Daiktavardėjimas ir daiktavardiškumas architektūros ir statybos terminijoje

doi.org/10.35321/term30-2 Substantivization and substantivality in architectural and construction terminology Substantivization and Nounness in Architectural and Construction Terminology LINA RUTKIENĖ Institute of the Lithuanian Language ORCID id: https://0000-0001-6661-3115 A B S T R A C T Drawing on terms collected from dictionaries of architectural and construction terminology and from the scholarly and educational literature in these fields, this article examines issues of substantivization and substantivality. Having established that in architectural and construction terminology adjectives with the suffix -inis, -inė, pronominal adjectives, pronominal participles, and compound adjectives undergo substantivization or are used substantivally, the article discusses the degrees of substantivality of these words when used as terms. It assesses which thematic groups of terms most often include adjectives and participles prone to substantivization. KEYWORDS: substantivization, degree of substantivality, secondary component of a term, term. A B S T R A C T The article examines issues of substantivisation and nominalisation based on dictionaries of architecture and construction terminology, as well as scientific and educational literature in these fields. It identifies the degrees to which adjectives with the suffixes -inis, -inė, pronominal adjectives, participles, and compound adjectives in architecture and construction terminology undergo substantivisation. It evaluates the thematic groups that tend to undergo the most substantivisation in terms of adjectives and participles included within these terms. KEYWORDS: substantivisation, degree of nounness, secondary term element, term. 34 Lina Rutkienė Daiktavardėjimas ir daiktavardiškumas architektūros ir statybos terminijoje INTRODUCTORY NOTES Substantivization is most often examined in Lithuanian linguistics with common-language words as its object. Adelė Valeckienė (1957), Pranas Kniūkšta (1976), Aldona Paulauskienė (1983, 1994), and Aurimas Markevičius (2012) have studied this topic in depth; it is also discussed extensively in Lietuvių kalbos gramatikoje (LKG 1965). While exploring other topics, Saulius Ambrazas (1995), Vincentas Drotvinas (1963), Ramunė Vaskelaitė (2019), and others have also addressed questions of substantivization in the common language. However, this phenomenon is no less relevant to terminology (although it must be acknowledged that terminological research on this subject is lacking). Words that have undergone substantivization and function as terms can probably be found in all fields of science, but not all of them are recorded in dictionaries. Drawing on terms collected from dictionaries of architectural and construction terminology and from scholarly and educational literature in these fields, this article aims to discuss substantivization and degrees of substantivality in the terminology of these fields. To achieve this aim, the following tasks are set: 1) to discuss the phenomenon of substantivization in light of linguists’ insights; 2) to identify the subject groups of architectural and construction terms formed by words prone to substantivization or already substantivized; 3) to discuss the degrees of substantivality of these terms. The main method used in the article is analytical-descriptive. This method is used to collect, systematize, and analyze empirical data and to summarize the results. The collected terms are first divided into three groups on morphological grounds, then classified into subject groups and examined as members of these groups. The research material was collected mainly from sources dating from the late 20th and 21st centuries: dictionaries of architectural and construction terminology (the primary sources), as well as textbooks, monographs, coursebooks, collections of articles, and lecture notes. The article also draws on several sources from an earlier period (the first half of the 20th century), which are needed to trace the development of the terms. In total, 165 non-repeating substantivized, substantivizing, and substantival terms were collected from 21 sources. Architectural and construction terms are examined together because the fields are related and many of the same terms are characteristic of both architectural and construction terminology. For example, the preface to Valdemaras Michalauskas’s dictionary Mediniai ir mūriniai pastatai, konstrukcijos bei elementai states that the book “is intended for students of architecture and civil and industrial construction” (MMPK 1988: 3); thus, a single publication includes terms from both architecture and construction. Terminologija | 2023 | 30 35 It should be noted that all the arguments in the article are based solely on the collected material; a study of another field and other material could, naturally, yield different results. Investigating substantivization and substantivality is a challenging task, since these processes are gradual and long-lasting. It can sometimes be very difficult to determine when a particular word began to undergo substantivization, the relationship between a two-word term and its non-nominal modifier turning into a noun, and the degree of substantivization. Nevertheless, it is reasonable to assume that discussing data from different periods, even if limited in quantity and covering a narrow range of scientific fields, can provide important information on the subject under consideration. 1. THEORETICAL INSIGHTS ON SUBSTANTIVIZATION AND SUBSTANTIVALITY Substantivization is one type of transposition, or hypostasis1. The Kalbotyros terminų žodyne defines substantivization as “the conversion of words from other parts of speech (in Lithuanian, especially adjectives and numerals, as well as participles) into nouns” (Gaivenis, Keinys 1990: 41). A. Paulauskienė defines this phenomenon, which is classed as non-affixal word formation2, in terms of the criterion of meaning: “<...> the conversion of words denoting a quality into words denoting an object” (Paulauskienė 1983: 42). It is sometimes argued that substantivization should not be confused with paradigmatic inflection; for example, words such as daugiabutis (daugiabučiam (adjective) – daugiabučiui (noun)), laukinis (laukiniam (adjective) – laukiniui (noun)) are examples not of substantivization but of paradigmatic inflection. This article, however, follows the view of Vincas Urbutis, who argues that the formal “reorganization of the former adjectival inflectional paradigm into a nominal one” is merely a further stage of substantivization (Urbutis 2009: 349). Thus, substantivization is primarily associated with changes in categorical meaning: as substantivization proceeds, the meaning of a quality or another meaning (depending on the part of speech) begins to fade, and the word acquires the categorical meaning of a noun. In Lithuanian linguists’ definitions of substantivization, the process of becoming or changing over is emphasized. The very word substantiv- 1 Hypostasis is “the conversion of a word or form belonging to one part of speech into a word belonging to another part of speech: jaunoji (a definite adjective that has become a noun), truputį (the accusative singular of a noun that has become an adverb), dėka (a noun that has become a postposition), and so on” (Gaivenis, Keinys 1990: 79). 2In Lithuanian morphology, linguists regard substantivization as a phenomenon of functional word formation (Paulauskienė 1994: 43–46). 36 Lina Rutkienė Daiktavardėjimas ir daiktavardiškumas architektūros ir statybos terminijoje The term substantivization, like nominalization, entails semes of process and continuity over time. However, the phenomenon under discussion can undoubtedly be associated not only with a process of becoming, but also with word formation. Stefan Höfler, who studied the substantivization of adjectives, argues that in the classical Indo-European languages substantivization can arise in two different ways: 1) an adjective becomes a noun through word formation, when morphological or morphonological operations are applied—this is the so-called ‘direct’ substantivization; 2) an adjective gradually becomes a noun. Initially, there is an adjective–noun phrase denoting a compound concept; later, the noun is omitted. This is substantivization resulting from ellipsis (Höfler 2020: 181–186). One reason for this latter type of substantivization should be considered the principle of economy in language, including terminology. On the other hand, this principle seems to contradict the principle of terminological precision, according to which a complex term expresses a scientific concept more precisely and therefore more clearly. In terminology, direct substantivization could be associated with the formation of new terms according to word-formation patterns that have emerged as a result of substantivization through ellipsis, and with the creation of new terms on the model of examples, most of which are likewise the result of substantivization through ellipsis. In view of the collected material, the second case (i.e., creation on the model of examples) would include the substantival use of pronominal adjectives and participles in terminology: when a pronominal adjective or participle is selected immediately as a one-word term to meet the nominative needs of a field of science, it is not possible to speak of term formation, since no word-formation takes place here and no word-formation affix is involved in the process. Therefore, this is said to be the creation of a new term on the model of existing examples. When terms are formed according to established word-formation patterns, it is more precise to speak not of substantivization (as a process), but of the substantival use of adjectives and participles—the term used by Pranas Kniūkšta in the monograph Priesagos -inis būdvardžiai (Kniūkšta 1976). The term used by P. Kniūkšta is relevant here and will be adopted for this study. The scholar distinguishes several degrees of substantival use. Words formed directly as nouns with the suffix -inis are assigned by the linguist to the group of words of the first³ degree of substantival use. The next degree (which, following the sequence, we will call the second in this article) is when derivatives with the suffix -inis “can be used in parallel both substantivally and adjectivally”. 3 P. Kniūkšta does not define or specify by number which degree it is; in writing pirmasis, the sequence is what is meant. Terminologija | 2023 | 30 37 adjectivally.” Another degree (which in this publication we will regard as the third) is: “Such derivatives with the suffix -inis as are ordinarily used as adjectives are used substantivally” (i.e., adjectives substantivized on an occasional basis)4. But, according to P. Kniūkšta, “[I]t can also be the other way around: words established as nouns are used adjectivally” (Kniūkšta 1976: 117–118) (the fourth degree of substantival use). P. Kniūkšta’s classification is useful in this study also because it applies to other cases of substantivization, namely, the substantivization and substantival use of pronominal adjectives and participles, and of compound adjectives. Thus, although P. Kniūkšta distinguishes degrees of substantival use only for derivatives with the suffixes -inis, -inė, this article will attempt to apply the scholar’s theory to all the cases of substantivization and substantival use identified in architectural and construction terminology. Although various parts of speech tend to become nouns in general language, empirical material shows that in architectural and construction terminology adjectives are most often substantivized or used substantivally, and participles less often. In the process of substantivization, the meaning of the adjective or participle changes and becomes more specific—it also encompasses the meaning of a noun. Thus, such a term denotes an entire entity and the characteristic feature associated with it; in other words, it carries a substantial semantic load. Substantivization undoubtedly brings changes in grammatical features and often in phonetic properties as well. 2. NOUN-LIKE AND NOMINALIZING ADJECTIVES AND PARTICIPLES IN ARCHITECTURAL AND CONSTRUCTION TERMINOLOGY In the general language, as A. Paulauskienė writes, nouns can arise from “pronominal forms of adjectives and participles, derivatives with the suffixes -inis, -inė (malkinė), -ienė (bulvienė), -ėtis (varsškėtis), compound and prefixed words (juodadarbis, beprotis, begalvis), since their meaning and grammatical structure are all suitable for performing noun functions” (Paulauskienė 1983: 43). The data from the study under discussion showed that cases of nominalization and noun-like usage are much less frequent in architectural and construction terminology: the following are nominalized or used as nouns: 1) adjectives with the suffixes -inis, -inė, 2) pronominal adjectives and pronominal participles, and 3) compound adjectives. Quantitative data are presented in Fig. 1. 4 A. Paulauskienė discusses such cases in connection with the noun-like use of adjectives (Paulauskienė 1994: 39). 38 Lina Rutkienė Daiktavardėjimas ir daiktavardiškumas architektūros ir statybos terminijoje 26% of terms expressed by noun-like pronominal adjectives and participles 13% of terms expressed by noun-like compound adjectives 61% of terms bearing adjectival suffixes -inis, -inė Fig. 1. Cases of nominalization and noun-like usage in architectural and construction terminology 2.1. Terms with the adjectival suffixes -inis, -inė Šias priesagas turinčių terminų probleminius klausimus reikėtų aptarti plačiau. Pagrindinis klausimas: ar iš viso šių priesagų vedinius, einančius terminais, galima sieti su daiktavardėjimu? Kalbotyroje yra įvairių nuomonių ir dėl daiktavardišką reikšmę turinčių šios priesagos vedinių prieskyros kalbos dalies kategorijai. P. Kniūkšta Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos gramatikoje daiktavardžio kategorijai priskiriamus žodžius su priesagomis -inis, -inė, tokius kaip milinė, nosinė, skardinė, stoginė, vamzdinė ir pan., laiko daiktavardiškai vartojamais būdvardžiais (Kniūkšta 1976). Stasys Keinys beveik tuo pačiu metu publikuotame straipsnyje tokius terminus, kaip durpinė, muitinė, siurblinė ir kt., aptaria kaip daiktavardžius (Keinys 1975: 71). Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos gramatikoje, kalbant apie priesagos -inė vedinius, rašoma, kad „[Ž]ymi dalis šios priesagos (lygi kaip ir toliau einančios priesagos -inis) daiktavardžių pradžioje, matyt, tėra buvę paprasti -inis, -inė būdvardžiai, kurie tik vėliau sudaiktavardėjo“ (DLKG 2005: 115). S. Ambrazas -ina, -inė, -inis vadina būdvardinėmis priesagomis (Ambrazas 1995: 191). A. Markevičius atkreipia dėmesį į tai, kad „[D]ėl aiškių būdvardžio ir daiktavardžio skyrimo kriterijų nebuvimo įvairiuose žodynuose yra nemaža painiavos“ (Markevičius 2012: 144). Returning to architectural and construction terms, it should be emphasized that most of them are formed as nouns, according to an established word-formation pattern. According to P. Kniūkšta’s theory of degrees of nominality, these terms would be of the first degree of nominality. Most such terms probably never functioned as adjectives; dictionaries do not record them as adjectives (e.g., areštinė ALKAAŽ 2009, kareivinės ALKAAŽ 2009, lif­tinė STŽ 2002). Thus, here again, it is more appropriate to speak not of nominalization but of nominality. Synchronically, such terms are associated with morphological word formation. As V. Urbutis states, “[N]ominalization Terminologija | 2023 | 30 39 may end in the former adjective suffix being synchronically perceived as a noun-forming suffix” (Urbutis 2009: 350). However, viewed diachronically, connections with substantivization can be discerned, as can the reasons for the emergence of the derivational pattern. Thus, terms containing the suffixes -inis, -inė are often not regarded as examples of substantivization; only connections are discerned and, following P. Kniūkšta, their degree of substantivity can be discussed. On the other hand, some one-word terms with the suffixes -inis, -inė may also be the result of substantivization. However, when examined synchronically, without seeing competition between one-word and two-word terms, it is difficult to determine precisely which were formed according to a derivational pattern and which are the result of a transition. There are quite a number of one-word terms with the suffixes -inis, -inė in architectural and construction terminology: 101 terms were identified, belonging to two main thematic groups: names of places and of structural parts of buildings. As the empirical data show, places are most often named by derivatives with the suffixes -inis, -inė. This group can be further divided into smaller subgroups: 1. These are mostly names of buildings, rooms, and institutions where what is denoted by the base word is found, done, or produced. This is evident not only from the derivational meaning but also from the definitions of the terms: durpinė ‘a shed where peat is stored’ STŽT 1978: 49; kareivinė ‘accommodation for military personnel since Roman times’ ALKAAŽ 2009: 23; merginė ‘girls’ room’ ALKAAŽ 2009: 32; padarginė ‘a place, room for storing implements’ MMPK 1988: 44; paukštinė ‘a poultry barn, henhouse’ MMPK 1988: 75; sargybinė ‘a guard’s hut or tower, built by a castle, manor house, or city gate’ ALKAAŽ 2009: 23; varpinė ‘a separate building or part of a building, attached to a church, intended for hanging bells’ ALKAAŽ 2009: 26; pašarinė ‘part of a threshing barn for storing chaff and fodder’ MMPK 1988: 75; degutinė ‘a room or pit where tar is made’ STŽT 1978: 43. 2. Derivatives with the suffixes -inis, -inė name a place intended for what is denoted by the base word. Although words in the first group also carry a nuance of purpose, the sense of purpose is more pronounced here; moreover, the base words in the first group are concrete nouns, whereas those in this group are abstract nouns. In many cases, however, the sense of purpose is not made explicit in the definitions, e.g.: pavėsinė ‘a small, light summer building in a garden or park, usually without doors or windows’ MMPK 1988: 79, ‘a small, gazebo-shaped structure characteristic of sixteenth- to nineteenth-century gardens and parks 40 Lina Rutkienė Daiktavardėjimas ir daiktavardiškumas architektūros ir statybos terminijoje architecture; [A] part of an architectural complex, most often a single-storey detached building’ ALKAAŽ 2009: 124. The other subgroups include few terms. Terms with the adjectival suffixes -inis, -inė may also name a structure located in the place denoted by the base word: žeminė ‘a structure excavated in the ground’ ALKAAŽ 2009: 55, or one made in the manner specified by the base word: krėstinė ‘a hut built of rammed clay’ ALKAAŽ 2009: 5. Most derivatives with the suffixes -inis, -inė that function as one-word architectural and construction terms denoting places would, according to P. Kniūkšta’s degrees of substantivity, belong to the first of the four degrees listed. However, V. Michalauskas’s dictionaries record a pair of terms of the second degree of substantivity: derivatives with the suffixes -inis, -inė are used both adjectivally as attributes of the head element in a two-word term and nominally as a one-word term, e.g., mėsinė – mėsinė kamera MMPK 1988. Competition between suffixes used to form place names is much more common in the dictionaries mentioned above than this kind of competition; cf.: arklinė – arklidė STŽT 1978, avinė – avidė STŽT 1978, kiaulinė – kiaulidė, kiaulinis STŽT 1978, ledinė – ledainė MMPK 1988, paukštinė – paukštidė, paukštininkas MMPK 1988. With regard to place names that were originally formed as nouns, attention should be drawn to S. Ambrazas’s diachronic studies of Lithuanian place names: the scholar argued that the formation of room names with the suffix -inė in Lithuanian may have been encouraged by Slavic derivatives with -ьn’a. According to S. Ambrazas, ‘[D]erivatives of this type are already found in old written sources’ (Ambrazas 1995: 191). Thus, such words formed according to a Slavic derivational model could be regarded as derivational calques—in this case, substantivization or substantivity is encountered in another language; it is not a phenomenon of our language. However, such derivational calques may also have helped give rise to a Lithuanian derivational pattern. This pattern became quite productive in architectural and construction terminology: numerous place names—one-word terms with the adjectival suffixes -inis, -inė—are found in the scholarly literature in these fields in both the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. In the Construction Terminology Dictionary (STŽ 2002), 21 were found, while in the English–Lithuanian Explanatory Dictionary of Architecture (ALKAAŽ 2009), there were 16. It is worth noting that, according to P. Kniūkšta, this derivational pattern must not have been productive in the past, because, in the linguist’s view, ‘words with the hybrid suffix -inyčia -inyčia <...> could not have become widespread. Moreover, Lithuanian place’ Terminologija | 2023 | 30 41 pavadinimai buvo populiaresni su priesagomis -idė, -udė“ (Kniūkšta 1976: 117). Gal galima manyti, kad šiam darybos tipui lietuvių kalboje įsitvirtinti padėjo būtent terminija. As can be seen from the examples, all the aforementioned names for places are feminine. This is probably a formal indicator of the relationship between the secondary component of the two-word term and the former main component of the term, such as patalpa, kamera and so on. However, the names in another thematic group—that of structural parts of a building—are formed in both the feminine and the masculine. Sometimes the same concept is designated by nouns with adjectival suffixes of different genders: garinis / garinė “an opening through which smoke escapes into the chimney” STŽT 1978. There are also terms with a common stem in which the masculine denotes one concept within the same thematic group and the feminine another, e.g.: skersinė – spyrys, skersinis – traversa STŽT 2002. By contrast, for example, dūminis (“upper smoke outlet”) and dūminė (“smokehouse; poor room; dwelling house without a chimney” MMPK 1988: 47) name members of different thematic groups. The thematic group under discussion essentially consists of two subgroups: names for various openings in a building intended to improve the air inside it, and names for beams, logs, and boards that perform a particular structural function. The first subgroup would include, for example, the following terms: aukštinis, dūminis, kiaurinis “an opening in the ceiling of a smoke hut through which smoke escapes” STŽT 1978: 27, 84; miglinė “an opening through which steam escapes into the chimney” MMPK 1988: 33; orinė “air vent” MMPK 1988. Examples of terms in the second subgroup include balkinis “a wall log on which beams are laid” STŽT 1978: 29; gairinė “a log in the roof ridge” STŽT 1978: 52; ilginis “longitudinal support beam” ALKAAŽ 2009: 26; ilaidinė, spraustlentė STŽT 2002; išilginis “lintel, log, beam, pole, laid lengthwise” STŽT 1978: 66; pagegninis “a wall log supporting rafters” MMPK 1988: 46; pamტinis “the first, bottom wall log, laid on the foundation” MMPK 1988: 58; pavартinė “a board laid at the eaves” MMPK 1988: 78. As for derivational meaning, this thematic group is dominated by names whose base word indicates what the named object is intended for (orinė “an opening, a small window for air”) or where it is located (pavartinė “a board at the eaves”), or how it is laid (išilginis “laid lengthwise”). As can be seen, the first two meanings coincide with the derivational meanings of names for places. However, unlike the first thematic group, no new terms with the suffixes -inis, -inė denoting building openings were found in 21st-century architecture and construction literature. 42 Lina Rutkienė Daiktavardėjimas ir daiktavardiškumas architektūros ir statybos terminijoje There are also other terms with adjectival suffixes -inis, -inė in the terminology of architecture and construction, but their small number makes it inappropriate to identify any thematic groups. Examples include kirvinė “a bent stick attached to a wall for hanging an axe” STŽT 1978: 85, and molinė “a clay roof tile” MMPK 1988: 33. Regarding terms with the suffixes –inis, –inė, it should be noted that some of them (e.g., daržinė, kiaulinė, mėsinė, skersinis) entered the terminology of architecture and construction from the standard or vernacular language. Thus, the process of conversion into nouns, or word formation according to an established derivational pattern, took place in the standard or vernacular language, and only later were these words terminologized. 2.2. Terms expressed by substantivized pronominal adjectives and pronominal participles Turning to the next case under consideration—the substantivization and substantival use of pronominal adjectives and participles—it is appropriate to draw on A. Valeckienė’s research. According to the linguist, the quality expressed by pronominal adjectives “is associated only with certain things, and on its own can define things, so the name of the thing is unnecessary” (Valeckienė 1957: 253). This idea is also partly relevant to understanding why pronominal participles become substantivized. However, the scholar discusses words in general language, whereas, in considering terminology, one must bear in mind the requirements of clarity and precision. In particular, when the same pronominal adjective and participle function as attributes in different terms, a substantivized form may cause ambiguity. On the other hand, A. Valeckienė holds that this case of substantivization is an old phenomenon that may have “been occurring since the very emergence of the functional meanings of pronominal adjectives—from the formation of pronominal forms” (Valeckienė 1957: 256). It could therefore be assumed that, over time, a method of term formation may develop in which terms are created by selecting for nomination a pronominal adjective or participle prone to substantivization, and that this method of term formation is productive. It should also be noted, however, that substantivized pronominal forms may enter terminology as a result of terminologization: substantivization has taken place in general language, and the already substantivized pronominal form is then selected as a term. For example, words such as gyvenamoji, miegamasis are recorded in vernacular speech as well, according to the Lietuvių kalbos žodynas (LKŽe), and thus most likely entered the terminology of architecture and construction through terminologization. Terminologija | 2023 | 30 43 Thus, in this case, too, it is more appropriate to speak not of substantivization but of substantivness in terminology. Nevertheless, substantivized pronominal adjectives and participles are not numerous in architectural and construction terminology. Only 21 such terms were found in the literature reviewed, but they belong to quite diverse thematic groups. As with derivatives in the suffix -inis, -inė, place names predominate among them. The words under discussion denote buildings or rooms intended for a particular human activity (e.g., miegamasis ‘a room intended for sleeping’). All the terms found in this thematic group are substantivized passive present-tense participles: gyvenamoji STŽ 1978, laukiamasis STŽ 2002, miegamasis MMPK 1988, STŽ 2002, ALKAAŽ 2009, priimamasis ALKAAŽ 2009. Most of the terms in this thematic group expressed by substantivized participles should probably be regarded as examples of the second degree of substantivness: these participles also function in architectural and construction terminology as attributes of head terms (cf. gyvenamoji patalpa PKSŽ 2009, miegamasis kambarys PKSŽ 2009). However, the term priimamasis competes only with the variant priėmimo kambarys; the phrase priimamasis kambarys was not found in the sources reviewed. In general, analysis of the collected material revealed no tendency for prefixed adjectives and participles to become substantivized. It is likely that the term priimamasis is not the result of substantivization but was created directly by translating the Russian word приёмная. The terms discussed in the other thematic group—that of paint names—are likewise predominantly of the second degree of substantivness. They are used both adjectivally, as attributes of the head element in two-word terms, and substantivally, as one-word terms. In the Statybos terminų žodyne, the terms juodieji, raudonieji are given with a reference to the two-word terms juodieji dažai, raudonieji dažai (STŽ 2002). The competition between these terms is presumably a long-standing phenomenon, as recorded in the dictionary. The principal compiler of the dictionary, Antanas Kudzys, wrote that in compiling it he used interwar construction literature (Kudzys 2002), and textbooks of that period use both the terms juodieji, raudonieji and juodieji dažai, raudonieji dažai. However, the term žalieji is listed in STŽ 2002 without a reference to a two-word variant. In the Statybos terminų žodyne, just two names from another thematic group—structural components—are listed only as nouns: uždaromoji STŽ 2002, skirstomoji STŽ 2002. These terms could not be found in other sources, either in substantival or adjectival use. They were probably 44 Lina Rutkienė Daiktavardėjimas ir daiktavardiškumas architektūros ir statybos terminijoje created by the dictionary's compilers on the basis of existing examples. It should also be noted that, according to the Bank of Terms of the Republic of Lithuania, in other fields skirstomoji, uždaromoji are used only as attributes of head-term elements, e.g., skirstomoji dėžutė LRTBe, uždaromoji armatūra LRTBe. Terms such as dedamoji STŽ 2002 and pastovioji STŽ 2002 probably entered construction terminology from other fields—mathematics and physics. 2.3. Subordinate elements prone to substantivization, expressed by compound adjectives The third case of substantivization is associated with compound adjectives functioning as terminological attributes. It must be acknowledged that, when evaluating compound nouns used as terms, it is often difficult to determine which are substantivized adjectives and which were formed as nouns, since essentially the same basic word-formation patterns are used for both compound adjectives and compound nouns. Perhaps this is the main reason why this group of terms (43 terms were found) contains the greatest number of words of the second degree of substantivness, that is, words used both adjectivally and substantivally. With regard to competition between a one-word term expressed by a compound adjective and a two-word term whose subordinate element is expressed by a compound adjective, the empirical material shows that the one-word term is more often used in later literature. Thus, in this case, we can undoubtedly speak of a process of substantivization which, in S. Höfler’s words, occurs through ellipsis. It is associated with the morphosyntactic formation of terms. This substantivization encompasses compounds from various term groups that function as attributes in two-word terms: 1) names of places—not rooms (as could be seen from the discussion of terms in the previous groups), but only buildings—e.g., daugiaaukštis namas MSSA 1955 – daugiaaukštis PKSŽ 2009, daugiabutis namas MSSA 1955, RLKP 1959, ALKA 1980 – daugiabutis DFSRL 2012, ŠVOK 2019; 2) names of machines, e.g., akmenskal dė mašina SDKŽ 1940 – akmenskaldė KP 1978, STŽ 2002; 3) names of tools, e.g., tridantis įrankis JTŽ 1982 – tridantis STŽ 2002; 4) names of materials, e.g., angliarūgštė rūgštis SŽD 1939 – angliarūgštė RLSTŽ 1992. As the sources show, the process of substantivization is connected with the use of terms, as evidenced by terms found in textbooks and teaching materials. However, the possibility must also be considered that some Terminologija | 2023 | 30 45 As Alvydas Umbrasas puts it, the substantivization of compounds—the conversion of their dependent components into terms—is only “situational” (Umbrasas 2010: 118). The English–Lithuanian Explanatory Dictionary of Architecture reveals another tendency: a compound used substantivally is given as the term, while in the term’s definition it is used adjectivally: keturkolonė “a four-columned temple of antiquity; its main façade has four columns” ALKAAŽ 2009: 161. Thus, a multiword term whose attribute is the adjective keturkolonė becomes the basis for explaining the term keturkolonė. Both this example and others show that a multiword term is, understandably, clearer and more precise. This reason likely underlies another phenomenon related to substantivization and substantival use, one examined by P. Kniūkšta in discussing the substantival use of derivatives with the suffix –inis: the adjectivization of substantivized adjectives. Until now, no such examples had been discussed in this article: in architecture and construction terminology, no derivatives with the suffixes –inis, –inė, nor definite adjectives or participles established as nouns but later used adjectivally or participially—that is, later serving as dependent components of two-word terms—had been observed. In examining the third case, however, two terms were found that are connected precisely with this process, which could be called desubstantivization. In construction terminology, the established terms savaeigė and savivartis can be found as early as around the mid-20th century. However, in some later literature the term savaeigė in SEŽ 1967 is replaced by the two-word variant savaeigė mašina BŽSM 1982, and the term savivartis in SP 1965, PLST 1972, STŽ 2002 is replaced by savi vartis sunkvežimis PAPŠ 20085. Of course, such instances of desubstantivization may also be merely contextual, or situational. Nevertheless, in seeking an answer to what might encourage the desubstantivization of terms, it is worth returning to the principle of precision. It may be that this desubstantivization (even if situational) is encouraged by the proliferation, accompanying scientific development, of two-word terms whose dependent component expresses the same feature and is represented by the same compound adjective. For example, in the English–Lithuanian and Lithuanian–English Dictionary of Construction Terms alone, the same compound adjective savaeigis serves as the dependent component in several two-word terms: savaeigis kranas ALLA 1993, savaeigis skirstytuvas ALLA 1993, savaeigis gręžtuvas ALLA 1993, savaeigis skreperis ALLA 1993. Based on 5 In 1966, Kazimieras Gaivenis used savi varčiu versus savi varčiu sunkvežimiu to illustrate the substantivization of adjectives or participles used attributively (Gaivenis 2014 [1966]: 505–506). 46 Lina Rutkienė Daiktavardėjimas ir daiktavardiškumas architektūros ir statybos terminijoje According to A. Paulauskienė, if a very specific or distinctive property of an object is associated with that object alone, then “over time the name of the object itself becomes, as it were, unnecessary” (Paulauskienė 1983: 43). This is probably one of the most important causes of substantivization as a process. Consequently, the cause of desubstantivization should be considered the opposite phenomenon: when the same property comes to be associated with several different objects and those objects need to be named, the name of the object becomes necessary. CONCLUSIONS 1. The substantivization of words is an old and still ongoing linguistic phenomenon encompassing both general-language words and terms. Substantivization is a process continuous over time, related to the morphosyntactic formation of terms and their use; it is associated with morphological term formation according to word-formation types and with the creation of terms by analogy. 2. On the basis of empirical material, three cases of substantivization and substantival use were identified in architecture and construction terminology: adjectives with the suffixes –inis, –inė, definite adjectives and definite participles, and compound adjectives are substantivized or used substantivally. When substantivization and substantival use in terms are studied synchronically, but competition between one-word and two-word terms is not sufficiently taken into account, it is often impossible to determine whether a term used substantivally was formed according to a word-formation type or by analogy, or whether it arose when the dependent component of the term took over the functions of the head component. Nevertheless, many sources document this competition. 3. Most derivatives bearing the adjectival suffix –inis, –inė that function as architecture and construction terms denote places (buildings and other structures associated with human activity) or structural parts of buildings. Definite adjectives and participles used substantivally also most often serve as names of places; less frequently, they are used to name paints and structural details. Substantivized compound adjectives include names of places, machines, tools, and materials. Thus, the study showed that in all three cases, in both the 20th and 21st centuries, adjectives and participles belonging to the terminological group of place names are substantivized or used substantivally. 4. Terms formed according to a word-formation type that developed as a result of word substantivization are generally of the first degree (according to P. Kniūkšta’s classification of substantival use Terminologija | 2023 | 30 47 (the ordering of the degrees), whereas those formed through the process of substantivization of the secondary constituent are of the second degree of substantivization. When an adjective or participle takes over the meaning of the head constituent of a two-word term, expressed by a noun, that head constituent may be omitted, and the secondary constituent then becomes the designation of the entire referent. However, as science develops and more complex terms emerge whose head constituent has the same adjective or participle as its attribute, substantivized parts of speech may cause ambiguity. In such cases, the opposite process—desubstantivization—is likely. This phenomenon has been observed among compound adjectives that have become substantivized and function as architectural and construction terms. To investigate substantivization and substantival use in terminology more broadly, more empirical material should be collected, the relationship between a two-word term and its non-nominal constituent that becomes a noun should be assessed, and the influence of the principles of terminological economy, clarity, and precision on substantivization should be determined. ŠALTINIAI ALKA – Anglų–lietuvių kalbos architektūros terminų žodynėlis, sud. A. Glemžienė, Vilnius: VISI, 1980. ALKAAŽ – Anglų–lietuvių kalbų aiškinamasis architektūros žodynas, sud. L. Kitkauskienė, N. Kitkauskas, Vilnius: Technika, 2009. ALLA – Anglų–lietuvių kalbų statybos terminų žodynas, sud. A. Kudzys, Vilnius: Technika, 1993. BŽSM – Bendrosios žinios apie statybos mašinas: paskaitų konspektas, aut. D. Midvikis, J. Starkus, Vilnius: LTSR aukšt. ir spec. vid. mokslo ministerija, 1982. DFSRL – Daugiabučių funkcines struktūros raida Lietuvoje, aut. V. Gerdvilis, Vilnius: Technika, 2012. ĮTŽ – Jaunojo tinkuotojo žinynas, aut. V. I. Goriačevas, vert. A. Zimanienė, Vilnius: Mokslas, 1982. KP – Konstrukciniai plienai, aut. A. Pavaras, Vilnius: Mokslas, 1978. LKŽe – Lietuvių kalbos žodynas. Prieiga internete: https://ekalba.lt/lietuviu-kalbos-zodynas/. LRTBe – Lietuvos Respublikos terminų bankas. Prieiga internete: http://terminai.vlkk.lt/. MMPK – Mediniai ir mūriniai pastatai, konstrukcijos ir elementai: mokomoji knygelė, aut. V. Michalauskas, Vilnius: VISI rotaprintas, 1988. MSSA – Miestų sodybinės statybos architektūra, aut. A. Spelskis, Vilnius: Valstybinės politinės ir mokslinės literatūros leidykla, 1955. PAPŠ – Pastato apdaila. Pastato šiltinimas ir tinkavimas. Apdaila plytelėmis ir apdailos elementų montavimas: vadovėlis, aut. M. Černius, E. Kuliešius, V. Rutkevičienė, V. Savarauskienė, Vilnius: Mintis, 2008. PKSŽ – Pastatų konstruktoriaus ir statybininko žinynas, red. kolg. J. Gajauskas, J. Jonas Amšiejus ir kt., Kaunas: Naujasis lankas, 2009. PLST – Prancūzų–lietuvių statybos terminų žodynėlis, sud. A. Gudaitis, Vilnius: VISI, 1972. RLKP – Rusų–lietuvių kalbų politechninis žodynas, red. kol. A. Novodorski, L. Kumpikas, J. Mikućkas, J. Stanaitis, S. Vasauskas, J. Vidmantas, Vilnius: Valstybinė politinės ir mokslinės literatūros leidykla, 1959. RLSTŽ – Rusų–lietuvių kalbų statybos terminų žodynas, aut. J. Kivilša, A. Kudzys, A. Rosinas, Vilnius: Lietuvos ūkis, 1992. SDKŽ – Statybos darbininkų kvalifikacijos žinynas, reng. S. V. Bašinskij, P. V. Blaževič, I. A. Petrov, Kaunas: Vilnius, 1940. SEŽ – Statybos ekonomisto žinynas, aut. P. Rogožinas, Vilnius: Mintis, 1967. 48 Lina Rutkienė Daiktavardėjimas ir daiktavardiškumas architektūros ir statybos terminijoje SP – Statybos pagrindai, aut. A. Iljičiovas, A. Kokinas, J. Rebortovičius, vert. R. Kuosaitė, Vilnius: Vaizdas, 1965. STŽ – Statybos terminų žodynas, aut. A. Kudzys, A. Rosenas, B. Kudzienė, Vilnius: Lietuvos mokslas, 2002. STŽT – Statybos terminų žodynas. Trobesiai, aut. V. Michalauskas, Vilnius: VISI, 1978. ŠŽD – Statyba II. Žemės darbai, aut. J. Šimoliūnas, Kaunas: Spindulys, 1939. ŠVOK – Šildymas, vėdinimas, oro kondicionavimas: teorija ir praktika, aut. J. Čiuprinskienė, K. Čiuprinskas, V. Motuzienė, Vilnius: Super namai, 2019. LITERATŪRA Ambrazas Saulius 1995: Lietuvių kalbos kuopinių ir vardažodinių vietų pavadinimų darybos raida. – Lietuvių kalbotyros klausimai: gramatika ir leksikologija 33, 180–200. DLKG – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos gramatika, red. V. Ambrazas, 4-as patais. leid., Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas, 2005. Drotvinas Vincentas 1963: Lietuvių literatūrinės kalbos sudurtinių būdvardžių struktūriniai-semantiniai tipai (remiantis XVI–XVIII a. raštų medžiaga). – Kalbotyra 6, 75–97. Gaivenis Kazimieras 2014 [1966]: Sudėtiniai terminai su žodžiu mašina. – Kazimieras Gaivenis. Rinktiniai raštai, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos instituto leidykla, 505–506. Gaivenis Kazimieras, Keinys Stasys 1990: Kalbotyros terminų žodynas, Vilnius: Šviesa. Höfler Stefan 2020: Substantivization of adjectives. – Indo-European linguistics 8, 181–204. Keinys Stasys 2005 [1975]: Priesaginė lietuviškų terminų daryba. – Dabartinė lietuvių terminologija, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos instituto leidykla, 21–77. Kniūkšta Pranas 1976: Priesagos -inis būdvardžiai: daryba, reikšmės, gramatiniai sinonimai, Vilnius: Mokslas. Kudzys Antanas 2002: Kad susikalbėtume. – Mokslo Lietuva 19(265). Prieiga internete: http://mokslasplius.lt/mokslo-lietuva/2002-2004/200219/20021902.htm [žiūrėta 2019 m. sausio–kovo mėn.]. LKG – Lietuvių kalbos gramatika 1: Fonetika ir morfologija, vyr. red. K. Ulvydas, Vilnius: Mintis, 1965. Markevičius Aurimas 2012: Kalbos dalių paribio problemos. – Acta Linguistica Lithuanica 67, 140–155. Paulauskienė Aldona 1983: Lietuvių kalbos morfologijos apybraiža, Kaunas: Šviesa. Paulauskienė Aldona 1994: Lietuvių kalbos morfologija: paskaitos lituanistams, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla. Umbrasas Alvydas 2010: Lietuvių teisės terminija 1918–1940 metais: pagrindinių kodeksų terminai, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas. Urbutis Vincas 2009: Žodžių darybos teorija, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas. Valeckienė Adelė 1957: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos įvardžiuotinių būdvardžių vartojimas. – Literatūra ir kalba 2, 161–328. Vaskelaitė Ramunė 2019: Įvardžiuotiniai dalyviai su priklausomais žodžiais: kodifikuotoji norma ir jos neaiškumai, – Bendrinė kalba 92. Prieiga internete: https://etalpykla.lituanistika.lt/fedora/objects/LT-LDB-0001:J.04~2019~1583831591243/datastreams/DS.002.0.01.ARTIC/content. SUBSTANTIVISATION AND NOUNNESS IN ARCHITECTURAL AND CONSTRUCTION TERMINOLOGY Summary Substantivisation is an old yet ongoing linguistic phenomenon that encompasses both general language words and terminology. This article explores substantivisation and nounness issues based on architectural and construction terminology, drawing from dictionaries of architectural and construction terms and other scientific and educational literature. The research material was mainly collected from sources dating from the late twentieth century to the twenty-first century, resulting in 165 terms compiled from a total of 21 sources. While various parts of speech tend to undergo substantivisation in everyday language, empirical evidence shows that in architectural and Terminologija | 2023 | 30 49 construction terminology, adjectives are most frequently nominalized or used in a noun-like way, while participles are less common. Substantivization is both an ongoing process in terms of time, related to morphological and syntactic term formation, and an action performed from an external source, linked to morphological term formation according to formation types and term creation by examples. During substantivization, the meaning of the adjective or participle becomes more specific and concrete, encompassing the meaning of a noun. Thus, such a term denotes the entire reality and its characteristic feature, which means it has a significant semantic load. Grammatical features often change due to substantivization, including phonetic characteristics. It was found that there are three cases of substantivization in architecture and construction terminology, namely, adjectives with the suffixes –inis, –inė, definite adjectives and adjectival participles, and compound adjectives. Most derivatives with adjectival suffixes –inis, –inė in architecture and construction terms refer to places (buildings and other structures related to human activity) or structural components of a building. Nominalized definite adjectives and participles are also typically used as place names, albeit less commonly used for materials and structural components. Compound adjectives undergoing substantivization encompass the names of places, machinery, tools, and materials. According to the formation type that has developed due to substantivization, terms are usually in the first degree of nounness (in terms of the nounness degrees sequence by P. Knjiūkšta), and as the process of secondary element nominalization progresses, they reach the second degree of nounness. When an adjective or participle takes on the meaning of a two-word term, expressed by a noun, the primary element may be omitted, and the secondary element becomes the name of the entire entity. However, as science develops and more complex compound terms emerge, where the attribute of the primary element is the same adjective or participle, parts of speech used in a noun-like way may lead to ambiguities. In such cases, de-substantivization is expected. This phenomenon has been observed in the group of compound adjectives that have undergone substantivization in architecture and construction terminology. Gauta 2023-10-06 Lina Rutkienė Lietuvių kalbos institutas P. Vileišio g. 5, LT-10308 Vilnius E. paštas [email protected] 50 Lina Rutkienė │ Daiktavardėjimas ir daiktavardiškumas architektūros ir statybos terminijoje