted decline in inventories Jak1 171, undesirable equilibrium Dril 27, harmonized consumer price index Dav 392, induced (forced) consumption Čieg 91, expected real interest rate Sn2 449, simplified economic model Čieg 29, embodied technical progress Sn2 351, employed population Dril 33, Sn1 39, Sn2 34, employed people Luk 103, hired employees Luk 104. The occasional active participles are all the less used in the PF, even when defining terms: discouraged workers Jak1 216, Jak2 228, assisting family members Luk 105, floating interest rate Sn2 597, money with increased efficiency Dril 183. It is true that such terms are defined only in individual textbooks. 118 Ramunė Vaskelaitė Įvardžiuotinės formos makroekonomikos terminijoje: vartojimo dėsningumai ir svyravimų priežastys Although the term balanced budget is almost never defined in textbooks, the context in which it is mentioned reveals that it is one of the types of budget, alongside a deficit budget or a surplus budget Dav 282. Nevertheless, even identifying a type does not encourage the choice of PF. When specifying types or kinds of investment, NF is also chosen: planned investments Jak1 171, desired investments Jak1 171, Jak2 180, induced investments Sn2 123, unplanned investments Sn1 131. As with adjectives, participles in PF are often not used when terms are formed by contrasting two properties: produced assets and unproduced assets Luk 63, tangible unproduced assets and intangible produced assets Luk 63, exported goods price index and imported goods price index Čieg 64, Sn1 72, Sn2 77, balanced inflation and unbalanced inflation Luk 129. Fluctuations in expression Certain terms are already characterized by greater fluctuations in PF usage. There are cases in which one member of a term pair is expressed using PF, and the other using NF. Thus, in as many as two textbooks, types of monetary policy are designated as expansionary (cheap-money) policy and contractionary (dear-money) policy Dril 114, Luk 159. In another textbook, the participial components of both terms are expressed using PF, i.e. cheap-money policy or expansionary monetary policy Čieg 258, but when these terms are explained in another chapter, the forms expansionary (expansive) fiscal policy Čieg 182 and contractionary (restrictive) fiscal policy Čieg 183 are used. When discussing inflation, textbooks also distinguish two types: creeping inflation and galloping inflation Luk 125, 126, Dav 273, Jak1 220, Jak2 232, Čieg 313. However, in two textbooks these types are designated as creeping inflation and galloping inflation Sn1 462, Sn2 421. PF usage also fluctuates when inflation is classified according to another criterion: anticipated inflation Sn2 449 and unexpected inflation Sn2 452, anticipated inflation Sn1 438 and unexpected inflation Sn1 452, anticipated (expected) inflation and unexpected inflation Jak2 313, Čieg 313, “expected” and “unexpected” inflation Luk 128. In one textbook, terms with different forms are chosen to designate types of money demand and supply: real money supply and nominal money supply Dril 42, real money demand and nominal money demand Dril 43. However, types of gross national product are already designated uniformly: real GNP and nominal GNP Dril 15. When designating types of gross national product or gross domestic product, Terminologija | 2019 | 26 119 the adjective components of both terms are also expressed using PF in other textbooks: nominal gross national product and real gross national product Luk 66, 67, Dav 238, nominal GNP and real GNP Čieg 63, nominal (or monetary) GNP and real GNP Jak₁ 148, Jak₂ 154, nominal GDP and real GDP Sn₁ 70, Sn₂ 70. PF is also used to designate types of exchange rate: real exchange rate Jak₁ 257, Jak₂ 275, Sn₁ 536, Sn₂ 473 and nominal exchange rate Jak₁ 257, Jak₂ 275, Sn₁ 528, Sn₂ 465. However, when presenting other terms, both real (real assets Sn₁ 253, Sn₂ 225, real cost of capital Sn₁ 106, Sn₂ 105, real wages Sn₁ 104, Sn₂ 105, anticipated real interest rate Sn₂ 449, effect of real cash balances Sn₂ 572, real aggregate demand curve Sn₂ 503), and real (real interest rate Čieg 318, real business cycle theory Sn₂ 499, real natural resources Jak₁ 278, Jak₂ 300). When defining terms with the adjective nominal, PF usage also varies: nominal bond value Dril 105, nominal interest rate Čieg 318 and nominal capital Dav 12, nominal interest rate Sn₂ 119. Nevertheless, not all terms formed with these adjectives are defined. PF usage also fluctuates when the secondary components of term pairs are Lithuanian-origin adjectives open and closed. They are used to designate differences between economic systems, although in some textbooks only the phrase open international economic space Luk 99 is used, or only open economy Dril 198 is defined. When two terms are presented, the forms open economic system and closed economic system Jak₂ 157, open-economy system and closed mixed-economy system Čieg 29 are given, but in a textbook published in 2008 the term open-economy system Sn₂ 58 and open-economy macroeconomics Sn₂ 465 are defined, but closed mixed-economy system, closed economy Sn₂ 284. In the 2005 edition textbook prepared by the team that produced the latter textbook, the concepts defined are designated as open-economy system and closed mixed-economy system Sn₁ 65, but this textbook is distinguished overall by regularity in PF usage, as will be discussed later. Only in three textbooks is one of the monetary policy instruments designated as open market operations Jak₂ 217, Sn₁ 285, Čieg 255, while the others choose NF – open market operations Dril 105, Luk 159, Dav 309, Jak₁ 205, Sn₂ 255. The adjective potential, which has no obvious contrasting pair in this terminology, is all the less likely to be used in PF. However, in three textbooks— 120 Ramunė Vaskelaitė Įvardžiuotinės formos makroekonomikos terminijoje: vartojimo dėsningumai ir svyravimų priežastys the term potential GDP Dav 240 is formulated, as well as the definition of potential (possible) gross domestic (national) product Sn₁ 142, Sn₂ 142, and in these sources this term is marked with PF. The secondary component of another term containing such an adjectival component, potential natural resources Jak₁ 216, Jak₂ 300, is not expressed by PF. The terms natural unemployment Čieg 121, natural rate of unemployment Dril 37, Jak₁ 218, Jak₂ 230, like the terms natural growth rate Čieg 392, Čieg 38, natural (necessary) growth rates Sn₁ 319, 399, Sn₂ 361, and natural monopolies Čieg 39, found in individual textbooks, tend not to be marked with PF; however, in three textbooks the definition is formulated and the concept is named natural rate of unemployment Dav 271, Sn₁ 353, 441, Sn₂ 319. Few terms formed with the adjective mixed are presented in the textbooks selected for analysis, but those that are included also appear to show fluctuations in PF usage: mixed loans Luk 176, mixed income Luk 72, Dav 219, mixed economic system Čieg 34, but mixed economy Dav 40, mixed banks Luk 157, Sn₁ 255, mixed goods Dav 219. The secondary component of the term denoting reserves that banks are required to hold, or the reserve requirement, varies considerably, and the main component also takes different forms: required reserves Čieg 253, required reserve Jak₂ 216, required reserves Dril 94, required reserve ratio Dril 95, 102, required reserve ratio or required reserve ratio Luk 160, required / mandatory reserve ratio Sn₁ 259, 292, required (mandatory) reserve ratio Sn₂ 232, 262, required reserve ratio Čieg 246. As can be seen, there is a tendency to mark this term with PF, but in some textbooks the concept defined is called required reserve Dav 303, Jak₁ 206. Not all textbooks define terms formed with the participle hired, but these too reveal fluctuations between NF and PF: hired employees Luk 104, hired employees Dav 271, wages for hired workers Dav 69, wage labor Dav 12. Patterns Analysis at the intertextual level once again confirms the fact, noted by the author in an earlier article, that PF usage in terminology does not conform to the codified norm. The macroeconomics textbooks show that certain exceptions stipulated by the norm are observed; for example, there are few instances of PF usage with participles that have dependent words, and PF is not expressed Terminologija | 2019 | 26 121 in the secondary component of the term lender of last resort, but the fundamental principle of marking every term with PF is not followed. Nevertheless, the context-free environment in which terms are used is mostly capable only of revealing morphological, lexical, or syntactic factors that may affect whether a term is marked with PF, but these factors cannot explain the use or non-use of PF. For example, part of speech is not the determining factor. Participles are quite often used without PF (balanced, guaranteed, available, fixed, floating, fluctuating, desirable or undesirable, planned, unforeseen), but adjectives are also used without PF (flexible, perfect, imperfect, private, absolute, constant, stable, stationary). On the other hand, both adjectives (general, net, long, short, broad, narrow, free) and participles (purchasing, current, (comparable), flowing, multiplying, adjusting, restoring) are used with PF. Among the distinguishing components of terms that are marked with PF in some textbooks but not in others are both adjectives (real and real, nominal and nominal, open and open, closed and closed, potential and potential, natural and natural, mixed and mixed) and participles (crawling and creeping, jumping and leaping, stimulating and stimulating, planned and planned, unexpected and unexpected, hired and hired). Perhaps PF is omitted somewhat more often in this terminology with words of non-Lithuanian origin (private, absolute, stable, stationary, fixed, balanced, guaranteed, available), while Lithuanian-root words are used with PF (general, net, non-net, long, short, broad, narrow, free, purchasing, current, (comparable), flowing, multiplying, transitional); however, some adjectives and participles of Lithuanian origin also occur without PF (flexible, perfect, imperfect, open, closed, undesirable), while some words of non-Lithuanian origin (special, extensive, intensive, adjusting) occur with PF. Judging from the terms given in the textbooks, the syntactic factor—namely, the number or position of a term's components—also has no bearing. Where there is a tendency to use PF, it occurs in terms composed of both two and more words, with differing component order. Conversely, if there is no tendency to express PF in a particular secondary component, for example private, it is not expressed with PF in terms of any syntactic structure (private sector, private transfer payments, gross private domestic investment expenditure, gross private domestic investment, net private domestic investment). 122 Ramunė Vaskelaitė Įvardžiuotinės formos makroekonomikos terminijoje: vartojimo dėsningumai ir svyravimų priežastys Some tendencies in the presentation of macroeconomics terms in textbooks suggest that the use of PF is more characteristic of exceptions than of the codified norm. In discussions of definiteness or defining meaning, such exceptions are mentioned as cases of neutralization of the PF–NF opposition. PFs are almost never used in terms formed with the adjectives visiškas, faktiškas, savanoriškas, vartotojiškas, but such neutralization would be harder to explain in the case of the regular term žmogiškasis kapitalas, whose dependent element has a defining meaning expressed by PF. The tendency not to use PF with superlative adjectives, cited as a case of neutralization (LKG 1965: 511; Valeckienė 1986: 171; DLKG 1997: 175), may be reflected in terminology as avoidance of PF in term elements expressed by adjectives denoting the highest degree of a quality (tobulas, absoliutus, optimalus). The emerging tendency not to use PF with only certain adjectives or participles might be associated with a case of neutralization directly related to kind meaning. Both A. Valeckienė’s detailed article and the grammars, in discussing the marking of kind, state that in some dialects there is a reluctance to use PF with specific-meaning restrictive or kind modifiers that can distinguish objects solely by their lexical meaning (Valeckienė 1957: 303; LKG 1965: 511; DLKG 1997: 175), adding that such “cases of inconsistent marking may also have influenced and contributed to the incipient decline of pronominal forms and their replacement by simple forms” (Valeckienė 1957: 303). Nevertheless, such neutralization would be difficult to explain in light of the differences emerging in textbooks in the use of PF with the adjectives laisvas, –a and atviras, –a, and especially the differing expression of kind elements in terms formed with the adjectives atviras, –a and uždaras, –a, realus, –i and nominalus, –i, particularly within the same textbook. However, the use of PF in textbooks does not fully conform not only to the exception to the use of PF in marking kind, but also to the patterns described. For instance, A. Valeckienė’s article mentions the contrast of different qualities as one way of defining objects with kind modifiers, yet the tendencies discussed reveal that even when qualities are contrasted, adjectival or participial elements in terms do not take PF (tobula konkurencija ir netobula konkurencija, atvira ekonomika ir uždara ekonomika, lankstus valiutos kursas ir fiksuotas valiutos kursas, absoliutus pranašumas ir lyginamasis pranašumas, privatus sektorius ir valstybinis (viešasis) sektorius, šliaužanti infliacija ir šuoliuojanti infliacija). It is true that both A. Valeckienė’s article and LKG discuss only adjectives, and that this kind of contrast is mentioned only as one way of marking kind with kind modifiers, not as a required principle. As Terminologija | 2019 | 26 1 2 3 the most common of the three ways of marking kind with pronominal adjectives is said to be distinguishing an object by an individual, specific quality, and the tendencies discussed in the use of the adjectives grynasis, –oji, bendrasis, –oji would correspond to this; however, there is a reluctance to use PF with participles, which also distinguish an object by an individual, specific quality, except for passive participles with more specialized meanings. An examination of the latter would show that their use in NF would produce a phrase substantially different in meaning from the term (perkama galia, einama sąskaita, tekamas nedarbas, pereinama ekonomika, dauginamas multiplikatorius, koreguojamos operacijos). The meaning would differ greatly if NF were also used for the adjectival elements of terms marked with PF in all the textbooks (grynas nacionalinis produktas, grynas eksportas, gryni mokesčiai, grynos investicijos, bendras nacionalinis produktas, bendra pasiūla, bendra pusiausvyra). By contrast, PF would not create such a large difference in meaning for those terms whose dependent elements are not marked with PF, or for which PF usage fluctuates (lankstus kursas ir lankstusis kursas, fiksuotas kursas ir fiksuotasis kursas, privatus sektorius ir privatusis sektorius, absoliutus pranašumas ir absoliutusis pranašumas, tobula konkurencija ir tobuloji konkurencija, natūralus nedarbas ir natūralusis nedarbas, visiškas užimtumas ir visiškasis užimtumas, nominali palūkanų norma ir nominalioji palūkanų norma, nepageidautina pusiausvyra ir nepageidautinoji pusiausvyra). In other words, the reasons for not using PF may be related to the meaning factor. At the same time, the intertextual-level analysis shows that many terms that tend to be marked with PF in textbooks are also frequently defined, whereas definitions are formulated less often for terms not marked with PF, or marked with it in only some textbooks. However, only a broader context could shed more light on both the meaning factor and possible links with the formulation of definitions. USAGE AT THE TEXTUAL LEVEL Terms are not only defined in textbooks but also used, and their use in text reveals connections with the analysis of term usage at the intertextual level. Terms marked with PF at the intertextual level are also marked with this feature when used in texts. Terms identified as not marked with PF are likewise unmarked in the text. PF marking fluctuates most in the text for terms whose expression was found to fluctuate at the intertextual level. 124 Ramunė Vaskelaitė Įvardžiuotinės formos makroekonomikos terminijoje: vartojimo dėsningumai ir svyravimų priežastys Cases of consistent expression Terms marked with PF at the intertextual level—that is, when concepts are explained or definitions formulated—are also marked with this feature when the terms are used in texts. For instance, instances of NF use of the terms grynasis nacionalinis produktas, grynasis vidaus produktas, grynasis eksportas, grynieji mokesčiai, grynosios pajamos, grynosios palūkanos, grynosios investicijos, grynasis kapitalizmas, grynoji ekonominė gerovė, grynųjų mokesčių sistema, bendrasis nacionalinis produktas, bendrasis vidaus produktas, bendroji paklausa, bendroji pasiūla, bendrosios paklausos kreivė, etc., do not occur at all in the textbooks, just as there are no cases in which the terms perkamoji galia, perkamosios galios paritetas, einamoji sąskaita, tekamasis nedarbas, lyginamasis ar palyginamasis pranašumas, pereinamoji ekonomika, dauginamasis poveikis, koreguojamosios operacijos are unmarked with PF in texts. The adjective bendras, –a is used in the textbooks, but these instances clearly denote a quality: In the latter case, what is meant is the equilibrium of all markets as a common whole, i.e. general equilibrium Dav 243; Aggregate demand is the total sum of demands for final goods Sn₂ 125. There is likewise no tendency to mark with PF in text those terms that are unmarked with PF at the intertextual level. In texts, only NF is used for the dependent elements of the terms lankstus valiutos kursas and fiksuotas valiutos kursas, which could take PF: We will examine two extreme exchange-rate systems: flexible and fixed exchange rates Dril 171; With a flexible exchange rate, the IS curve is passive Dril 191; An important argument in favor of flexible exchange rates is freedom Jak₁ 255; An alternative to a flexible exchange-rate system is a fixed exchange-rate system Jak₂ 273; The situation is quite different in the case of fixed exchange rates Dav 363. The term plaukiojantis valiutos kursas, used in some textbooks, is likewise not marked with PF: Here we will confine ourselves to two extreme cases—a fixed and a floating exchange rate Sn₁ 468; However, floating exchange rates do not maintain purchasing power parity in the short run Jak₂ 279. Such terms are not defined in all textbooks, but even when a definition is provided, the term is not marked with PF: Floating exchange rate regime (flotating/flexible exchange rate regime)—a method of regulating the exchange rate in which the exchange rate changes depending on changes in the demand for or supply of currency, i.e. when the government does not intervene in the foreign exchange market Sn₂ 469; Fixed or pegged exchange-rate system (Fixed Exchange Rate System)—a method of regulating the exchange rate in which the government undertakes to maintain a certain currency exchange rate Dril 171. Terminologija | 2019 | 26 125 The adjective privatus, -i ‘private’ is used in textbooks generally only in the NF, even when the context indicates that it expresses a particular type and that the properties are contrasted: Employment shifts are taking place in the private and public sectors Luk 107; The modern economy can no longer function on the basis of private expenditure alone (C, I). Government expenditure (G) is also necessary, for the construction of roads, airports, and schools, for education, health care, social insurance, etc. Fiscal policy may be directed against the private (C, I) or government sector (G) Dril 86; Thus, public goods (public goods) can be distinguished here as a separate case. Unlike private goods, they can be consumed by one individual without reducing the possibility of their simultaneous consumption by other individuals Čieg 38. However, the two-word terms private sector, private expenditure, private investment, private goods are not defined in the textbooks. Perhaps the only textbook to define the term private good uses its adjectival component in the ĮF: Pure public goods and private goods are extreme cases of economic goods Dav 219; A mixed good may be closer either to a private good or to a public good Dav 219. Only NF texts provide the secondary components of the terms in use perfect competition and imperfect competition: The model of perfect competition was severely criticized by K. Marx Čieg 33; Under conditions of a perfectly competitive market, prices move toward equilibrium, at which the quantities demanded and supplied are equal Jak2 44; Many producers operate in an imperfectly competitive market, and the prices of the products they sell are controlled Luk 94. As noted, these terms are not defined in macroeconomics textbooks; in the microeconomics section, the concepts they denote tend to be explained in greater detail, but even in explanations and definitions the adjectival component of the term is expressed in the NF: A. Smith began developing the model of perfect competition as an economic system based on the laws of self-regulation, writing his famous “The Wealth of Nations” in 1776, although he did not use this concept Jak1 72; Meanwhile, other markets are forms of imperfect competition Dav 99; Two forms of competition are distinguished—perfect and imperfect competition. Perfect competition is competition in which there are many buyers and sellers in the market, and no individual buyer or seller has any influence on the market price. Imperfect competition is competition in which an individual buyer or seller can influence the market price Dav 73. In some textbooks, the term full employment is explained rather than defined, but whether it is being explained or defined, or the term is being used 126 Ramunė Vaskelaitė Įvardžiuotinės formos makroekonomikos terminijoje: vartojimo dėsningumai ir svyravimų priežastys in the text, its secondary component is not marked as ĮF: Let us now discuss full employment (full employment). Thus, full employment does not mean zero unemployment Čieg 121; Therefore, in economic theory, the concept of full employment does not mean that the unemployment rate is 0 percent. Full employment is employment corresponding to the natural rate of unemployment and not causing an unacceptable increase in inflation Dav 271; This equilibrium state will correspond to full employment and a higher exchange rate for the national currency Dav 381. The term absolute advantage is defined in some textbooks, but, unlike the secondary component of the adjacent term (compara)tive advantage, the secondary component of the term as used in the text is not expressed in the ĮF: It is said that each country has an absolute advantage in producing a particular product Dav 329; It therefore makes sense for each country to specialize in producing the product in which it has an absolute advantage, i.e. the product it can produce at lower cost than its partner Dav 329; Thus, the United States has an absolute advantage in the production of computers, automobiles, televisions, and textile products, while Great Britain has one in the production of shoes and glass. However, absolute advantage plays an indirect role in the analysis Sn2 522. Participial components of terms whose ĮF form is consistently avoided when the terms are defined or explained are likewise not expressed in the ĮF when the terms are used in texts: The only notable difference between the balanced-growth paths of the Solow and Ramsey–Casso–Koopman models is that in the Ramsey–Casso–Koopman model, a balanced-growth path with capital stocks exceeding the golden-rule level is not possible Čieg 394; This is called the balanced budget multiplier (balanced budget multiplier), which equals 1 Čieg 168; Full utilization of these capacities is ensured by the warranted rate of growth GW (warranted rate of growth) Čieg 391; Disposable income is divided into consumption expenditure and personal savings Dril 59; As residents receive higher disposable incomes, they save more Dril 64; We shall call it an undesirable equilibrium Dril 27; In this topic, we will discuss the factors behind GNP growth, its cyclical nature, aggregate demand, aggregate supply, general equilibrium, undesirable general equilibrium, and the main schools of economic theory (classical, Keynesian, monetarist, and supply-side) for eliminating undesirable equilibrium Dril 21; When the quantity of national product reaches equilibrium, it is important to distinguish actual and desired investment 179. Exceptions are rare; for example, two textbooks prepared by the same authors use disposable income (plural form) Jak1, 156, Jak2 163, 164. Terminologija | 2019 | 26 127 However, often it is only the definition that indicates that a word combination used in the text is a term: Undesirable Equilibrium (Undesirable Equilibrium Level of GNP) is the correspondence of aggregate demand to aggregate supply when full employment has not been achieved Dril 27; Disposable income (YD – Disposable Income) is the portion of personal income remaining after residents have paid personal (direct) taxes (income, property, inheritance, etc.) Dril 59. This is also indicated by explicit identification of the word combination in use as a term or concept: But before describing the term “full employment” (full employment), drawing on the so-called “traditional” classification, we will define several different types of unemployment (unemployment) Čieg 116; The term “natural unemployment” does not at all mean that the economy always operates at the natural rate of unemployment and realizes its potential output Čieg 121; Therefore, the concept of the natural rate of unemployment is most often used instead of full employment Dril 37; Therefore, it is necessary to define precisely the concept of full employment Jak2 217. Other instances could be treated either as terms, that is, as cases expressing terminological meaning, or as word combinations that describe the quality or characteristic of an entity; such instances are quite numerous in the texts: Full employment is the goal of every country’s economic policy Dav 33; Therefore, general equilibrium may arise and persist for a long time at a level of GNP production that does not ensure full employment Dril 27; With lower labor-hour costs, Lithuania has an absolute advantage in producing both goods Jak2 260; A perfectly competitive market is based on perfect competition Dav 99; However, most people do not spend all their money; some disposable income is set aside for later consumption, i.e. saved Dril 61; An undesirable general equilibrium may also arise in the market (see Fig. 23) Dril 26; Unexpected inflation redistributes wealth: it takes from lenders and transfers it to borrowers Jak2 232; IMF members may choose at their discretion either a fixed or a flexible exchange rate, or a mixed arrangement Jak2 281. The only cases that can be distinguished more clearly from these are those in which the adjective or participle functioning as a term’s secondary component occurs in predicate position: The litas is “pegged” to the US dollar, i.e. its exchange rate is fixed: 4 litas for 1 US dollar or 0.25 US cents for 1 litas Dril 173; In other words, if the budget had been balanced from the outset, fiscal policy during a recession would have had to move in the direction of a government budget deficit Jak2 232; If government revenue equals its expenditure, the budget is balanced and the budget balance is zero Sn2 159; The state budget is balanced if expenditure equals revenue Sn1 34; Figure 2.3 shows that 128 Ramunė Vaskelaitė Įvardžiuotinės formos makroekonomikos terminijoje: vartojimo dėsningumai ir svyravimų priežastys General equilibrium at point E is undesirable, because it occurs when the price level is PE, while the volume of GDP is YE Dril 27. In other words, the boundary between a term and a case of expressing a quality or property, which the codified norm requiring the use of PF proposes to draw, is not always clear in coherent text, at least in a text such as a textbook, where objects named not only by opposing or distinguishing their properties but also the properties themselves are frequently mentioned. This in itself may make it difficult to mark terms with PF, and NF may therefore be selected as a convenient universal option. On the other hand, NF is chosen even when formulating definitions, that is, where terminological meaning is expressed much more clearly; this may indicate that, at least in texts of this kind, the boundary may be not only unclear but also blurred—a term not marked with PF in a textbook using macroeconomic terminology may nevertheless be recognized as a term. Cases of variable expression Terms whose secondary component varies in its expression with PF at the intertextual level also exhibit variation at the textual level. For example, one textbook uses NF in defining the term required reserve: The amount of bank reserves centrally determined is called a required reserve. This is the minimum amount of reserves that banks can always exceed Dav 303. NF is also used thereafter: If the required reserve ratio is 10 percent, the multiplier effect of the banking system is equal to 4–5 Dav 305; Required bank reserves are formed as deposits of these banks at the central bank. Different required reserve ratios may be set for different types of accounts Dav 309. However, PF is also used in the text: Thus, reducing required reserves increases the amount of money, and vice versa Dav 309. Another textbook gives a synonym for the term that has PF: Required (mandatory) reserve ratio (required reserve ratio) – the minimum amount of cash that the central bank sets as a percentage of the total deposits of all commercial banks, and that banks must hold as reserves Sn₂ 262. However, both NF and PF are used for the synonym in the very same passage: The central bank may hold more money in reserve, but no less than the required reserve. We will examine how a change in the required reserve ratio affects the money supply Sn₂ 262. The text also varies in its use of other terms whose expression is not settled at the intertextual level when definitions are formulated. For example, one textbook selects the term marking the concept being defined as natural rate of unemployment: A certain rate of unemployment, for example, associated with the causes that create frictional and structural unemployment, is inevitable in a modern market economy and is called the n a t u r a l rate of unemployment Terminologija | 2019 | 26 129 in a modern market economy is inevitable and is called the n a t u r a l rate of unemployment Dav 271. However, NF is also used subsequently: Actual and expected inflation coincide, and unemployment approaches the n a t u r a l rate of unemployment Dav 275–276; This curve shows that, at the n a t u r a l rate of unemployment, the economy can choose an equilibrium at any rate of inflation Dav 276. In another textbook, only the participial component of one term in a pair of defined terms is expressed with PF—expansionary (cheap-money) policy and restrictive (dear-money) policy Dril 114—but in the text the participles serving as secondary components of both terms are used with PF: If the interest rate in the country is high, an e x p a n s i o n a r y monetary policy is more appropriate; if it is low, a r e s t r i c t i v e fiscal policy is appropriate, because it increases the interest rate Dril 139. Variation between PF and NF is particularly characteristic of terms formed with the adjectives real and nominal. The definite form of these adjectives tends to be selected more often only when defining the terms real gross national product and nominal gross national product, but NF expression also occurs when they are used in the text: Economic growth is a process manifested in an increase in r e a l GDP Luk 81; Accelerating inflation halts the growth of r e a l national product and later causes it to decline Luk 98. Another textbook defines the term real GDP, but NF is also used in the text: The equilibrium point and the corresponding amount of r e a l GDP will also change. This establishes the relationship between prices and the amount of r e a l GDP, that is, the aggregate demand curve (Fig. 12.16) Dav 263. Variation occurs even within the same paragraph: When calculating the volume of final goods and services at current prices, nominal (or monetary) GNP is determined; when calculated at comparable prices, it is r e a l GNP. An increase in r e a l gross national product over a certain period is called economic growth Jak₁ 148. After the term nominal GDP is defined (Čieg 63), NF is also used in the text: Differences between the concepts of n o m i n a l and real GNP make it possible to create, alongside the consumer price index (CPI) and the producer price index (PPI), which are used for consumer goods, another widely used measure of inflation (inflation)—the implicit GNP deflator (or GNP price index) Čieg 65. In other cases, there is an even stronger tendency to use the adjectives real and nominal in NF: The economy remains at full employment, but with higher prices and n o m i n a l wages Dril 45; For example, after the 1981–1982 recession, the n o m i n a l wage level only reached its pre-crisis level Luk 97; Investment is economic activity during which resources are u 130 Ramunė Vaskelaitė Įvardžiuotinės formos makroekonomikos terminijoje: vartojimo dėsningumai ir svyravimų priežastys sed to create new real capital Luk 100; Shifts in budget lines also indicate changes in real consumer income Jak₁ 53. However, definitions of these terms are often not formulated in textbooks, and an explanation provided in one textbook reveals a possible reason: all economic quantities can be divided into real and nominal ones: When discussing GNP, it is necessary to distinguish nominal GNP from real GNP. But before discussing them, we will take a closer look at the problem of nominal and real quantities. As far back as the nineteenth century, the prominent philosopher D. Hume (1711–1776) and his contemporaries proposed that all economic quantities should be divided into two groups. The first group consists of nominal variables, that is, quantities measured in monetary units, while the second consists of real variables, that is, quantities measured in physical units. For example, the price of wheat belongs to nominal variables because it is measured in litas, euros, or dollars, whereas the amount of the wheat harvest belongs to real variables because it is measured in centners or tonnes Čieg 62. This possibility probably also encourages textbook authors to use the adjectives real and nominal more as expressions naming properties. On the other hand, in these cases, economic quantities are named, as with real GNP or nominal GNP, and this probably encourages authors of other—or even the same—textbooks to choose PF: As the cost of living increases, nominal consumer income must increase accordingly Dril 52; An increase in the real interest rate reduces the quantity of real money demand, because the cost of holding real money increases Dril 43. However, in two textbooks some of these concepts are defined, and PF is chosen to name the concept being defined: real wage Sn₁ 104, Sn₂ 105. The defined term is used consistently in the text as well: Remem[sic]ber that the unemployment rate and the real wage are inversely related Sn₂ 446; Whether the expected real wage and the equilibrium real wage coincide depends on the accuracy of inflation forecasts Sn₂ 446. This would support the hypothesis that PF and NF vary because the status of a word combination as a term is not sufficiently established or clear, and that as this status becomes clearer or more established over time, there should be less variation in the use of PF. Usage tendencies for other terms seem to confirm this hypothesis. For example, the adjective potential is more often used without PF in textbooks that do not formulate a definition of the term potential gross national product (GNP): The natural rate of unemployment is a rate of unemployment that occurs at potential GNP and includes frictional and structural unemployment Jak₁ 230; Natural rate of unemployment (NUR – Terminologija | 2019 | 26 131 Natural Rate of Unemployment) – unemployment arising when potential GDP is reached, provided frictional and structural unemployment do not exceed acceptable limits Dril 37. In the textbook in which it is defined, however, that adjective is used in the definite form (DF), not only in the definition but also in the text: Potential (possible) gross domestic (national) product (Yp – potential gross domestic (national) product) – the highest level of actual output that a country’s economy is capable of producing over a given period by fully utilizing all available factors of production Sn₂ 142; For production to reach the level of potential national product, marked by point B, aggregate expenditure must increase Sn₂ 153; Production will not reach the level of potential national product, marked by point A; labor will remain unused Sn₂ 153. The usage of the term free trade, whose definition is formulated in seven textbooks, is also more consistent: the definite form is used both in defining the term and in examples of its use: Free Trade (Free Trade) – international trade without any customs duties or restrictions Dril 163; The most widespread forms of free trade are free-trade zones (regions), customs unions, and free economic zones Luk 141; Despite its advantages, free trade has many disadvantages, and therefore the foreign trade policies of states move in the direction of protectionism Jak₁ 246. The term free market is not defined in the textbooks, so the same adjective, used as its dependent component, appears in both the definite and the indefinite form (IF): World experience has ultimately shown that the most effective is a mixed economic system in which free-market relations, rather than command relations, predominate Čieg 34; In a mixed economic system, both the state and the private sector (businesses and consumers) play an important role in allocating factors of production, shaping the structure of distribution and consumption, and dividing the economy into two sectors: the free market and state regulation Čieg 34. All this might seem to suggest that the definite and indefinite forms should fluctuate as long as a word combination is treated more as a case of marking a characteristic or quality and has not acquired clear terminological status, and that the definite form should prevail as that status becomes clearer and established. Nevertheless, at least two circumstances give reason to doubt this. One, as has already become clear, is that there are terms whose adjectival or participial component is not expressed in the definite form even when a definition is formulated, that is, when the word combination has unquestionably acquired terminological status. Thus, the outcome of fluctuations between the definite and indefinite forms need not necessarily be the prevalence of the term marked by the definite form. Second, although the textbooks cover a relatively short period, they show that a later edition does not necessarily indicate the prevalence of the definite form or a reduction in fluctuations. 132 Ramunė Vaskelaitė Įvardžiuotinės formos makroekonomikos terminijoje: vartojimo dėsningumai ir svyravimų priežastys THE TEXT PREPARATION FACTOR Editions of macroeconomics or economic theory textbooks differ, making it easy to check whether the use of the definite form depends on the textbook edition. For this analysis, two editions of each textbook were selected, separated by a relatively short interval. One textbook, Makroekonomika, prepared by thirteen lecturers at Kaunas University of Technology, V. Snieška, V. Baumilienė, D. Bernatonytė et al., was published in 2005; another, also prepared essentially by the same group of authors (with one author changed) and designated the third revised and expanded edition, was published in 2008. Both textbooks were published by the same publisher, but different language editors are listed. The 2005 edition is longer, since each chapter concludes with a summary, self-assessment exercises, and a list of recommended reading. A comparison of the texts shows that they often differ only in language edits. In the 2005 edition of the textbook (Sn1), almost all terms denoting the principal concepts of macroeconomics are defined, and the adjectival component of almost all of them appears in the definite form: open-market operations 285, absolute advantage 564, absolute-income hypothesis 113, perfect capital mobility 538, imperfect-information model 506, natural rate of unemployment 440, nominal interest rate 125, real interest rate 125, nominal money supply 225, real money supply 225, nominal money demand 235, real money demand 225, floating exchange-rate regime 531, fixed exchange-rate regime 530, expansionary monetary policy and contractionary monetary policy 295, guaranteed growth rate 407, induced investment 128, unplanned investment 145, anticipated inflation 483, unanticipated inflation 486, anticipated real interest rate 484, creeping inflation and galloping inflation 462, required reserves ratio 259. Even adjectives with the suffix –iškas appear in the definite form: full employment 440, full-employment budget 203, actual prices 65, actual growth rate 407, actual real interest rate 484. When definitions are formulated, the dependent component of many of these terms is also given in the definite form in the 2008 edition of the textbook (Sn2). Nevertheless, although this is a later edition, there are more instances here of the definite form not being used: the dependent components of two-word terms are in the indefinite form—absolute advantage 517, unplanned investment 131, induced investment 123, anticipated inflation 449, unanticipated inflation 452; likewise, the dependent components of multiword terms—open market operations 255, guaranteed (ensured) growth rates 361, floating exchange-rate regime 468, real business cycle Terminologija | 2019 | 26 133 theory 499, floating interest rate 597 are among the components that may appear in the definite form. Components formed with the suffix –iškas, –a are also not marked with the definite form: full employment 399, full-employment budget 191, actual prices 70, actual growth rates 361, actual real interest rate 450. The use of the definite form in the text differs accordingly. In the 2005 edition of the textbook, all the terms listed are also used in the definite form in the text: However, the FRS does not control discount policy in the same way that it controls open-market operations, and changing discount policy is much more difficult than conducting open-market operations Sn1 292; Each country specializes in supplying the product for which it has an absolute advantage in production Sn1 564; Fig. 4.2. unplanned investment is shown by vertical arrows Sn1 145; Since the fixed exchange-rate system could not cope with nominal and real distortions in the world economy, it was replaced by a floating exchange-rate system Sn1 607; It is clear that in a fixed nominal exchange-rate system only the second method remains, while with a floating exchange rate both are available Sn1 546; To find a criterion that would help assess the soundness of the government’s fiscal policy, the concept of the full-employment budget was developed Sn1 203. In the 2008 edition of the textbook, terms whose definitions use the definite form are also used in the indefinite form in the text: However, the FRS does not control discount policy in general as it controls open-market operations, and changing discount policy is much more difficult than conducting open-market operations Sn2 262; Each country specializes in supplying the product in whose production it has an absolute advantage Sn2 517, and so on. In the 2005 edition of the textbook, even terms whose definitions are not provided appear in the definite form: The balanced-budget multiplier equals one 196; Therefore, an unbalanced budget is entirely justified if the government pursues an appropriate fiscal policy 203; Many economists felt that it was the government, rather than the private sector, that had become a source of economic instability 340; Real income is also an important factor determining the volume of capital 131; The combined effect of government expenditure and proportional taxes on equilibrium national income is shown in Fig. 5.17 198. In the 2008 edition of the textbook, the indefinite form is used in all these cases: The balanced-budget multiplier equals one 183, and so on. In the 2005 edition of the textbook, even when discussing the possibility of classifying all variables as real or nominal, the definite form is chosen: As early as the 18th century, D. Hume, the renowned Scottish philosopher, argued that the quantity of money in a country does not affect its real wealth and, endorsing the quantity theory of money, put forward the propo- 134 Ramunė Vaskalaitė Įvardžiuotinės formos makroekonomikos terminijoje: vartojimo dėsningumai ir svyravimų priežastys to divide all economic variables into two groups: n o m i n a l variables, quantities determined in monetary terms; r e a l variables, quantities determined in physical, natural units. For example, the price of tomatoes or apples is a n o m i n a l variable because it is valued in litas or other monetary units, whereas the size of a vegetable or fruit harvest is a r e a l variable because it is measured in tonnes or centners 505. The 2008 edition of the textbook adopts an approach that cannot be explained either by cases of neutralization, by exceptions provided for in the codified norm, or by other regularities: the choice to use only the adjective real (real variable, real variables) in PFs, while nominal is presented in NFs (nominal quantity, nominal variables) Sn2 499–500. PF usage also differs in two textbooks prepared by other authors: the 2000 publication by A. Jakutis, V. Petraškevičius, A. Stepanovas, L. Šečkutė, and S. Zaicevas, Fundamentals of Economic Theory, and the sixth revised and expanded edition of the textbook prepared by the same authors, published in 2007, Economic Theory. The 2007 textbook is an expanded or revised edition, but it also shows language corrections, although a language editor is listed in the 2000 textbook as well. For example, instead of the term restoration investments Jak1 152, the more acceptable form from the standpoint of language norms, renewal investments Jak2 159, is now given; instead of non-restorable resources Jak1 233, it has non-renewable resources Jak2 247. In place of active participles (constraining fiscal policy Jak1 193, orienting sequences Jak1 185), the terms use passive participles, which are more acceptable in terminology (restrictive fiscal policy Jak2 203, oriented sequences Jak2 194). PFs in which a participle is joined to an adverb or a case form have been changed to NFs; thus, the terms managed floating exchange rates Jak1 260, indirectly related exchange rates Jak1 261, basket-related exchange rates Jak1 262 are now given as managed floating exchange rates Jak2 280, indirectly related exchange rates Jak2 281, basket-related exchange rates Jak2 281. Language corrections also include PF usage. For example, terms that were not marked as PFs in the 2000 textbook—open market operations Jak1 206, compulsory reserve Jak1 206, restrictive (contractionary) monetary policy Jak1 219—are now presented as open-market operations Jak2 217, compulsory reserve Jak2 216, restrictive (contractionary) monetary policy Jak2 219. The terms are also used somewhat more consistently in the text. Thus, in the 2000 edition, after the term real GDP is defined, an NF is used immediately afterward: A n i n c r e a s e in real gross national product over a certain period is called economic growth Jak1 Terminologija | 2019 | 26 135 148. In the 2007 edition, PF is used in this instance: An increase in real gross national product over a certain period is called economic growth Jak2 148. 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PRONOMINAL FORMS IN THE TERMINOLOGY OF MACROECONOMICS: USAGE PATTERNS AND REASONS FOR FLUCTUATIONS S u m m a r y The article investigates the usage of pronominal forms (hereinafter referred to as PF) in terminology on the basis of the terminology of macroeconomics, which is a component of economic theory. It is aimed at establishing usage patterns and reasons for fluctuations by selecting a wide context material, i.e. macroeconomics textbooks for higher schools. After establishing how PFs tend to be used on the intertextual level, the PF usage is investigated on the textual level. A certain compliance is determined: those terms, which have a tendency to be defined by using only a pronominal or non-pronominal form in the subordinate component in all textbooks, are accordingly used within the text, i.e. the subordinate component of the term is regularly expressed by using a pronominal or non-pronominal form, while those terms, which have a tendency to be defined in the textbooks by using a PF in the secondary component in a fluctuant manner, are expressed within the text by irregular PF usage. 138 Ramunė Vaskelaitė Įvardžiuotinės formos makroekonomikos terminijoje: vartojimo dėsningumai ir svyravimų priežastys When studying such cases of irregular usage, it is established that the boundary between denoting a specific meaning and denoting a peculiarity is often insignificant and unclear; consequently, a non-pronominal form is selected as a universal one, and the uncertainty of this boundary is thus reflected. In these cases, PFs do not perform as obvious distinctive function as they do in the cases of regular usage. These might be the factors determining fluctuations of the PF usage in the terminology. However, the comparison of different editions of the textbooks prepared by the same authors allows a conclusion that regularity or irregularity of PFs usage is significantly influenced by the quality of text preparation in linguistic terms. Consequently, the further destiny of PFs usage in the terminology will mostly depend not only on objective factors, but also on the level of textbook preparation in linguistic terms. Gauta 2019-10-14 Ramunė Vaskelaitė Lietuvių kalbos institutas P. Vileišio g. 5, LT-10308 Vilnius E. paštas [email protected] Terminologija | 2019 | 26 139