Emocinė-ekspresinė leksika „Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenyne“ – naujadarų radimosi priežastys ir darybos būdai

AGNĖ ALEKSAITĖ Institute of the Lithuanian Language EMOTIVE-EXPRESSIVE LEXICON IN THE DATABASE OF NEOLOGISMS OF THE LITHUANIAN LANGUAGE – CIRCUMSTANCES OF NEOLOGISM FORMATION AND WORD-FORMATION METHODS KEYWORDS: emotive-expressive lexicon, neologisms, occasional formations, derivational analysis, word-formation method, productivity. INTRODUCTION About the Database of New Lithuanian Words (hereafter ND, the database) has been written about from various perspectives (for a more detailed discussion, see Miliūnaitė 2012a: 3–11; 2015: 161–184; 2018: 1–21; Murmulaitytė 2016a: 1–27; 2016b: 68–88; Aleksaitė 2018: 1–2). Therefore, this time, without continuing the general overview of the database, the article delves into the traditional concept and types of neologisms and presents an innovative view of Lithuanian neologisms as signs of the issues of the times in which we live. As of April 5, 2019, the database contained 5,120 lexicographically described linguistic units. A total of 572 neologisms serving an emotive-expressive function were found1. In the database, stylistically marked neologisms are divided into eight expressive shades: vulgar, derogatory, pejorative, diminutive, affectionate, jocular, ironic, and familiar (see Fig. 1). 1 Nouns make up 91.8% of all emotive-expressive lexicon recorded in ND, verbs 4.9%, and adjectives 3.3%. Given the limited empirical data on verbs and adjectives, it is clear that their word-formation methods cannot be discussed in depth; therefore, this article provides a general description of word-formation tendencies among stylistically marked neologisms. BENDRINĖ KALBA 92 (2019) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 AGNĖ ALEKSAITĖ. Emocinė-ekspresinė leksika Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenyne – naujadarų radimosi aplinkybės ir darybos būdai | 2 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2019.92.04 FIG. 1. Distribution of neologisms in the database by expressive connotation As can be seen, negative-connotation neologisms make up the vast majority of the emotional-expressive vocabulary in ND (as much as 69.4%), that is, formations with ironic, derogatory, pejorative, vulgar, and familiar connotations. This uneven distribution can be explained by psychological and social factors: in Lithuanian (as in many other languages), negative emotional evaluation is expressed more often than positive evaluation, because everything good is accepted as the norm, and people do not express exceptional emotions about normal things; consequently, everything bad is regarded as a deviation from the norm and is evaluated by means of neologisms with negative connotations (Jakaitienė 1988: 51; Gudavičius 2000: 130–131). Leaving aside semantically new words in ND that are morphologically unanalyzable, e.g., plūgas „menk. viskuo nepatenkintas tamsuolis“, runkelis „menk. tamsuoliu laikomas pesimistiškai nusiteikęs žmogus, priešinamas elitui“, word combinations, e.g., kelių vištelė „menk. vairuotoja moteris, akiplėšiškai ir piktybiškai nepaisanti eismo taisyklių“ (cf. kelių gaidelis, kelių erelis), naudingas idiotas „menk. kas nesavanaudiškai skleidžia įtartinas žinias ir ideologijas, naudingas priešininkams, nesuvokdamas tokio elgesio kenksmingumo“, and borrowings, e.g., nafris, -ė „menk. išeivis Europoje iš Šiaurės Afrikos“, retarderis „2. iron. figuratively – a laggard; political BENDRINĖ KALBA 92 (2019) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 AGNĖ ALEKSAITĖ. Emotional-expressive vocabulary Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenyne – the circumstances behind the emergence of neologisms and their formation methods | 3 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2019.92.04 procesų stabdis“ (plačiau apie etiškai netinkamus žodžius žr. Župerka 2005: 25–28), tyrimo objektu pasirinkti 479 kalbos vienetai2. Šio straipsnio tikslas – nustatyti pagrindinius emocinės-ekspresinės leksikos, užfiksuotos ND, žodžių darybos būdus ir produktyviausias darybos priemones. Uždaviniai: 1) išrinkti iš ND emocinę-ekspresinę funkciją atliekančius naujadarus; 2) atlikti darybinę ND stilistiškai žymėtų naujadarų analizę; 3) ištirti ir aprašyti stilistiškai žymėtų naujadarų darybos būdus ir priemones; 4) nustatyti naujus darybos polinkius ir 5) aptarti stilistiškai žymėtų naujadarų (gyvenamojo meto aktualijų ženklų) radimosi aplinkybes. Darbe taikyti darybinės analizės ir skaičiavimo metodai. THE CONCEPT OF EMOTIONAL-EXPRESSIVE VOCABULARY Stylistically marked vocabulary consists of emotyvai and ekspresyvai. Emotyvai are usually defined as words that express feelings, their “meaning rests on the speaker’s positive or negative emotional attitude toward the thing named. This is their opinion of the value of a particular thing, and that opinion manifests itself not as a logical judgment but as the speaker’s perception or feeling” (Gudavičius 2000: 126). Ekspresyvai are also used for stylistic reasons; these are “words that describe the thing named through imagery” (Jakaitienė 2010: 164). The principal difference between emotyvai and ekspresyvai lies in the distinct directions of their effect, since “emotyvai affect the interlocutor’s feelings, whereas image-bearing words affect the imagination, because their meaning seems to take shape in visual or auditory images” (Jakaitienė 2010: 164). Although scholarly literature usually distinguishes emotyvai and ekspresyvai according to the direction of their effect, they cannot, nevertheless, be sharply separated, because “whatever is emotional in language is always expressive” (Pikčilingis 2010: 211; see also Volek 1987: 5) and, conversely, “information conveyed through imagery also elicits one kind or another of emotional evaluation” (Jakaitienė 2010: 164–165). Therefore, this article uses the term emotional-expressive vocabulary to refer to stylistically marked vocabulary3. 2 This is the first study of emotional-expressive vocabulary, which revealed that some of the database’s neologisms still require systematic stylistic editing. The purpose of ND is to record lexical innovations, so when words are added to the database one at a time, the overall system is not immediately apparent. Only after more data have been collected can one see which groups of neologisms stand out and assess these groups stylistically in a consistent manner. 3 Because of this difficulty in distinguishing them, the emotional-expressive vocabulary in ND is not further subdivided into the two groups mentioned above. BENDRINĖ KALBA 92 (2019) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 AGNĖ ALEKSAITĖ. Emocinė-ekspresinė leksika Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenyne – naujadarų radimosi aplinkybės ir darybos būdai | 4 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2019.92.04 TRADITIONAL CONCEPT AND TYPES OF NEOLOGISMS Lietuvių kalbotyros veikaluose naujažodis (neologizmas) paprastai apibrėžiamas kaip naujai kalboje atsiradęs žodis (Urbutis 2009: 36–37; Jakaitienė 2010: 205; Girčienė 2011: 165), nors mokslinėje literatūroje pateikiama naujažodžio samprata įvairuoja (plačiau žr. Girčienė 2012b: 6): vieni skiriamąją naujažodžio ypatybę laiko keliamą naujumo, neįprastumo įspūdį (Palionis 1985: 212), kiti naujažodžiais laiko žodžius, iki tol neįtrauktus į atraminius žodynus (Miliūnaitė 2015: 169)4. Mokslininkai polemizuoja dėl naujažodžiui priskiriamos „naujumo aureolės“, „[m]at naujumas kartais gali būti suprantamas pernelyg subjektyviai: vieniems kalbos vartotojams koks nors žodis gali atrodyti jau įprastas, o kiti dar gali jo ir nesuprasti“ (Popova 2005: 9–13, cituojama iš Jakaitienė 2010: 205; dar žr. Kazlauskaitė, Župerka, Macienė 2013: 91). Patikimesnis esti naujažodžių atrankos kriterijus pagal atraminius leidinius, nors lietuvių kalbos atveju toks kriterijus nėra visiškai patikimas – žodynuose esama leksikografinių plyšių, susiduriama su žodynų sistemiškumo problema (Miliūnaitė 2015: 169). Duomenyne naujažodžiais laikomi žodžiai, kurie nėra įrašyti kaip atraminiais pasirinktuose žodynuose, t. y. Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodyne (6-asis (elektroninis) leidimas, 2011), internetiniame Lietuvių kalbos žodyne ir Tarptautinių žodžių žodyne (Alma littera, 2001) (žr. http://naujazodziai.lki.lt/?Apie_duomenyna; apie protologizmo ir neologizmo skirtumus žr. Aleksaitė 2018: 5–6). Functionally, new words are divided into two main groups – referential (also called nominative, terminological, necessary, etc.) and expressive (also called stylistic, optional, etc.) (Girčienė 2012a: 249; 2012b: 15; see also Offord 2001: 98; Vaicekauskienė 2007: 34–43). Referential new words name new realities, that is, they perform a referential (information-transmitting) function, whereas expressive new words are introduced into a text for stylistic purposes, with the emotional-expressive function being paramount. Referential 4 True, the ND also includes linguistic units that were probably left out of the reference dictionaries by mistake. In the ND they are labelled non-new (unrecorded), e.g., meiliauostis ‘a folk-medicine remedy that induces or increases sexual desire’. The Database notes that this neologism is “a partial equivalent of the current borrowing afrodiziakas, once used in Lithuanian but not included in the major Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language”. BENDRINĖ KALBA 92 (2019) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 AGNĖ ALEKSAITĖ. Emocinė-ekspresinė leksika Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenyne – naujadarų radimosi aplinkybės ir darybos būdai | 5 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2019.92.04 new words whose main distinguishing feature is stylistic neutrality (Girčienė 2012b: 41) are termed potential formations (potentialisms). A potential formation is a newly formed word that is entirely familiar to the language user and conforms to the requirements of its word-formation type; it can be produced at any moment during speech whenever it is needed (Plag 2003: 57; Paulauskienė 2006: 24; Urbutis 2009: 316; Vaskelienė 2011: 67). For example, alongside the familiar Lithuanian names for meats (paukštiena, kiauliena, jautiena), when needed, buivoliena (: buivolas) ‘buffalo meat’, kengūriena (: kengūra) ‘kangaroo meat’, kupranugariena (: kupranugaris) ‘camel meat’, and so on, can be coined. The essential distinguishing feature of potential formations is that even when they first appear, their novelty is often not felt (Mikelionienė 2000a: 19; Urbutis 2009: 323). They are created out of necessity to name a new reality (Girčienė 2012b: 12), in order to fill so-called “semantic gaps” (Mikelionienė 2000b: 65), unlike expressive new words, which aim at “newer, more expressive or more fashionable linguistic expression” (Girčienė 2005: 78). These stylistically marked, or connotative, elements of a text (Girčienė 2012b: 41; see also Lehrer 2003: 369) are called occasional formations (occasionalisms) in other works. An occasional formation (occasionalism) is an expressive neologism that departs from the word-formation system and is fixed in an individual context (Blažinskaitė 2004: 59; Rozenbergs 2004: 156; Urbutis 2009: 323–324; Jakaitienė 2010: 207; Mattiello 2016: 115); it is also referred to by the terms authorial, individual, stylistic, situational, contextual, one-off, and unusually formed neologism / new word, as well as dictionary-unrecorded formation (Mikelionienė 2000c: 67; 2002: 74; Jakaitienė 2010: 207; Kazlauskaitė, Župerka, Macienė 2013: 92; Miliūnaitė 2014: 247). For example, people of limited intelligence are described by išplautsmegenis, -ė (: išplautas, -a + smegenys) ‘derog. someone with dulled thinking (with a brain that has been washed)’, vienavingis, -ė (: vienas, -a + vingis) ‘derog. someone with a single brain convolution, i.e. primitive thinking’, žirniassmegenis, -ė (: žirnis + smegenys) ‘derog. someone with primitive thinking, unenlightened, an uncouth lout’, and so on. Thus, this article examines the emotional-expressive lexicon of the ND, which includes a considerable number of occasional neologisms. One possible direction for further research would be to investigate how the word-formation tendencies of occasional formations differ from those of referential neologisms. BENDRINĖ KALBA 92 (2019) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 AGNĖ ALEKSAITĖ. Emocinė-ekspresinė leksika Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenyne – naujadarų radimosi aplinkybės ir darybos būdai | 6 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2019.92.04 NEOLOGISMS – MARKERS OF CONTEMPORARY ISSUES Kalba – vienas iš svarbiausių tautos požymių (Gudavičius 1992: 1), nes „[k]iekvienos tautos kalba saugo įdomią istoriją apie daugelio amžių žmonių pastangas pažinti, suvokti ir pajungti sau juos supantį pasaulį“ (Kopylenko 1995: 19, cituojama iš Gudavičius 2000: 8), kitaip tariant, nuo seno vartojamuose kalbos vienetuose yra išlikęs per šimtmečius susiklostęs tautos pasaulėvaizdis ir pasaulėjauta (Gudavičius 2003: 68). Kalbos ir tautos santykis nagrinėjamas ne tik kalbininkų, bet ir kitų sričių specialistų: „Kalba daugelio kultūrologų, mitologų seniai suvokiama kaip liaudies kultūros, tautos psichologijos ir filosofijos veidrodis, dažnai ir kaip vienintelis šaltinis tautos istorijai ir jos dvasiai pažinti ir yra tiriama šiuo požiūriu“ (Tolstojus 2009: 82). The worldview of a native language is characterized by multilayeredness and multidimensionality, because language preserves not only elements of the worldview that are no longer relevant to society (old beliefs and images), but also accommodates new aspects of understanding the world (new experiences, new phenomena, new scientific truths) (Mackiewicz 1999a: 21; 1999: 195, quoted in Gudavičius 2000: 13). For example, alongside the familiar Lithuanian names for traditional houses (gryčia, pirkia, stuba, troba), as living conditions changed (agrarian culture declined and urbanization intensified), the words betonmonstris (: betonas + monstras) ‘a huge, menacing-looking concrete building’, betonoidas (: betonas) ‘a modern concrete building that spoils a harmonious environment’, dangoraižynas (: dangoraižis) ‘an area in a modern city centre with many skyscrapers’, and stiklainis, which has acquired a new meaning, ‘derog. a modern glass building or extension (usually of little value and not always built legally)’, as well as žemėraižis (: žemė + raižyti) ‘a building sunk deep underground, the opposite of a skyscraper’, gradually emerged in the language. Similar neologisms provide valuable information not only about the worldview recorded in the language of the Lithuanian people, but also about the language’s way of experiencing the world, which conveys people’s emotional relationship with reality (Gudavičius 2000: 16). Būtent laiko aktualijas bei laikinus, situacinius dalykus (Miliūnaitė 2012a: 4) ar net visuomenės raidos lūžius (Girčienė 2012c: 19) žymi naujų žodžių srautas. Duomenyne fiksuota keliasdešimt naujadarų, kuriuos derėtų laikyti gyvenamojo meto aktualių ženklai, pvz., 2018 m. politikų teikti transporto ir švietimo, maisto srities teisinio reglamentavimo siūlymai nesulaukė visuomenės palaikymo, todėl kalboje radosi stilistiškai žymėtų, laiko aktualijas žyminčių BENDRINĖ KALBA 92 (2019) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 AGNĖ ALEKSAITĖ. Emocinė-ekspresinė leksika Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenyne – naujadarų radimosi aplinkybės ir darybos būdai | 7 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2019.92.04 neologisms: dyzelheitas (: dyzelis “a car powered by diesel fuel” + -heitas < from English hate “to hate”) “joc. dislike of diesel cars”5; maistnešys, -ė (: maistas + nešti) “joc. someone who brings to school food not recommended by the Ministry of Health” (cf. užkandnešys, -ė6). Entrepreneurs who reacted immediately to the Ministry of Health’s recommendations offered pupils and their parents a way out—a possible blend (portmanteau) that arose in the language alongside the new reality (for more, see Kabašinskaitė: 1998: 5, 63–64, 67; Urbutis 2009: 354–355; Miliūnaitė 2014: 246–264; Murmulaitytė 2018: 60–70) sveikatronas (: sveikas, -a + -tronas) “a snack box for children that encourages them to eat vegetables”7. The ND also contains many other neologisms expressing dissatisfaction with the current government and associated with the Lithuanian Farmers and Greens Union and its sympathizers: gandragalviai (: gandras + galva) “derog. the political force led by Ramūnas Karbauskis—the Lithuanian Farmers and Greens Union, whose symbol is a flying stork”8, gandragalviškas, -a (: gandragalvis, -ė) “derog. characteristic of the stork-heads,” gandramintis, -ė (: gandras + mintis) “derog. a member or sympathizer of the Farmers and Greens party”9 and gandriniai (: gandras) “ironic. the political force led by Ramūnas Karbauskis—the Lithuanian Farmers and Greens Union, whose symbol is a flying stork.” The Database records neologisms derived from the Lithuanian Farmers and Greens Union’s 5 Cf. the example provided by the ND: “This phenomenon, in which part of the motoring community expresses nothing but negative opinions about diesel cars, has already acquired a generic name—dyzelheitas (English diesel hate – to hate/not like diesel)—quips Vitoldas Milius, director general of the Lithuanian Association of Automotive Entrepreneurs (15min.lt 2018 07 31). Incidentally, the neologism dyzelheitas should not be confused with the phonetically similar dyzelgeitu (cf. English dieselgate, Russian дизельгейт). Dyzelheitu denotes “dislike of diesel cars,” whereas the loanword dyzelgeitas (: dyzelis + -geitas (English -gate < Watergate), a combining form denoting a scandal, usually large-scale or involving concealed government actions) refers to “the scandal involving the falsification of emissions data for Volkswagen diesel cars.” 6 Cf. the usage examples provided by the ND: There used to be book smugglers; now there will be maistnešiai [Comment by a pupil who had been told which foods are not recommended at school. – Editor’s note] (facebook.com 2018 09 04). The era of snack smugglers began in 2018. By all accounts, it will last 40 years [Reaction to a Facebook discussion about the Ministry of Health’s rules on which foods pupils may not bring to school. – Editor’s note] (facebook.com 2018 08 31). 7 Cf. the example given in the ND: “For the third year in a row, we are implementing the ‘Sodinčius’ social responsibility project, whose aim is to help children get to know vegetables and fruit and, in this way, encourage the little ones to eat more of them. This year we decided to help parents by focusing on making their children learn about healthy eating in a more original and playful way. We created special snack boxes—the ‘Sveikatronai’—featuring vegetable heroes such as a tomato, broccoli, an apple, a carrot and a raspberry, symbolizing the superpowers of vegetables and fruit. To encourage children to put healthy snacks in these boxes, we gave vegetables, fruit and berries special names, for example ‘morkatronas’,” says B. Čiakauskaitė (zmones.lt 2018 09 17). 8 The neologism was coined by analogy with the word bukagalvis, -ė. 9 The neologism was coined by analogy with the word bendramintis, -ė. BENDRINĖ KALBA 92 (2019) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 AGNĖ ALEKSAITĖ. Emocinė-ekspresinė leksika Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenyne – naujadarų radimosi aplinkybės ir darybos būdai | 8 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2019.92.04 leader Ramūnas Karbauskis’s surname: karbauskiada (: Karbauskis) “events connected with the activities of Member of Parliament Ramūnas Karbauskis,” karbauskininkai (: Karbauskis) “the political force led by Ramūnas Karbauskis—the Lithuanian Farmers and Greens Union” and karbauskizmas (: Karbauskis) “derog. the ideology of politician Ramūnas Karbauskis and the party he leads.” The close political cooperation between Saulius Skvernelis and Ramūnas Karbauskis is named by the possible blend karboskvernelis (: Karbauskis + Skvernelis) “derog. the duo of politicians Saulius Skvernelis and Ramūnas Karbauskis.” The Database contains somewhat fewer neologisms formed on the basis of Prime Minister Saulius Skvernelis’s surname, for example, skvernelininkas, -ė (: Skvernelis) “a supporter of Prime Minister Saulius Skvernelis” and skvernelkė (: Skvernelis) “derog. a conditional monetary unit proposed by the government led by Prime Minister Saulius Skvernelis, intended for socially disadvantaged people to use when shopping at small stores” (coined by analogy with the slang term vagnorkė10). In the process of creating occasional neologisms, formations are also coined to express an emotional attitude toward the leader of the Lithuanian Farmers and Greens Union, using as their derivational base the name of a Lithuanian settlement—Naisiai—which is associated with Ramūnas Karbauskis: naisiada (: Naisiai) “the ups and downs connected with the TV series ‘Summer in Naisiai’ and the Farmers and Greens Union’s political advertising in that series,” naisybė (: Naisiai) “ironic. a term for characteristics expressing opposition forces’ negative attitudes toward anything associated with Naisiai as a symbol of the Farmers and Greens Union” (cf. naisu, naisumas, na sus, -i), naisietija (: naisietis, -ė) “voters of the Farmers and Greens Union, one of whose symbols is Naisiai,” naisietis, -ė (: Naisiai) “1. a resident of Naisiai; 2. a member or follower of the Farmers and Greens Union, one of whose symbols is Naisiai,” naisizacija (: Naisiai) “ironic. the spread of Ramūnas Karbauskis’s ideas, implemented in the settlement of Naisiai” and naisuva (: Naisiai) “representatives in the Seimas of the Farmers and Greens Union, one of whose symbols is Naisiai.” Clearly, the most topical issues eventually become encrusted with formations (often of negative connotation) (cf. Miliūnaitė 2000: 8). The creators of stylistically marked neologisms also draw attention to the activities of Health Minister Andrius Veryga; the campaign he initiated to tighten alcohol controls is viewed particularly negatively. Consequently, the minister’s surname is chosen as the derivational base, and not only negative forms are coined 10 Vagnorkės (: Vagnorius) was the name given to the first Lithuanian money introduced after the restoration of independence (temporary coupons illustrated with various animals). BENDRINĖ KALBA 92 (2019) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 AGNĖ ALEKSAITĖ. Emocinė-ekspresinė leksika Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenyne – naujadarų radimosi aplinkybės ir darybos būdai | 9 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2019.92.04 connotations, but also humorous formations mocking or ridiculing not only the minister himself but also supporters of the campaign to tighten alcohol controls: the blend veryganas, -ė (from Veryga + vegan), ‘a joking neologism for a teetotaler who actively supports restrictions on alcohol’; verygininkas, -ė (from Veryga), ‘ironic. a supporter of tightening alcohol controls’; verygizacija (from Veryga), ‘ironic. the tightening of alcohol controls initiated by Aurelius Veryga, the Lithuanian Minister of Health’; verygmetis (from Veryga + period), ‘ironic. the period in which the law tightening alcohol controls, initiated by Lithuanian Minister of Health Aurelius Veryga, came into force’; and the blend žvergyga (from beast + Veryga), ‘ironic. a neologism coined to satirize the campaign to tighten alcohol controls initiated by Health Minister Aurelius Veryga’. One consequence of the ban was the occasionalism puslapiakarpys, -ė (from page + to cut), ‘joking. an enforcer of the law—a cutter-out of pages containing prohibited alcohol advertisements from foreign magazines’. The ‘tendency of such political neologisms to proliferate and their importance to language users are shown not only by the frequency of <...> usage, but also by their branching word-formation patterns’ (Girčienė 2013: 85): the fact that not isolated formations but numerous new formations belonging to a large word-formation family are being created demonstrates that the Lithuanian nation, creatively exploiting the resources of word formation, expresses its emotional attitude toward pressing contemporary issues in diverse and abundant ways (for further discussion, see Pikčilingis 1971: 225; Gudavičius 2007: 83). Temporary, situational matters (e.g., individual scandals involving politicians and the like) are marked by only one or two neologisms: markauskiada (from Markauskas), ‘ironic. a scandal over the agricultural business of Bronius Markauskas, Minister of Agriculture’; nusišalčiūtinti (from *šalčiūtintis: *šalčiūtinti: Šalčiūtė), ‘ironic. to take a selfie in the style of Monika Šalčiūtė, a social-media and entertainment-world personality’; pakildišinti (from *kildišinti: Kildišienė), ‘joking. to discredit someone because of Greta Kildišienė, a former member of parliament promoted by politician Ramūnas Karbauskis’; pūkintis (from *pūkinti: Pūkas), ‘joking. a neologism for describing parliamentarian Kęstutis Pūkas’s activities, which led to his being charged with sexual harassment’, and so on. Several other striking signs of contemporary concerns in 2018, recorded in the ND ‘as a fine manifestation of linguistic creativity and a testament to the capacities of language and its creators’ (Miliūnaitė 2012b: 8): Sausuva (from dry), ‘drought-stricken Lithuania’11 (cf. the 2017 blend Vilnecija (from Vilnius 11 Cf. the example given in the ND: Lithuanians’ plight: last year—real Lithuania; this year—already Sausuva [headline] Instead of the expected rain, just a few drops. Many of the country’s farmers were extremely disappointed that evening; they had already run short even of hay for their cattle. The situation in the forests is no better, so the Dzūkians are still left without work. BENDRINĖ KALBA 92 (2019) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 AGNĖ ALEKSAITĖ. Emocinė-ekspresinė leksika Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenyne – naujadarų radimosi aplinkybės ir darybos būdai | 10 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2019.92.04 + Venecija) „juok. Vilnius, kuris dėl vasaros liūties patvinus gatvėms, tapo panašus į Veneciją“), kontaminantas Šiukšlinìškės (: šiukšlinas, -a + Viršuliškės) „menk. apšiukšlintas gyvenamasis rajonas (turimos galvoje Vilniaus Viršuliškės)“12, tais metais suaktualėjęs naujadaras vaikmušys, -ė (: vaikas + mušti) „menk. kas muša savo vaikus“. Pasaulyje prasidėjęs #metoo judėjimas lietuvių kalbos naujosios leksikos sluoksnį papildė naujažodžiais mytiūtis, -ė (: mytiu13 < anglų k. metoo) „seksualinio priekabiavimo auka, paviešinusi šį faktą viešojoje erdvėje su grotažyme #metoo, taip išreikšdama solidarumą su kitomis nukentėjėlėmis“, mytukė (: mytiu) ir mytušnìkė (plg. rusų k. мутушница, мутушник). The 2017 disagreements over the monument in Vilnius’s Lukiškės Square14 prompted the public to coin the formations vytininkas, -ė (from vytis), ‘a supporter of the monument in Vilnius’s Lukiškės Square—the statue of the Vytis’; and bunkerininkas, -ė (from bunker), ‘a supporter of a monument in Vilnius’s Lukiškės Square that resembles a partisan bunker’15. In 2016, not only in Lithuania but in many countries around the world, the political loanword trampokalipsė spread (English trumpocalypse <, Trump—the surname of the new US president Donald Trump—+ apocalypse), ‘Donald Trump’s election as US president, likened to an apocalypse—the approaching end of the world’. That same year, the ND included kalafiorgeitas (from cauliflower + -gate), a phenomenon that had aroused great discontent in Lithuanian society. Last year, in Lithuania—the country known as the land of rain—a state of emergency was declared because of the torrential rains; this year, it was quite the opposite (lrytas.lt 2018 06 12). 12 Cf. the example recorded in the ND: Because of the heaps of rubbish, residents of Vilnius’s Viršuliškės now call it Šiukšlininkės [headline] ‘They come in cars and dump it; they carry it out of all the houses and throw it away. You can’t change people’s attitudes, but when there weren’t containers by the road, this sort of nonsense didn’t happen. It’s not Viršuliškės anymore, it’s Šiukšlininkės, you could call it that. Even 7- and 8-year-old children are complaining, asking why nobody takes the rubbish away,’ the woman said (15min.lt 2018 11 05). 13 I’m laughing. She’s fighting sexual harassment:-) Just look at the face of that mytiu founder. Or this one’s. Well, decent men keep their distance. They’re not pretty. Not sexually attractive. Perverts. They’d be delighted if someone harassed them:-D [Original wording unedited—Ed.] (tv3.lt [electronic communication] 2018 05 13). 14 Incidentally, based on the evidence presented in historian Gediminas Kulikauskas’s work The Lithuanian Code: Habits and Character of the Ancient Lithuanian a Hundred Years Ago, one may assume that divisions in Lithuanian society and disagreements over a monument or building are nothing unusual: already in the interwar period (around 1931), the public in Kaunas split into two groups ‘over a legacy of the occupying tsarist regime in the very heart of the city—the Cathedral of Saints Peter and Paul. Some thought it was enough to rename the building the Church of St Michael the Archangel and place it under the authority of the Kaunas military garrison. Others wanted to raze the building to the ground’ (Kulikauskas 2018: 399; for further discussion, see 2018: 400–414; cf. the recent disputes over the sculptures on the Green Bridge). 15 Cf. the example in the ND: Will we mark the centenary of the state with ‘Vytis supporters’ and ‘bunker supporters’ riots? [headline] If we turn every disagreement over taste into an ideological war, we may well celebrate the centenary of the Lithuanian state with riots between ‘Vytis supporters’ and ‘bunker supporters’ in Lukiškės Square, a silent striptease on Gediminas Hill, and a level of social polarization unseen since the 1926 coup (delfi.lt 2017 12 02; Romas Sadauskas-Kvietkevičius). BENDRINĖ KALBA 92 (2019) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 AGNĖ ALEKSAITĖ. Emocinė-ekspresinė leksika Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenyne – naujadarų radimosi aplinkybės ir darybos būdai | 11 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2019.92.04 (English -gate < Watergate) “joc. a scandal caused by the sharp rise in prices that people in Lithuania brought about; it began with one citizen’s outrage over the price of cauliflower (3.49 euros per head)” and caulifophobia (: cauliflower ‘cauliflower’ + phobia (Greek phobos) ‘fear’) “joc. fear of buying cauliflower because its prices have risen.” In 2015, men’s reluctance to join the army was viewed unfavourably, giving rise to the ironic blend verktinis, -ė (: to cry + conscript), used in the social domain of military affairs: “ir. someone who whines about conscription and wants to evade it, or someone who parodies this; someone who unjustifiably moans about something.” In 2014, the phenomenon of war—or, more precisely, aggressive politics—came into the focus of public attention in Lithuania, entering the Lithuanian language as the borrowing occupationendum (Russian окупендум < to occupy + referendum), “the referendum held on 16 March 2014 under conditions of occupation (unconventional war), concerning Crimea’s secession from Ukraine.” In 2013, the database included just one marker of current affairs—a solitary neologism, varškianėšys, -ė (: curd + to carry by boat): “joc. a smuggler ferrying curd across the Nemunas to the Kaliningrad (Königsberg) region during the blockade of Lithuanian dairy products begun by Russia in October 2013” (coined by analogy with book-smuggler). According to 2012 ND data, scandals involving alleged paedophilia and the bank “Snoras” broke out that year. The paedophilia scandal is reflected in the neologisms entered in the database, such as the blend kedofilas, -ė (: Kedys + paedophile) “derogatory. a supporter of Drąsius Kedys, who fought against paedophilia and died in unclear circumstances”; kedofilija (: Kedys + paedophilia) “support for the gathering of Drąsius Kedys’s supporters (kedofilas)”16; kedofilinis, -ė (: kedofilas, -ė) “related to kedofilija and kedofilas”; and kedofilizacija (: *to kedofilize) “the spread of kedofilija.” That year, following the liquidation of the bank “Snoras,” various negatively connoted derivatives emerged in Lithuanian, e.g. apsisnorinti (: *apsnorinti: *snorinti: Snoras) “ir. to make a fool of oneself while considering the nationalisation of the ‘Snoras’ bank”; nusnorinti (: *snorinti: Snoras) “ir. to liquidate the ‘Snoras’ bank”; snoriada (: Snoras) “ir. the story of the bank ‘Snoras,’ nationalised in 2011, and everything connected with it”; and even the diminutive snoriukas (: Snoras) “a small self-service kiosk of the former (nationalised at the end of 2011) bank ‘Snoras’ on the street.” The fact that the neologism 16 Admittedly, suffixal derivation can also be discerned here. The neologism kedofilija (: kedofilas, -ė) could be regarded as a derivative formed with the suffix -ija. BENDRINĖ KALBA 92 (2019) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 AGNĖ ALEKSAITĖ. Emocinė-ekspresinė leksika Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenyne – naujadarų radimosi aplinkybės ir darybos būdai | 12 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2019.92.04 snoriukas and other formations recorded in the database can indeed be regarded as markers of current affairs; this is supported by the note provided by the database’s creators for the diminutive: snoriukas is “a colloquial word that will apparently pass into the past after some time”17. Such occasional formations, “things of a few seasons,” are “seized upon as current affairs, but gradually recede from active use” (Miliūnaitė 2006: 159). There is no doubt that, over time, events that are current at a given moment are forgotten, while the neologisms that named them become difficult to understand without further explanation. This claim is supported by the formation varškėfobija (: curd + phobia), coined in the online media in 2011: “joc. a name for a social movement that emerged as an ironic protest against the media, which sensationalised the fact that a security guard had refused entry to Zita Čepaitė, carrying a tub of granulated curd, to an Antis concert in the courtyard of the Teachers’ House.” Of course, it is not difficult to understand the meaning of the formation (“fear of curd”), since neologisms are created from existing linguistic material, so a new formation has a foothold in the language and is motivated: when we name a new object, thing, or phenomenon, we also indicate why we have named it so, highlighting one or another property or aspect of the object being named (Gudavičius 2000: 101; for more, see Urbutis 2009: 69–72). The material presented in the database is worth examining from the perspectives of both ethnolinguistics and word formation. The material gathered in the ND shows that language users respond to current affairs and are able to coin a wide variety of stylistically marked neologisms. It is clear that vocabulary reflects society, and that “each period in the development of a language reflects a corresponding period in the life of a nation” (Gudavičius 1992: 5; see also Wohlgemuth 2009: 258). DERIVATIONAL ANALYSIS OF THE EMOTIVE-EXPRESSIVE LEXICON IN THE DATABASE The derivational analysis of the emotive-expressive lexicon in the ND showed that the main word-formation methods for stylistically marked neologisms are suffixation (45.7%), compounding (31.7%), and the non-morphemic word-formation method of blending (12.7%) (on blending, see also Murmulaitytė 2018: 61). With the latter word-formation method, neologisms are formed by merging non-morphemic parts of existing words; however, in Lithuanian linguistics, such “blending” is not considered 17 Some neologisms recorded in the ND that denote contemporary topical issues have been included in the lists for the Word of the Year and Phrase of the Year elections since 2017. BENDRINĖ KALBA 92 (2019) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 AGNĖ ALEKSAITĖ. Emocinė-ekspresinė leksika Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenyne – naujadarų radimosi aplinkybės ir darybos būdai | 13 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2019.92.04 tradiciškai suprantamos žodžių darybos proceso dalimi“ (Miliūnaitė 2014: 249; dar žr. Murmulaitytė 2018: 61) – „[ž]odžių darbai terupi dariniai, o ne fonetiniai ar kitokie perdirbiniai, vienų teksto žodžių keitimas kitais, kontaminacijos padariniai ir panašūs dalykai“ (Urbutis 2009: 324). Menko produktyvumo yra priešdėlinė daryba (5,6 proc.), mišrusis darybos būdas (2,4 proc.) ir galūninė daryba (1,9 proc.) (žr. 2 pav.). FIG. 2. Distribution of the emotive-expressive lexicon in the database by word-formation method The most frequent means of the most productive word-formation method—suffixation—is the suffix -(i)ukas, -ė, used to form names of persons possessing a quality denoted by a nominal, which accounts for 6.8% of all suffixal derivatives18, e.g., karštukė (: karštas, -a) “affectionate a hot, sexy girl”, mylიმukas, -ė (: mylimas, -a) “affectionate, diminutive a person or thing to which one is very attached, which is greatly liked or loved (especially when referring to children)”, neigaliukas (: neįgalus, -i) “affectionate a person with a disability” 18 One of the more frequent suffixes for another part of speech is -inis, -ė, used in the derivational category of differentiating (classifying) adjectives (4.5%), e.g., koloradinis, -ė (: koloradas) “derogatory associated with St. George’s ribbons and those who wear them”, čikenfektorinis, -ė (: čikenfektorius) “ironic associated with a čikenfektorius, i.e. a person working in a poultry-processing company; figuratively, used ironically, unsophisticated”, etc. BENDRINĖ KALBA 92 (2019) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 AGNĖ ALEKSAITĖ. Emocinė-ekspresinė leksika Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenyne – naujadarų radimosi aplinkybės ir darybos būdai | 14 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2019.92.04 person”, etc. The derivation of the neologism beglobiukas, -ė (: beglobis, -ė) “affectionate an animal without an owner” can be interpreted in two ways, depending on what is taken as the derivational base—the noun beglobis, -ė (in which case it belongs to the category of diminutives (diminutive nouns)) or an adjective (in which case it belongs to the category of names of persons possessing a nominal quality). Half as many derivatives with the suffix –(i)ukas, –ė were found in the category of agent nouns and nouns denoting persons characterized by a verbal action (3.6%), e.g., nemiegiukas, -ė (: nemiegoti) “affectionate a little one who has difficulty falling asleep (especially for a nap)”, nugirstukas (: nugirsti) “jocular a snippet of overheard conversation”, etc. Only a few diminutive derivatives with the suffix –(i)ukas,-ė were recorded in the database (2.7%): pabaisiukas (: pabaisa) “diminutive a small monster” (for more on the use of diminutives in child and child-directed speech, see Savickienė 2006: 260; Kamandulytė 2006: 269; for the most productive suffixes in child language, see Dabašinskienė 2010: 44), the atypically formed nėštukė (: nėščia) “1. affectionate an expectant woman, a pregnant woman”, whose derivational base is an adjective, etc. The neologism snoriukas (: Snoras) “diminutive street self-service kiosks of the former bank ‘Snoras’ (nationalized at the end of 2011)” probably belongs among diminutives with a specialized meaning. Neologisms are also often formed with the suffix –izmas, which belongs to the derivational category of names of qualities (abstract nouns) (6.8%), e.g., priekvailizmas (: priekvailis, -ė) “ironic an ideology promoted by fools”, runkelizmas (: runkelis) “derogatory the condition of people characterized by ignorance and pessimism, called runkeliai”; cf. the atypical nonce formation nusispjovizmas (: nusispjovė) “ironic deliberate and systematic disregard for something”, whose derivational base is a prefixed reflexive verb. The derivation involving the suffix –iena, tentatively classified among meat-denoting suffixes (6.4%), should be discussed separately. Many neologisms belong to this type of formation, denoting not the meat of an animal or bird but an abundance or totality (raw material) of some object, thing, or phenomenon—the name of a part serves as the derivational base; e.g., dokumentiena (: dokumentas) “derogatory drafts of documents of dubious value (raw material)”, internetiena (: internetas) “derogatory information available on the internet (raw information)”, laikraštiena (: laikraštis) “derogatory low-quality, often tabloid, print media”, skaitaliena (: skaitalas) “derogatory pulp, low-quality literature”, televizijiena (: televizija) “derogatory low-quality television output”, the atypically formed verteliena (: vertalas?) “derogatory a poor-quality translation, raw material for a genuine translation”, žodiena (: žodis) “ironic BENDRINĖ KALBA 92 (2019) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 AGNĖ ALEKSAITĖ. Emocinė-ekspresinė leksika Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenyne – naujadarų radimosi aplinkybės ir darybos būdai | 15 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2019.92.04 “an abundance of empty words” (cf. žodeliena19 (see also Mikelionienė 2002: 75–76). the Corpus of the Contemporary Lithuanian Language (hereafter DLKT) records two further neologisms belonging to this subgroup, namely bulvariena (: bulvarinis, -ė)20 and žurnalistiena (: žurnalistas)21. Although derivatives with the suffix –iena can also be assigned to the category of names for bearers of a nominal property (cf. naujiena, seniena, žaliena; mėnesiena; for more, see DLKG 2006: 121), it seems, nevertheless, that the names of these pejorative, ironic formations are associated specifically with names for meat—they are commonly used to denote someone’s unprocessed, disorganized material. Based on the examples of žurnalistienos found in DLKT and laikraštienos recorded in ND22, it appears that, among the aforementioned derivatives with the suffix –iena, the neologism laikraštiena appeared earliest in usage, and similar formations were probably created by analogy with it. In view of the examples accumulated in ND, it may be assumed that a new derivational type with the suffix –iena is perhaps taking shape. Naturally, no generalized conclusions can be drawn on the basis of the database material alone; this assumption therefore needs to be tested by gathering and thoroughly examining material more extensive than that in ND. A somewhat more productive suffix in emotional-expressive lexis belongs to the derivational category of names for properties (abstract nouns)—ystė (4.5%), e.g., pelnagaudystė (: pelnagaudys, -ė) “pejor. pursuit of profit,” šūdmaly stė (: šūdmala) “nonsense making things up, talking rubbish,” žemgro bystė (: žemgrobys, -ė) “pejor. unlawful acquisition of land ownership,” and so on. According to ND compiler Rita Miliūnaitė, “the stock of new lexis gathered in the database shows that the Lithuanian language contains more vital powers than we tend to think” (see http://naujazodziai.lk i.lt/?Apie_duomenyną). Examples of neologisms formed with suffixes show that society “senses the language’s potential and knows how to manage it” (Miliūnaitė 2012b: 7)—in creating stylistically marked formations, a wide variety of suffixes are used, e.g., pilstukininkas, -ė 19 Cf. “A few neologisms used as scientific terms, denoting the substance (‘flesh’) of some body, also belong to this derivational type, e.g.: grybiena, mediena, uoliena” (DLKG 2006: 141). The neologisms verteliena, žodeliena may have been formed by analogy with words of similar derivation, e.g.: dvėseliena, ląsteliena, and others. 20 “<...> and the press that considers itself respectable. Pure "bulvariena" might not even hurt a person that way, <...>” (“Kauno diena” 2001). 21 “<...> since many people still feed on "laikraštiena", "žurnalistiena", commercial publications dominated the book market” (“Santara” 1997). 22 “After that, for several years our society was fed laikraštiena laced with poison” (“Lietuvos aidas” 1990 08 16; Jonas Juškaitis); At the outset, dear Professor, perhaps we should agree that we are not talking about publications or broadcast programs for professionals, the scientific, artistic, or cultural elite, but about the newspaper drivel, journalistic tripe, and showbiz fodder served up every day to the mass reader (“Žurnalistų žinios” 1999 03 31; Domas Šniukas). BENDRINĖ KALBA 92 (2019) www.bendrine kalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 AGNĖ ALEKSAITĖ. Emocinė-ekspresinė leksika Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenyne – naujadarų radimosi aplinkybės ir darybos būdai | 16 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2019.92.04 (: pilstukas) “pejor. someone who sells or drinks pilstuką” (2.7%), žvaigždūnas (: žvaigždė) “ironic men who are celebrities, famous people (usually from the entertainment world)” (2.3%), mėšlainis (: mėšlas) “pejor. fast-food burger-type junk food” (1.8%), stambutė (: stambus, -i) “affectionate a plump, heavily built girl or woman” (cf. pilnutė) (1.8%), kalbišius (: kalba) “pejor. an inept linguist who gets things wrong” (cf. kalbišiūtė) (1.4%), engykla (: engė) “pejor. a company that exploits its employees” (1.4%), apsisnukiuotojas (: apsisnukiuoti) “ironic a participant in a fight in which blows are dealt to the face” (1.4%), trolija (: trolis, -ė) “ironic a community of trolls” (0.9%), sveikatinė (: sveikata) “jocular a place selling products for improving health and personal beauty care” (0.9%), runkelynas (: runkelis) “pejor. a place where many people, mockingly called “beetroots,” gather” (0.9%), baisuoklis, -ė (: baisus, -i) “ironic, jocular someone who is frightening, looks frightening, behaves frighteningly, or the like” (0.9%), girtuomenė (: girtas, -a) “ironic the alcohol-dependent segment of society” (0.9%), konservatorienė (: konservatorius, -ė) “jocular the wife of an influential Conservative politician” (0.5%), davatkinas (: davatka) “pejor. a male religious bigot” (0.5%), švaistytuvės (: švaistyti) “ironic a tradition of wasting (public) money” (0.5%), spuoguotis (: spuogas) “pejor. someone with pimples” (0.5%), darnuva (: darnus, -i) “ironic the totality of all that is harmonious” (0.5%), and many others. Based on ND data, it can be seen that the second most productive word-formation method is compounding (31.7%). The productivity of compounds is supported not only by the database material. The “relative increase in compound words (compared with suffixal and inflectional derivatives)” (Gaivenis 1980: 31) was discussed even earlier. ND is dominated by stylistically marked compounds formed from two nouns (43.4%), e.g., blusturgis (: blusa + turgus) “pejor. a market selling second-hand goods or handicrafts,” kiauliagyvis (: kiaulė + gyvis) “pejor. a pig raised unnaturally (by accelerated methods),” špygsubinė (: špyga + subinė) “vulg. a woman with a very small bottom,” zombadėžė (: zombis + dėžė) “ironic a television set (television) that dumbs people down”23, and so on. Compounds of two nouns are especially productive (often with negative connotations) when the second constituent is –žmogis, e.g., europažmogis (: Europa + žmogus) “ironic a resident of the European Union, whose relations are based on federation, without a state or nation,” galvažmogis (: galva + žmogus) “ironic a person with a head crammed full of information,” kėdžmogis (: kėdė + žmogus) “jocular someone 23 The notes in ND indicate that “the word is most often used when speaking about Russian propaganda television.” BENDRINĖ KALBA 92 (2019) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 AGNĖ ALEKSAITĖ. Emocinė-ekspresinė leksika Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenyne – naujadarų radimosi aplinkybės ir darybos būdai | 17 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2019.92.04 “works a sedentary job,” miniažmogis (: minia + žmogus) “derog. a person from the crowd, characterized by a carefree attitude to life,” projektžmogis (: projektas + žmogus) “ironic. a person who lives off projects,” rinkażmogis (: rinka + žmogus) “ironic. a person who lives according to the laws of the free market,” sovietžmogis (: sovietai + žmogus) “derog. a person who served Soviet ideology,” šiukšliążmogis (: šiukšlės + žmogus) “1. derog. a person who litters,” tolerantžmogis (: tolerancija + žmogus) “ironic. a person shaped by the ideology of liberalism who places tolerance above other values” and valdžiažmogis, -ė (: valdžia + žmogus) “derog., ironic. a selfish person in power; a bureaucrat” (cf. compounds of an adjective and a noun: naujažmogis (: naujas, -a + žmogus) “ironic. a new type of person,” šlykštažmogis (: šlykštus, -i + žmogus) “derog. a person who looks and/or behaves in a disgusting, repulsive manner”). Separately, mention should also be made of the stylistically marked first component valdžia- in compounds, e.g., valdžiadurnis, -ė (: valdžia + durnius) “jocular a fool in power,” valdžiagalvis (: valdžia + galva) “derog. a person in power; a bureaucrat,” valdžiagyvis (: valdžia + gyvis) “derog. a contemptuous designation for a representative of the authorities,” valdžiატvarka (: valdžia + tvarka) “ironic. the opposite of self-regulation, i.e., the empowerment of government institutions to regulate some sphere of public life (for example, the media),” valdžiasnukis (: valdžia + snukis) “derog. a disparaging designation for a representative of the authorities,” valdžiaұvyris (: valdžia + vyras) “ironic. a person in power” (cf. compounds of a noun and a verb: valdžiაგrobis (: valdžia + grobti) “ironic. someone who has seized power” and valdžiasiekys, -ė (: valdžia + siekti) “jocular. someone seeking power (running for the Seimas or local government)”). Somewhat fewer stylistically marked compounds in the database are formed from a noun and a verb (32.2%)—these are “mostly names of persons, whose second component indicates what work those persons do or what action they perform, while the first indicates what the action is directed at, what serves as the object of the work or action” (DLKG 2006: 162), e.g., spiritonėšis, -ė (: spiritas + nešti) “jocular. alcohol smuggler,” tautadrebys, -ė (: tauta + drebėti) “derog. someone who trembles over the fate of the nation,” variavagis, -ė (: varis + vogti / vagis) “derog. a thief of non-ferrous metal—copper,” žinialaižys, -ė (: žinios + laižyti) “ironic. someone who endlessly hunts for news online,” and so on. One compound is recorded, seimasedis, -ė (: Seimas + sėdėti) “jocular. someone who sits in the Seimas (i.e., a member of the Seimas),” whose first component indicates not the object of the action but its location (DLKG 2006: 162). An occasional name for an implement or vehicle occurs: galvaplovė (: galva + plauti) “1. ironic. a hair-washing basin used in hair salons,” pupyтvežis (: pupytė + vežti) “jocular. a car suitable for transporting” BENDRINĖ KALBA 92 (2019) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 AGNĖ ALEKSAITĖ. Emocinė-ekspresinė leksika Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenyne – naujadarų radimosi aplinkybės ir darybos būdai | 18 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2019.92.04 girls (pupytės) around,” and so on. Among the other few noun–verb derivatives, one can mention neologisms whose meaning resembles that of verbal abstracts (DLKG 2006: 162), e.g., žinialaiža (: žinios + laižyti) “ironic. excessive hunting for news online,” and so on. The database is full of noun–verb derivatives (names for media outlets with negative connotations) whose second component is skleisti (-skleidė)24: brukalosklaida (: brukalas + skleisti) “derog. media that disseminates spam (rubbish),” galias klaidagalias klaida AGNĖ ALEKSAITĖ. Emocinė-ekspresinė leksika Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenyne – naujadarų radimosi aplinkybės ir darybos būdai | 19 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2019.92.04 + Kalėdos) “ironic. Christmas celebrated in two ways—by the authorities and by the people”; 3) a verb form (the past passive participle) and a noun, e.g., apverstsmegenis, -ė (: apverstas, -a / apversti + smegenys) “ironic. someone with their brains turned upside down, i.e., someone who thinks in reverse”; 4) a verb and a noun, e.g., spoksadėžė (: spoksoti + dėžė) “jocular television,” šikpopieris (: šikti + popierius) “colloq. toilet paper,” šnyps­tavynis (: šnypšti + vynas) “derog. cheap, sparkling, fizzy wine”; 5) an adverb and a noun, e.g., šiandienžmogis (: šiandien + žmogus) “ironic. a person whose memory extends only to today and has no past”; 6) a pronoun and a noun, e.g., kitovalda (: kitas, -a + valda / valdyti) “ironic. the opposite of self-government, when a community is governed not by itself but by authorities concerned with their own interests”; 7) an adjective/adverb and a verb, e.g., sengyvena (: senas, -a / seniai + gyventi) “derog. a person who seeks to live as people used to live”; ilgasedis, -ė (: ilgai + sėdėti) “ironic. someone who has remained too long in a position (while holding a particular office).” It is evident that the compounding process draws on components from various parts of speech. Another productive method of forming emotional-expressive vocabulary (besides the aforementioned suffixal derivation and compounding) is blending (12.7%). This is not a grammatical (morphological) process, and its products (blends, or portmanteaus) are words that cannot be morphologically segmented (unmotivated) (Urbutis 2009: 355). Although blending (English blending—the word-formation process; blending, blend—the result of word formation, a blend) (Miliūnaitė 2014: 250) is a non-morphemic way of forming words, it can be assumed that the deliberate blending of two words (joining their fragments into a single neologism) (Urbutis 2009: 354–355) is gradually spreading in Lithuanian²⁶. A word-formation analysis of the emotional-expressive vocabulary in the ND shows a willingness to use unconventional word formation, and ever more such formations (blends) are appearing in the ND, e.g., biurozauras (: biuras + dinozauras) “ironic. a person who has headed an institution (usually a state institution) for several decades,” kiaulega (: kiaulė + kolega) “jocular a colleague who behaves like a pig,” klerk­vabalis (: klerkas + karkvabalis) “derog. a disparaging designation for a civil servant,” melagienos (: melagingas, -a / melagis, -ė + naujiena) “derog. false, misleading news,” seimonautas, -ė (: seimas + kosmonautas) “ironic. a long-serving member of the Seimas, detached from reality and unaware of how 26 Since 2014, the number of blends in the ND has increased about 2.3-fold, but their share of the database grew very slightly in percentage terms, from 3 to 4% (Murmulaitytė 2018: 62). BENDRINĖ KALBA 92 (2019) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 AGNĖ ALEKSAITĖ. Emocinė-ekspresinė leksika Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenyne – naujadarų radimosi aplinkybės ir darybos būdai | 20 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2019.92.04 Lithuania really does live by the laws created by the Seimas,” vėminutyvas (: vėmė + deminutyvas) “nonsense a diminutive that makes you want to vomit” and many others. Prefixed neologisms with stylistic marking are formed less often (4 percent), e.g., dimness (: darkness), “iron. the opposite of illumination” (the neologism was formed by analogy with the word illumination27, supermommy (: mommy), “iron. a mother who cares excessively for her children and takes exceptional pride in doing so,” interrogate (: to question), “joc. to question someone at length and get everything out of them,” turn into a beet (: to become a beet), “derog. to turn into a beet,” and the mixed method of formation (2.4 percent), e.g., head-chop (: head + to chop + –tė), “joc. mass dismissal of officials who have held senior positions for a long time, in the name of renewal and transparency,” power-chop (: power + to chop + –tė), “joc. a wave of dismissals of long-serving heads of state-owned enterprises”28, cherry-eater (: cherries + to eat (eats) + –ra), “joc. a glutton for cherries” (the neologism was formed by analogy with the word man-eater29), and so on. Suffixal formation is also unproductive (1.9%). Most of the few derivatives are names distinguished by gender (derivatives with the suffix -ė): šviesulė (: šviesulys) “ironic a well-known (usually show-business) woman,” tėvė (: tėvas) “ironic under genderist ideology, one of the family members raising a child (regardless of gender),” zombė (: zombis) “nonsense figuratively, a female being that is half-dead yet alive”; mūzas (: mūza) “humorous masculine gender of the noun mūza (goddess, inspirer of poetic creation),” sesutis (: sesutė) “humorous a man working as a nurse.” The latter derivatives with the endings -as and -is belong to the word-formation category of gender-differentiated names, even though grammars assign only derivatives with the ending -ė to this category. CONCLUSIONS 1. Analysis of the formation of emotional-expressive vocabulary in the Lithuanian Neologism Database (479 language units were examined) showed that the main ways of forming stylistically marked new words 27 It would probably also be possible to identify prefixal formation: aptamsa (: aptemti). 28 rye harvest analogous derivatives can be interpreted in two ways: as involving mixed derivation or compounding, i.e. head harvest (: head + harvest) and government harvest (: government + harvest). 29 True, the neologism trešnėdra (: cherries + gluttonous, -ous) could also be considered a compound noun. BENDRINĖ KALBA 92 (2019) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 AGNĖ ALEKSAITĖ. Emocinė-ekspresinė leksika Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenyne – naujadarų raidos aplinkybės ir darybos būdai | 21 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2019.92.04 The methods are suffixation (45.7%), compounding (31.7%), and the non-morphemic method of word formation—contamination (blending) (12.7%). 2. The most productive devices within the most productive word-formation method—suffixation—are the suffix for names of bearers of nominal properties –(i)ukas, -ė and the suffix of the category of formation of names of properties (nominal abstract nouns) –izmas: each suffix was used to form 6.8% of the stylistically marked neologisms. 3. The ND data show that the components of compounds valdžia- (first component), -skleisti (–skleidė), and –žmogis (second component) are productive elements in stylistically marked neologisms. 4. Prefixation (5.6%), the mixed method of word formation (2.4%), and suffixation (1.9%) are of low productivity. 5. This was the first study of the ND’s emotional-expressive vocabulary. It revealed that some ND neologisms still need systematic stylistic editing. Furthermore, an in-depth study of the word-formation tendencies of emotional-expressive vocabulary would require drawing on a wider variety and a larger number of sources. 6. The material presented in the Duomenyne is worth examining from both ethnolinguistic and word-formation perspectives. The collection of emotional-expressive vocabulary shows that language users respond to current issues and are able to coin all kinds of stylistically marked neologisms. The abundance of occasional formations confirms the salience of particular phenomena. Clearly, vocabulary reflects society, while the neologisms collected in the database (markers of issues current at the time) provide valuable information about a particular period in the life of the nation. ŠALTINIAI DLKT – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos tekstynas. Prieiga internete: http://tekstynas.vdu.lt/tekstynas/ [žiūrėta 2019 m. gegužės mėn.]. ND – Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenynas. [Tęstinis internetinis žinynas nuo 2011 m.]. Miliūnaitė R., Aleksaitė A. Sudarytoja R. Miliūnaitė. Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas. Prieiga internete: http://naujazodziai.lki.lt [žiūrėta 2019 m. kovo–balandžio mėn.]. ISBN 978-609-411-147-1. https://doi.org/10.35321/neol. BENDRINĖ KALBA 92 (2019) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 AGNĖ ALEKSAITĖ. Emocinė-ekspresinė leksika Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenyne – naujadarų radimosi aplinkybės ir darybos būdai | 22 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2019.92.04 LITERATŪRA A l e k s a i t ė A. 2018: Ypatybių pavadinimai Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenyne. – Bendrinė kalba 91, 1–27. Prieiga internete: http://www.bendrinekalba.lt/Straipsniai/91/Aleksaite_BK_91_straipsnis_apie_pavadinimus.pdf. B l a ž i n s k a i t ė D. 2004: Naujadarai ir perdibiniai reklamoje. – Kalbos kultūra 77, 56–65. D a b a š i n s k i e n ė I. 2010: The comprehension of derivational morphemes in early childhood: An experimental study for Lithuanian. – Estonian papers in applied linguistics 6, 43–50. D L K G 2006 – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos gramatika. Red. V. Ambrazas, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas. G a i v e n i s K. 1980: Naujadarai ir naujažodžiai. – Mokslas ir gyvenimas 2, 31. G i r č i e n ė J. 2005: Neologizmų integracija į tekstą. – Žmogus ir žodis 1, 78–82. Prieiga internete: http://www.biblioteka.vpu.lt/zmogusirzodis/PDF/didaktinelingvistika/2005/girciene.pdf. G i r č i e n ė J. 2011: Naujažodžiai su dėmeniu (–)tinkl-. – Kalbos kultūra 84, 165–177. Prieiga internete: http://www.bendrinekalba.lt/Straipsniai/84/Girciene_KK_84_straipsnis.pdf. G i r č i e n ė J. 2012a: Metakalbiniai komentarai kaip internetinio naujažodžių diskurso elementas. – Lituanistica 58 (3/89), 248–272. G i r č i e n ė J. 2012b: Naujoji lietuvių kalbos leksika: teorija ir praktika. Metodinė priemonė [elektroninis išteklius], Vilnius: Edukologija. G i r č i e n ė J. 2012c: Pokyčiai, kalba ir mokykla. – Gimtasis žodis 8, 19–25. G i r č i e n ė J. 2013: Stilistiniai naujadarai internete. – Šiuolaikinės stilistikos kryptys ir problemos: mokslo straipsnių rinkinys, Vilnius: Lietuvos edukologijos universiteto leidykla, 79–88. G u d a v i č i u s A. 1992: Kalbos tautiškumas. – Gimtoji kalba 6, 1–5. G u d a v i č i u s A. 2000: Etnolingvistika, Šiauliai: Šiaulių universitetas. G u d a v i č i u s A. 2003: Žodžio reikšmės definicijos tautinis aspektas. – Leksikografijos ir leksikologijos problemos, 61–69. G u d a v i č i u s A. 2007: Gretinamoji semantika, Šiauliai: Šiaulių universiteto leidykla. J a k a i t i e n ė E. 1988: Leksinė semantika, Vilnius: Mokslas. J a k a i t i e n ė E. 2010: Leksikologija, Vilnius: Vilniaus universiteto leidykla. BENDRINĖ KALBA 92 (2019) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 AGNĖ ALEKSAITĖ. Emocinė-ekspresinė leksika Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenyne – naujadarų radimosi aplinkybės ir darybos būdai | 23 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2019.92.04 K a b a š i n s k a i t ė B. 1998: Lietuvių kalbos liaudies etimologija ir artimi reiškiniai, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas. K a m a n d u l y t ė L. 2006: Vaikiškosios kalbos ypatybės. – Bendrinė kalba 79, 264–271. Prieiga internete: http://www.bendrinekalba.lt/Straipsniai/79/Kamandulyte_KK_79_straipsnis.pdf. K a z l a u s k a i t ė R., Ž u p e r k a K., M a c i e n ė J. 2013: Okazionalūs deminutyvai: tipai ir paskirtis kalbiniame akte. – Žmogus ir žodis 1, 90–100. Prieiga internete: http://etalpykla.lituanistikadb.lt/fedora/objects/LT-LDB-0001:J.04~2013~1371470739998/datastreams/DS.002.0.01.ARTIC/content. K u l i k a u s k a s G. 2018: Lietuvio kodas. Įpročiai ir būdas senovės lietuvio prieš 100 metų, Vilnius: Tyto alba. L e h r e r A. 2003: Understanding trendy neologisms. – Italian Journal of Linguistics / Rivista di Linguistica 15.2, 369–382. Prieiga internete: http://linguistica.sns.it/RdL/15.2/07.Lehrer.pdf. LKG 1965 – Lietuvių kalbos gramatika – fonetika ir morfologija I. Red. K. Ulvydas. Vilnius: Mintis. M a t t i e l l o E. 2016: Analogical neologisms in English. – Italian Journal of Linguistics 28.2, 103–142. Prieiga internete: http://www.italian-journal-linguistics.com/wp-content/uploads/4_Analogical-neologisms-in-English.pdf. M i k e l i o n i e n ė J. 2000a: Naujoji lietuvių kalbos leksika (1991–1996 m. kompiuterinio periodikos tekstyno pagrindu). Daktaro disertacijos santrauka. Kaunas: Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas. M i k e l i o n i e n ė J. 2000b: Šiuolaikiniai metodai kalbos naujovėms tirti. – Darbai ir dienos 24, 65–73. M i k e l i o n i e n ė J. 2000c: Naujoji lietuvių kalbos leksika (1991–1996 m. kompiuterinio periodikos tekstyno pagrindu). Daktaro disertacija, Kaunas: Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas. M i k e l i o n i e n ė J. 2002: Analogija lietuvių kalbos žodžių daryboje. Potencialiniai ir okazininiai dariniai. – Acta Linguistica Lithuanica 46, 73–80. M i l i ū n a i t ė R. 2000: Nauji kalbos reiškiniai: natūralioji ir dirbtinė atranka. – Acta Linguistica Lithuanica 42, 3–14. M i l i ū n a i t ė R. 2006: Apie kalbą ir mus, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos instituto leidykla. M i l i ū n a i t ė R. 2012a: Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenynas. – Gimtoji kalba 6, 3–11. BENDRINĖ KALBA 92 (2019) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 AGNĖ ALEKSAITĖ. Emocinė-ekspresinė leksika Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenyne – naujadarų radimosi aplinkybės ir darybos būdai | 24 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2019.92.04 Miliūnaitė R. 2012b: Kalbos vartotojai ir naujadarų kūryba. – Gimtoji kalba 9, 3–14. Miliūnaitė R. 2014: Naujieji kontaminaciniai dariniai lietuvių kalboje. – Acta Linguistica Lithuanica 71, 246–264. Miliūnaitė R. 2015: Naujažodžių atranka ir pateikimas Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenyne. – Leksikografija ir leksikologija 5, 161–184. Miliūnaitė R. 2018: Naujažodžių pateikimas ir paieškos galimybės Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenyne. – Bendrinė kalba 91, 1–21. Prieiga internete: http://www.bendrinekalba.lt/Straipsniai/91/Miliunaite_BK_91_straipsnis.pdf. Murmulaitytė D. 2016a: Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenynas ir naujadarų tyrimų perspektyvos. – Bendrinė kalba 89, 1–27. Prieiga internete: http://www.bendrinekalba.lt/Straipsniai/89/Murmulaityte_BK_89_straipsnis.pdf. Murmulaitytė D. 2016b: Naujažodžių duomenyno leksika pakeliui į Bendrinės lietuvių kalbos žodyną. – Acta Linguistica Lithuanica 75, 68–88. Murmulaitytė D. 2018: Kontaminacija ir lietuvių kalbos naujadara. – Kalba ir kontekstai 8 (1), 60–70. Offord M. 2001: French Words: Past, Present and Future, Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Palionis J. 1985: Kalbos mokslo pradmenys, Vilnius: Mokslas. Paulauskienė A. 2006: Lietuvių kalbos morfologijos pagrindai, Kaunas: Technologija. Pikčilingis J. 1971: Lietuvių kalbos stilistika 1, Vilnius: Mokslas. Pikčilingis J. 2010: Stilist ikos darbų rinktinė. Moksl. red. R. Koženiauskienė. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos centras. Plag I. 2003: Word-Formation in English, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Rozenbergs J. 2004: The Stylistics of Latvian, Riga: Latvijas Universitāte. Savickienė I. 2006: Komunikacinė pragmatika ir kalbėjimo situacijos tikslas: deminutyvų vartojimo atvejis. – Bendrinė kalba 79, 256–262. Prieiga internete: http://www.bendrinekalba.lt/Straipsniai/79/Savickiene_KK_79_straipsnis.pdf. Tolstojus N. 2009: Kalba ir kultūra. – Kalba ir žmonės, 81–100. Urbutis V. 2009: Žodžių darybos teorija. 2-asis leidimas, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas. BENDRINĖ KALBA 92 (2019) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 AGNĖ ALEKSAITĖ. Emocinė-ekspresinė leksika Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenyne – naujadarų radimosi aplinkybės ir darybos būdai | 25 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2019.92.04 Vaicekauskienė L. 2007: Naujieji lietuvių kalbos svetimžodžiai: kalbos politika ir vartosena, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos instituto leidykla. Vaskelienė J. 2010: Lietuvių kalbos žodyne nefiksuoti dariniai ir jų funkcionavimas Antano Kalanavičiaus poezijoje. – Filologija 15, 151–166. Vaskelienė J. 2011: Žodynų nefiksuotų darinių funkcionavimas Jono Strielkūno lyrikoje. – Res humanitariae 10, 54–70. Volek B. 1987: Emotive Signs in Language and Semantic Functioning of Derived Nouns in Russian. Amsterdam / Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Župerka K. 2005: Tekstas etinės stilistikos požiūriu. – Žmogus ir žodis I, 25–28. Prieiga internete: http://etalpykla.lituanistikadb.lt/fedora/get/LT-LDB-0001:J.04~2005~1367153622685/DS.002.0.01.ARTIC. Wohlgemuth J. 2009: A Typology of Verbal Borrowings, Berlin / New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Gauta 2019 07 21 Priimta 2019 12 18 BENDRINĖ KALBA 92 (2019) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 AGNĖ ALEKSAITĖ. Emocinė-ekspresinė leksika Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenyne – naujadarų radimosi aplinkybės ir darybos būdai | 26 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2019.92.04 EMOTIVE-EXPRESSIVE LEXIS IN THE DATABASE OF LITHUANIAN NEOLOGISMS: FACTORS INFLUENCING ITS EMERGENCE AND TYPES OF WORD-BUILDING Summary The aim of the study is to identify the main types of word-building of the emotive-expressive neologisms and to examine the most productive means used in the coining of these new words. The object of the research includes 479 neologisms that perform emotive-expressive function. The word-formation analysis of emotive-expressive lexis included in “The Database of Lithuanian Neologisms” (DN) revealed that: 1. Stylistically connotated neologisms are formed mostly by means of suffixation (45.7%), composition (31.7%) and blending (12.7%), the latter being a non-morphemic type of word-building. 2. The most formative suffixes of the most productive type of formation, i.e. suffixation, are as follows: the suffix -(i)ukas, -ė (6.8%) in the formational category of names of possessors of nominal characteristics and the suffix -izmas (6.8%) in the formational category of names of characteristics (nominal abstractions). 3. The data of DN show that the following elements of compounds valdžia- (first component), -skleisti (-skleidė) and -žmogis (second component) are productive elements of stylistically connotated neologisms. 4. Less productive types of word-building are prefixation (5.6%), mixed type of word-formation (2.4%) and inflectional derivation (1.9%). 5. This was the primary research on emotive-expressive lexis, which revealed the necessity to stylistically edit some neologisms in DN. Moreover, seeking to conduct an in-depth analysis on tendencies in formation of emotive-expressive lexis, more diversified and numerous sources should be included. BENDRINĖ KALBA 92 (2019) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 AGNĖ ALEKSAITĖ. Emocinė-ekspresinė leksika Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenyne – naujadarų radimosi aplinkybės ir darybos būdai | 27 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2019.92.04 6. The data available in the database should be analysed not only in terms of word-formation but also from the perspective of ethno-linguistics. Lexis is a reflection of the society and the neologisms (signs of realities of current time) stored in the database provide valuable information about a certain period in the life of nation. KEYWORDS: emotive-expressive lexis, neologism, occasional derivatives, word-formation analysis, types of word-formation, productivity. AGNĖ ALEKSAITĖ Lietuvių kalbos institutas Petro Vileišio g. 5, LT-10308 Vilnius [email protected] BENDRINĖ KALBA 92 (2019) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204