A Seven-League Strides Sightseeing Trip Through Past and Present of Standard Dutch

BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) h p://jou nals.lki.l /bend inekalba ISSN 2351-7204 FRANS HINSKENS Mee ens Ins i u e (KNAW), Ams e dam, Radboud Uni e si y, Nijmegen, Ne he lands A SEVEN-LEAGUE STRIDES SIGHTSEEING TRIP THROUGH PAST AND PRESENT OF STANDARD DUTCH ABSTRACT S anda d Du ch is an o icial language in he Ne he lands, in he no he n pa o Belgium (Flande s and B ussels) and in e y mul ilingual Su inam. The s anda disa ion p ocess s a ed in he ea ly 16 h cen u y; because o he poli ical sepa a ion o he Se en een P o inces a e 1585, i came o a hal in he Sou h ( oughly p esen -day Flande s). F om hen onwa ds, S anda d Du ch de eloped in i s own way in he No h and he Sou h – in he Sou h wi h a delay un il he second hal o he 19 h cen u y. In Su inam, Du ch was impo ed as a colonial language; in he decades a e he abolishmen o sla e y (1863) and he educa ion laws passed in 1876, he black descendan s o he ensla ed, he c eole popula ion and he a ious o he e hnic g oups g adually s a ed acqui ing i . This pape ske ches he di e en ial de elopmen o S anda d Du ch in he h ee pa s o he language a ea and ela es he esul ing di e gence o he ques ion as o whe he Du ch should be seen as a plu icen ic o a he a plu ia eal language. On he basis o ecen da a (mainly om la ge-scale online ques ionnai es) he posi ion o he language and i s u u e a e discussed in he main socie al domains in he h ee pa s o he language a ea. KEYWORDS: Du ch, s anda disa ion, language policy, ex e nal language his o y, no ms, plu icen ici y, plu ia eali y, domains o language use. FRANS HINSKENS. A Se en-League S ides Sigh seeing T ip Th ough Pas and P esen o S anda d Du ch | 2 doi.o g/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.06 BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) h p://jou nals.lki.l /bend inekalba ISSN 2351-7204 ANOTACIJA Bend inė olandų kalba y a o iciali kalba Nyde landuose, šiau inėje Belgijos dalyje (Fland ijoje i B iuselyje) i daugiakalbiame Su iname. Kalbos no minimo p ocesas p asidėjo XVI a. p adžioje. Po 1585 m. sep yniolikai p o incijų a sisky us, šis p ocesas pie uose (maždaug daba inėje Fland ijoje) s ab elėjo. Nuo ada bend inė olandų kalba šiau ėje i pie uose o ma osi ski ingai: pie uose kalbos no minimo p ocesas išsijudino ik XIX a. an oje pusėje. Su iname olandų kalba a si ado kaip kolonijinė kalba: p aėjus dešim mečiams po e go ės panaikinimo (1863 m.), 1876 m. p iėmus š ie imo įs a ymus, juodaodžių, k eolų i į ai ių ki ų e ninių g upių palikuonys ilgainiui ėmė šios kalbos moky is. Šiame s aipsnyje apž elgiama ski inga bend inės olandų kalbos aida ijose kalbinėse ie o ėse i su uo susijusi di e gencija, aip pa keliamas klausimas, a olandų kalba y a pliu icen inė a plu ia ealinė kalba. Remian is naujausiais duomenimis (daugiausia didelio mas o in e ne iniais klausimynais), kalbos padė is i jos a ei is ijose kalbinėse ie o ėse ap a iama a siž elgian į pag indines kalbos a ojimo s i is isuomenės gy enime. ESMINIAI ŽODŽIAI: olandų kalba, s anda izacija, kalbos poli ika, išo inė kalbos is o ija, no mos, pliu icen inis, pliu ia ealinis, kalbos a ojimo s i ys. 1. INTRODUCTION This b ie o e iew o some o he main de elopmen s o S anda d Du ch builds on he insigh ha s anda d language no ms a e ypically ancho ed in his o y, bu since in a li ing language (such as Du ch) hey a e in mo ion, hey a e li ing his o y. A s anda d language is a p es ige a ie y o a speech communi y which is supposed o “cu ac oss egional di e ences” and o p o ide “a uni ied means o communica ion, and hus an ins i u ionalized no m which can be used in he mass-media, in eaching he language o o eigne s and so on” (C ys al 2005: 431). The Du ch language a ea is di ided ac oss no hwes e n Eu ope ( he Ne he lands and Flande s, i.e. he no he n hal o Belgium) and Sou h-Ame ica (Su inam). Bo h he phasing and na u e o s anda disa ion ha e hei own dynamics in he h ee pa s o he language a ea. FRANS HINSKENS. A Se en-League S ides Sigh seeing T ip Th ough Pas and P esen o S anda d Du ch | 3 doi.o g/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.06 BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) h p://jou nals.lki.l /bend inekalba ISSN 2351-7204 They will be cen al in sec ions 2, 3 and 4 o his con ibu ion, while sec ion 5 specula es on he u u e o S anda d Du ch. 1 2. EARLY MODERN HISTORY (END OF 15TH C.–19TH C.) Middle Du ch has been documen ed easonably well – al hough only a limi ed se o local and sup a-local a ie ies is a ailable o speci ic his o ical pe iods. 2 The e was no s anda d language un il he la e Middle Ages. In he Low Coun ies, p edecesso s o he cu en dialec s (Flemish, B aban , Hollandic) and dialec s o egional languages (F isian, Low Saxon, Limbu gish) we e spoken. A he beginning o he 16 h cen u y, he i s ends began o eme ge owa ds uni ica ion o he dialec landscape. These endencies we e o a comme cial and poli ical na u e – in addi ion o he in ellec ual and cul u al spi i o humanism (Ma ynissen 2017: 63–64). 2.1. Incipien s anda disa ion Thinking o hei ma ke s, he i s gene a ions o p in e s began o eel he need o a language ha could also be ead and unde s ood elsewhe e. In 1550 he Ghen p in e Lamb ech published he i s spelling manual; Kiliaan, who had a p ominen posi ion a he An we p p in e Plan ijn, published his La in-Du ch dic iona y in 1574 and he Ams e dam he o ician Spieghel published he i s Du ch g amma in 1584. A simila desi e o a sup a- egional language de eloped in connec ion wi h li e a y compe i ions held a in e egional mee ings o chambe s o he o ic (‘landjuwelen’). In he 16 h cen u y, wi h he ise o humanism, in e es in he ‘ e nacula ’ a ose. Jan an Go p, a physician and schola om Hil a enbeek, who called himsel Johannes Go opius Becanus, 1 Thanks a e due o pa icipan s a he 26 h In e na ional Scien i ic Con e ence o Jonas Jablonskis Linguis ic Di e si y in he Mode n Wo ld: Language Powe and P es ige in Vilnius, Oc obe 3–4, 2019, o use ul eedback on he o al p esen a ion, and o he anonymous e iewe s. A leas as many hanks a e due o F i s Beukema o polishing my English and o his in aluable ema ks and sugges ions. 2 A lis o digi ized Middle Du ch manusc ip s and p in s in domes ic and o eign lib a ies can be ound a h ps://nl.wikisou ce.o g/wiki/Lijs _ an_gedigi alisee de_Middelnede landse_handsch i en_en_d ukken_in_bin nen-_en_bui enlandse_biblio heken. FRANS HINSKENS. A Se en-League S ides Sigh seeing T ip Th ough Pas and P esen o S anda d Du ch | 4 doi.o g/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.06 BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) h p://jou nals.lki.l /bend inekalba ISSN 2351-7204 published his O igines An we pianae in 1569. In his ex ensi e his o ical s udy he ied o demons a e ha Du ch was he oldes language in he wo ld and he p aised i s excellen quali ies (Hagen 1999: 7–8). Wi h he g owing sup a- egional comme cial and cul u al con ac s, he need o a sup a- egional linguis ic sys em g ew. Ini ially, his was de eloped o w i en usage only. I was he i s signi ican s ep in he p ocess o s anda disa ion o Du ch. Eina Haugen (1966) dis inguished ou aspec s o s anda disa ion: ● selec ion ● accep ance ● elabo a ion ● codi ica ion In he case o Du ch, he selec ed language was based on Hollandic dialec s, spoken in he no h-wes e n pa o he p esen -day Ne he lands, al hough he selec ed language was no pu ely Hollandic, bu a he a koinè, wi h elemen s and s uc u es om o he dialec g oups. G amma ians deba ed how bes o s anda dize he language and wha choices should be made. Men o le e s like he 17 h cen u y poe s Vondel and Hoo also ac i ely conce ned hemsel es wi h he Du ch a ian o wha is known in I aly as he ques ione della lingua, he ques ion as o wha he sup a- egional language should look like. The e was also a poli ical need o s anda dizing he language and es ablishing no ms. A ha ime P o es an ism, in pa icula Cal inism, was he s a e eligion. Unlike Ca holics, P o es an ead he bible – he e was no comple e Bible ansla ion in he ‘ olks aal’ ( he language o he people, he e nacula ) ye . Hence he ‘S a en-Gene aal’, he go e nmen ( he mee ing o ep esen a i es o he a ious classes o he Ze en ien P o inciën, he se en een p o inces, including p esen -day Belgium), commissioned a g oup o heologis s, ansla o s and co ec o s who came om he di e en egions o w i e he i s -e e ansla ion o he en i e bible in he e nacula on he basis o he Heb ew and G eek sou ces. The commi ee c ea ed a uni o m language, pa ly cons uc ed, which, in addi ion o Hollandic, also con ained elemen s om B aban ian and Flemish dialec s and exo ic cons uc ions based on he model o he classical languages and Heb ew. Cha ac e is ic ea u es a e he equen use o he geni i e (e.g. de God de goden, ‘ he God o gods’) and he equen use o pa iciples (e.g. hebbende, zijnde, zeggende, ‘ha ing’, ‘being’, ‘saying’) embedded in a complex FRANS HINSKENS. A Se en-League S ides Sigh seeing T ip Th ough Pas and P esen o S anda d Du ch | 5 doi.o g/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.06 BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) h p://jou nals.lki.l /bend inekalba ISSN 2351-7204 sen ence (De Coninck He odes nu [di ] gehoo hebbende, wie on oe , ‘Now he King He od, ha ing hea d his, was ouched’). E en in hose ea ly days, he language in his i s - e e Du ch ansla ion o he en i e bible was conside ed as a chaic and e y ele a ed. Due o he P o es an adi ion o Bible eading in he amily ci cle, he sup a- egional w i en language o he ‘S a enbijbel’ (a e all, commissioned by he S a en-Gene aal) would o cen u ies ha e a wide ci cula ion based on he i s edi ion om 1637. The ma hema ician Simon S e in (1548–1620), a kind ed spi i o Becanus (Hagen 1999: 10), in oduced Du ch e minology o such no ions as ma hema ics ( iz. wiscons e, Mode n Du ch ‘wiskunde’), iangle (d iehouck, ‘d iehoek’, li . ‘ h ee angles’) and decimal ( hiende, ‘ iende’, ‘ en h [pa ]’). The language unde wen elabo a ion o o he pu poses as well ( he hi d aspec o s anda disa ion in Haugen’s iew), no only by he ex ension o i s linguis ic means bu also by he use o he language in new domains (Ma ynissen 2017: 68), a dialec ic which Kloss (1978) has labeled ‘Ausbau’. As ea ly as 1548, he poli ical uni y o he Se en een P o inces was b oken up by he Spanish (Los Reyes Ca ólicos, ‘ he Ca holic kings’, om 1506 – Philip he Handsome – onwa ds om he House o Habsbu g), who s a ed pushing back P o es an ism om he sou he n pa o he Low Coun ies: he Coun e -Re o ma ion and he in amous Inquisi ion. A e he Fall o An we p o he Spanish oops in 1585, a la ge pa o he la gely P o es an B aban and Flemish eli e (wi h i s economic, in ellec ual and cul u al capi al) mo ed o he Hollandic Du ch ci ies, wi h all demog aphic and economic consequences ha his en ailed o he Sou h. The numbe o e ugees was la ge, and many we e educa ed and weal hy. In addi ion, some had signi ican o e seas ade connec ions. As a esul o immig a ion om he Sou h, a g ea deal o B aban and Flemish-colo ed Du ch could be hea d, especially in he Du ch ci ies in he ea ly Golden Age. Because o hei backg ound mos speake s o hese dialec s enjoyed p es ige and his p es ige ubbed o on hei language use, which in u n ga e ise o idiculing he ‘B aban ashion’. In 1617 he Ams e dam poe and playw igh Ge b and Ad iaenszoon B ede ode (1585–1618) w o e he comedy Spaansche B abande in which, among o he hings, he made un o he hen cu en B aban ashion. The p o agonis is Je olimo Rod igo, a ake nobleman and a bank up swindle ; despi e his name, he is o B aban descen . Ac One s a s wi h a monologue o FRANS HINSKENS. A Se en-League S ides Sigh seeing T ip Th ough Pas and P esen o S anda d Du ch | 6 doi.o g/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.06 BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) h p://jou nals.lki.l /bend inekalba ISSN 2351-7204 Je olimo dealing wi h Ams e dam and i s inhabi an s. His i s lines a e ( ansla ions app oxima e): “T'Is wel een schoone s ad , moo ' olcxken is e ies:” I ce ainly is a beau i ul ci y, bu he people a e oo il hy “In B aban sayn de liens ghemaynlijck exkies” in B aban he people a e usually e ined “In kleeding en in d ach , dus op de Spaansche mode,” in hei clo hing and d essing s yle, so in he Spanish ashion, “Als kleyne Konincxkens o sienelaycke Goden.” as hough hey we e mino kings o isible gods. A he end o he Eigh y Yea s’ Wa he sepa a ion o No h and Sou h became a poli ical ac in he T ea y o Müns e (1648) wi h he ounda ion o he Republic o he (Se en) Uni ed P o inces. The amous Müns e Peace T ea y esul ed among o he hings in he poli ical sepa a ion o he sou he n and he no he n Low Coun ies. The Sou h emained unde ( he Aus ian b anch o ) he Habsbu gs, he no h de eloped in o he Republiek de Ze en Ve enigde Nede landen, he Republic o he Se en Uni ed Ne he lands. 2.2. The pos -1585 Flemish linguis ic si ua ion The Fall o An we p in 1585 he alded a pe iod o s agna ion o he Sou h (now unde he Aus ian b anch o he Habsbu gs). Along wi h he economy, cul u al li e became pa alyzed. A s anda d a ie y o Du ch spanning he local and egional dialec s did no de elop and he amoun o exposu e o he de eloping no he n a ie y o S anda d Du ch was limi ed; he e was li le con ac wi h he independen P o es an No h. The High code o he Ca holic chu ch was La in; he hinned-ou socie al uppe c us , he highe au ho i ies and seconda y schools used F ench; and he lowe cle gy, he Chambe s o Rhe o ic and he local au ho i ies used dialec ally colou ed Du ch, which was looked a askance. FRANS HINSKENS. A Se en-League S ides Sigh seeing T ip Th ough Pas and P esen o S anda d Du ch | 7 doi.o g/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.06 BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) h p://jou nals.lki.l /bend inekalba ISSN 2351-7204 La e , om he F ench e a onwa d, which dawned in he Sou h o 1794, F ench was made manda o y o adminis a i e and adminis a ional ma e s. Fo success in socie y F ench was indispensable. 3. MODERN HISTORY (LAST QUARTER 18TH CENTURY – WORLD WAR II) The posi ion o F ench in Flande s ha dly changed in he i een yea s ollowing he e- uni ica ion o No h and Sou h a e he Vienna Cong ess (1815). One o he geo-poli ical esul s o he Vienna Cong ess was he eme gence o he Uni ed Kingdom o he Ne he lands. In his geog aphical ex ension ( o app oxima ely p esen -day Benelux) he newly ins alled kingdom exis ed om 1815 ill 1830. King Willem I (William I) pu sued an ac i e language policy, imposing Du ch as he one and only na ional language. Hence, also in he sou he n p o inces Wes -Flande s, Eas -Flande s, An we p and Limbu g and om 1823 onwa ds also in bilingual B aban , Du ch became he o icial language o he adminis a ion, ju isdic ion and educa ion. A he uni e si ies, chai s o he Du ch language we e es ablished. All his me wi h esis ance among he Ca holic cle gy, he libe als and he g ea mass o la gely illi e a e Flemish people, o whom Hollandic Du ch was miles away om he a ie ies hey spoke. In 1830, Belgium became an independen na ion. In he new cons i u ion he eedom o language (choice) was gua an eed 3 . In p ac ice, F ench emained he language o he uling class. 3.1. Flande s The Vlaamse Beweging, li . Flemish Mo emen , a g oup o Flemish in ellec uals opposed he F ench domina ion: hey we e commi ed o he emancipa ion o Flande s and he use o Du ch in Flande s (Ma ynissen 2017: 75). The e we e wo posi ions: he in eg a ionis s (led by he Ghen philologis and his o ian Jan-F ans Willems, a suppo e o he House o O ange-Nassau, which supplies he Du ch kings and queens) ad oca ed compliance wi h he Ne he landic no ms o S anda d Du ch, ejec ing loan wo ds, especially F ench loan wo ds. The pa icula is s, on he o he hand, 3 No so in he Ne he lands; c . Ki chmeie (2020). FRANS HINSKENS. A Se en-League S ides Sigh seeing T ip Th ough Pas and P esen o S anda d Du ch | 8 doi.o g/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.06 BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) h p://jou nals.lki.l /bend inekalba ISSN 2351-7204 ad oca ed compliance wi h a dialec ally colou ed sup a- egional Du ch language. The pa icula is posi ion was suppo ed by he Ca holic chu ch; o he Ca holics in Flande s, Ne he landic Du ch was a P o es an hing. The main spokesman o he pa icula is posi ion was he p ies and poe Guido Gezelle. The Du ch he ad oca ed had a dis inc ly Wes Flemish colou ing. Howe e , he kind ed spi i Hend ik Conscience, who was a success ul no elis , p omo ed a s anda d Du ch wi h an unmis akable An we p (B aban ) colou ing. The in eg a ionis s p e ailed; one o hei s ongholds was o med by he Du ch language and li e a u e con e ences o Flemish and Du ch w i e s and academics, which we e o ganized egula ly om 1849 onwa ds. The Hollandic s anda d became leading and de ia ions om i we e s ic ly ejec ed. In 1898 a law was passed ha s ipula es ha Belgian laws mus be d awn up in bo h F ench and Du ch, pu ing Du ch legally on a pa wi h F ench. 3.2. Flande s & Ne he lands O dina y people gene ally did no ha e he educa ional backg ound o lea ning he s anda d language – and so mos could no ead o w i e. Fo bo h Flande s and he Ne he lands i is ue ha un il he end o he 19 h cen u y o he majo i y o he popula ion he spoken language was hei (local o egional) dialec . In highe ci cles, F ench was he e e yday language – and no only in he F ench e a, which ended in 1813. 3.2. Ne he lands In he ea ly 19 h cen u y, he g amma as well as he o hog aphy we e codi ied ( he ou h aspec o s anda disa ion in Haugen’s iew) o he i s ime, which ook place by o de o he go e nmen in o de o u he he na ional uni y. The Leiden p o esso Ma hijs Siegenbeek was he au ho o he o hog aphy guide, which appea ed in 1804. A yea la e , Weiland’s Nede dui sche Sp aakkuns was published, which was al eady conside ed e y conse a i e a he ime. In 1851, he Leiden linguis Ma hias de V ies s a ed compiling he ‘Woo denboek de Nede landsche Taal’ (Dic iona y o he Du ch Language), which was o become he la ges dic iona y in he wo ld. I has 21 pa s; he las sec ion appea ed in 2001. In he cou se o he 19 h cen u y, S anda d Du ch was cul i a ed and ‘en iched’ wi h e.g. FRANS HINSKENS. A Se en-League S ides Sigh seeing T ip Th ough Pas and P esen o S anda d Du ch | 9 doi.o g/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.06 BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) h p://jou nals.lki.l /bend inekalba ISSN 2351-7204 • syn ac ic peculia i ies (ce ain pa icipial and in ini i al cons uc ions) which had ne e been common. Olde examples o such pa icipial cons uc ions a e Al ‘ ko en op synde, we d he oede de bees en […] menschenkos , ‘because all he g ain had been spen , he ood o he beas s became ood o he people’, and ende, alhoewel maa ij ich oo lochsschepen s e ck wesende, hebben wy ons aens ond s de wae s e oech , ‘and, al hough we we e only i y wa ships s ong, we [ne e heless] immedia ely p oceeded he e’; • case dis inc ions which had allen in o disuse, e.g. dis inc ion be ween hen en hun, (3 pl accusa i e, p eposi ionless da i e, espec i ely), which as such does no occu in any dialec and which has un il oday no aken oo in Du ch spoken language; • he dis inc ion be ween als and dan (‘zo g oo als’ e sus ‘g o e dan’, ‘as big as’ s. ‘bigge han’). The gap be ween w i en S anda d Du ch and spoken Du ch g ew and some w i e s s a ed esis ing. In an essay on he opic, he au ho Mul a uli (Edua d Douwes Dekke ; 1820–1887) w o e “Ik leg mij oe op ' sch ij en an le end hollands. Maa ik heb schoolgegaan”, oughly ‘I ocus on w i ing li ing Du ch, bu I’ e been o school’. Educa ional e o me s s a ed p o es ing, oo. 4. CONTEMPORARY HISTORY (WORLD WAR II – PRESENT) Ini ially, Hollandic and Flemish S anda d Du ch seemed o con e ge, bu his end (i he e was one on a la ge scale) seems o ha e been e e sed mo e ecen ly. 4.1. Flande s Fo he Flemish he s anda disa ion o Du ch (which se in ela i ely la e) was u gen because o hei language issue wi h F ench / Walloon. In 1963 Belgium was o icially di ided in ou language a eas. The o icial language o Flande s is Du ch, in he Walloon p o inces in Belgium i is F ench, he B ussels agglome a ion is o icially Du ch / F ench bilingual, and in he Eas he e is a ela i ely small Ge man-speaking a ea (‘Deu schsp achige Gemeinscha ’). See Map 1. FRANS HINSKENS. A Se en-League S ides Sigh seeing T ip Th ough Pas and P esen o S anda d Du ch | 16 doi.o g/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.06 BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) h p://jou nals.lki.l /bend inekalba ISSN 2351-7204 mos people use he a ious g ada ions in he pa o he con inuum ha anges om S anan ongo o Su inamese Du ch. A he same ime equen code swi ching and mixing occu s be ween S anan and Su inamese Du ch. Today abou 60% o he inhabi an s o he coun y (N=560.000) speak Du ch. The second language is S anan ongo (367.000 speake s) and he hi d one is Sa nami (160.000 speake s). In o al he e a e abou 16 di e en languages in daily use, bu Ame Indian languages such as A awak and Wa ao a e nea ing ex inc ion. E e y e hnic g oup has i s own cock ail o languages which colou s hei a ie y o Du ch. Among he mo e widesp ead ea u es o Su inamese Du ch a e • he s e eo yped bilabial ealisa ion o /w/; • he sligh ly nasalised /ɛ/ be o e nasals (as in e.g. mens, 'human being'), a olling / /, a less ‘sha ply’ a icula ed ela ica i e; • a iable non- ealisa ion o small unc ion wo ds such as e (' he e') in e.g. ‘Ik heb geen zin in’ ins ead o ‘Ik heb e geen zin in’, o he exple i e subjec he (‘i ’), o p onominal objec s, and o he e lexi e p onoun; • is as a ocus ma ke , e.g. ‘Kijk menee , is zo denk die S ananman’, oughly, ‘Look si , is his is he way Su inamese (men) hink’; • equen SVO wo d o de , as in e.g. ‘Toe allig hij is laa s doodgegaan’ ins ead o ‘Toe allig is hij laa s doodgegaan’ (V2), oughly ‘Coinciden ally, he ecen ly died’; • subo dina e clauses which a e no in oduced by da , ‘ ha ’ and embedded clauses can ha e he main clause syn ac ic o de ; • ‘own’ wo ds as bui en ouw ('mis ess') and ‘ e e en ial Su inamisms’ such as schaa ijs (‘slush puppy’); • he use o S anan ongo, English as well as some o iginally Indian lexical i ems (mainly o e e o speci ic species o plan s and animals). Su inamese Du ch is a di use language a ie y. Ne e heless, in Su inam, a hi d se o no ms o S anda d Du ch seems o be de eloping – al hough, apa om a dic iona y (J. an Donselaa 1977, 1989, 2013), i has no been codi ied as ye . FRANS HINSKENS. A Se en-League S ides Sigh seeing T ip Th ough Pas and P esen o S anda d Du ch | 17 doi.o g/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.06 BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) h p://jou nals.lki.l /bend inekalba ISSN 2351-7204 4.5. Plu i-wha ? The Taalunie (Language Union – see sec ion 4.1 abo e) has ecen ly ecognized ha “ he h ee pa s o he language a ea a e mo e and mo e o ien ing hemsel es on hei own no ms” (Ad iescommissie Taal a ia ie 2019: 3, 22; c . De Caluwe 2017: 126–129). The di e gence o S anda d Du ch in Flande s, he Ne he lands and Su inam is simila o ha o Ge man in Ge many, Aus ia and Swi ze land. O pe haps o ha o English in England, No h-Ame ica, Aus alia, New Zealand and in Sco land and I eland. Mode n S anda d Du ch hus displays ea u es o wha has been labeled plu icen ici y 7 , he ype o si ua ion ha a single language has se e al na ional s anda d a ie ies which in e ac wi h each o he and a e used o o icial pu poses wi hin hei na ional con ex s (Clyne 1992). On his iew s anda d a ie ies a e in ima ely associa ed wi h na ion s a es, wi h he mo e powe ul na ional s anda d a ie ies a ec ing he less powe ul. Since Du ch is he s anda d language only in a pa o Belgium, i is gi en he ea u e [+ egional] in he ypology p oposed by Aue ( o appea ); since he language was impo ed in o Su inam as a colonial language, i ge s he ea u e [+ pos colonial]. The a ia ion be ween Ne he landic and Flemish S anda d Du ch is pa ly also a ma e o plu ia eali y, he ype in which linguis ic a ia ion in s anda d languages is la gely independen o na ional and poli ical bo de s (e.g. Niehaus 2015; Elspaß e al. 2017). On his iew, s anda d a ie ies a e no limi ed by na ional bounda ies; hey may ins ead o e lap hea ily ac oss imagined bo de s. This holds o e.g. loanwo ds “ending in he w i en < ie>, including ambi ie, us a ie, gene a ie, jus i ie, na ie, poli ie, ela ie (‘ambi ion’, ‘ us a ion’, ‘gene a ion’, ‘jus ice’, ‘na ion’, ‘police’, ‘ ela ion’) he inal syllable may be p onounced as [si] o as [ si]. In Belgium, he i s p onuncia ion is he mos widesp ead op ion by a , whe eas in he wes e n, no he n and cen al pa s o he Ne he lands, he la e is almos always used” (Haese yn 2013: 704). The [si] a ian can also be hea d in he Du ch spoken in he sou he n Du ch p o inces o B aban and Limbu g. A u he example o a phenomenon which a ies in Belgian Du ch bu also in sou he n pa s o he Ne he lands conce ns “[ ]he demons a i e p onoun zo’n (‘such’ o ‘such a’) may, in he sou he n pa o 7 Aue ( o appea ) p e e s he e m mul i-s anda d language, as his does no ca y conno a ions o cen e s. pe iphe y. FRANS HINSKENS. A Se en-League S ides Sigh seeing T ip Th ough Pas and P esen o S anda d Du ch | 18 doi.o g/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.06 BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) h p://jou nals.lki.l /bend inekalba ISSN 2351-7204 he Du ch language a ea, and especially in Belgian Du ch, be used in combina ion wi h plu al nouns and singula , non-coun able neu al nouns (he -woo den (‘i -wo ds’)), o example: Zo’n huizen wo den nie mee gebouwd ‘Such houses a e no longe buil .’ and Ik ind zo’n hou be e geschik oo een uinhek, ‘I conside such imbe mo e sui able o a ga den ence.’” (Haese yn 2013: 706). This a ia ion also occu s in he S anda d Du ch spoken in Du ch Limbu g. La ge scale mig a ion om Su inam o he Ne he lands s a ed in he 1960s – in mos cases o people wi h a easonable educa ional backg ound. In he ime o Su inam's independence, conside able numbe s o less educa ed Su inamese came o he Ne he lands. Nowadays he Su inamese a e he la ges e hnic mino i y in se e al big ci ies in he wes e n pa o he Ne he lands. A g ea many Su inamese li e in he neighbou hood ‘Bijlme ’ o ‘Bijlme mee ’, which was buil in he la e six ies o he p e ious cen u y in he sou heas o Ams e dam. Many o he cha ac e is ics o Su inamese Du ch highligh ed in sec ion 4.4 also occu in he Du ch which is used o mu ual con ac by Su inamese who se led in he Ne he lands a e independence (1975). Fea u es o Su inamese Du ch which also occu in indigenous a ie ies o Du ch a e he de oicing o oiced ica i es, he use o hun (da i e ' hem') as a subjec p onoun and he use o gaan ('go') as an auxilia y. These a iable phenomena also seem o be a case o plu ia eali y. 4.6. Ne he lands, Flande s and Su inam The no ms o S anda d Du ch hus appea o exhibi a cen i ugal o ce. Wha abou he posi ion o Du ch in he h ee coun ies? We will answe his ques ion on he basis o indings om he esea ch p ojec S aa an he Nede lands ‘S a e (o a ai s) o he Du ch language’. The p ojec aims a es ablishing empi ically well- ounded insigh s in o he usage o Du ch and o he languages in a ious socie al domains in he Du ch language a ea a la ge. The ocus is on he cen al domains o social in e cou se, wo k, news and in o ma ion, cul u e, educa ion and science. FRANS HINSKENS. A Se en-League S ides Sigh seeing T ip Th ough Pas and P esen o S anda d Du ch | 19 doi.o g/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.06 BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) h p://jou nals.lki.l /bend inekalba ISSN 2351-7204 The p ojec builds on wo ypes o da a: • online ques ionnai es among Du chmen, Flemish and inhabi an s o B ussels and (since 2018) Su inamese, p opo ionally s a i ied o sex/gende , age, coun y o bi h and p o ince o esidence 8 ; • lanking da a: epea ed consul a ion o gene ally accessible sou ces (including annual epo s o companies, audience igu es o TV/ adio channels, sales igu es o he book ade) and o he su eys (in 2018: highe educa ion and science). 2016 2018 Ne he lands 3,003 3,559 Flande s 3,419 2,489 B ussels 113 104 Su inam ---- 621 To al 6,535 6,773 TABLE 2. N o esponden s who illed ou he ques ionnai es o he S aa an he Nede lands p ojec in 2016 and 2018, b oken down o egion In o al, o e 200 mo e esponden s pa icipa ed in 2018, despi e he dec ease in Belgian pa icipa ion and hanks o inc eased pa icipa ion in he Ne he lands and (o cou se) Su inam. Some o he main indings will be b ie ly discussed he e 9 . As Fig. 3 shows, in 2018 some 85% o he Du ch esponden s epo ed ha hey chose ‘always Du ch’ when speaking wi h ela i es, iends, and neighbou s. 8 The esponden s a e olun ee s. Fo he Ne he lands and Flande s, hese a e pa ly pe sons who, p io o he digi isa ion (2010), egula ly ecei ed and illed ou he w i en ques ionnai es dis ibu ed by he Mee ens Ins i uu . Fo a g owing pa he esponden s (and all Su inamese in he sample) we e ec ui ed ia he elec onic newsle e o he Mee ens Ins i uu and ia social media. 9 See o he comple e epo Rys e al. (2019). FRANS HINSKENS. A Se en-League S ides Sigh seeing T ip Th ough Pas and P esen o S anda d Du ch | 20 doi.o g/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.06 BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) h p://jou nals.lki.l /bend inekalba ISSN 2351-7204 FIG. 3. Repo ed language choice while speaking wi h ela i es, iends, neighbou s – 2018, The Ne he lands Fo he Flemish esponden s, he pe cen age is e en highe , iz. almos 90% ‘always Du ch’ (Fig. 4). FIG. 4. Repo ed language choice while speaking wi h ela i es, iends, neighbou s – 2018, Flande s As Fig. 5 shows, abou 23% o he Su inamese esponden s epo hey always use Du ch in his domain and non-negligible pe cen ages o esponden s epo hey mix S ana ongo (some 14%) o Sa nami (some 11%) wi h Du ch. Men mo e o en mix Du ch wi h S anan ongo when in e ac ing wi h iends, which is in line wi h esea ch ha shows ha men ind S anan ongo oughe . Wi h ela i es, howe e , hey end o speak exclusi ely Du ch. FRANS HINSKENS. A Se en-League S ides Sigh seeing T ip Th ough Pas and P esen o S anda d Du ch | 21 doi.o g/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.06 BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) h p://jou nals.lki.l /bend inekalba ISSN 2351-7204 FIG. 5. Repo ed language choice while speaking wi h ela i es, iends, neighbou s – 2018, Su inam Be ween 2016 and 2018, he language choice on social media in bo h he Ne he lands and Flande s shi ed signi ican ly a he expense o English ( om 23.6 o 22.7 pe cen o he combina ion o Du ch and English). O all domains, highe educa ion appea s o be he only one in which he use o Du ch is apidly dec easing – hough only in he Ne he lands. As is e iden om Fig. 6, he use o English only inc eased (2016: 10%, 2018: 20% – many MA ajec o ies a e o e ed exclusi ely in English), while in he same pe iod suppo o educa ion in o he languages han Du ch dec eased. This does no ake place in Flande s o in Su inam. FRANS HINSKENS. A Se en-League S ides Sigh seeing T ip Th ough Pas and P esen o S anda d Du ch | 22 doi.o g/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.06 BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) h p://jou nals.lki.l /bend inekalba ISSN 2351-7204 FIG. 6. Language o ins uc ion in highe educa ion, 2016–2018 – The Ne he lands. Blue: suppo o he use o languages o he han Du ch, ed: ac ual use o English only ( om Hinskens 2020a: 14) FIG. 7. Language o ins uc ion in highe educa ion, 2018 – Flande s and B ussels ( om Hinskens 2020a: 14) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 2016 2018 Suppo o o he languages Use English only 20,0% (+ 9,6%-poin )* 54,5% (- 6,4%-poin )*** 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 2016 2018 Suppo o o he languages Use English only 75,3% (+ 4,2%-poin )** 2,8% (+ 0,3%-poin ) FRANS HINSKENS. A Se en-League S ides Sigh seeing T ip Th ough Pas and P esen o S anda d Du ch | 23 doi.o g/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.06 BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) h p://jou nals.lki.l /bend inekalba ISSN 2351-7204 In Flande s and B ussels be ween 2016 and 2018 he use o English in academia did no inc ease, al hough he e was a sligh inc ease in he suppo o educa ion in o he languages han Du ch (Fig. 7). FIG. 8. Suppo o o he language o ins uc ions ( han Du ch) in highe educa ion, 2016–2018 – Su inam. Blue = p ima y educa ion, ed = seconda y educa ion, g een = highe educa ion Fig. 8 p esen s he esul s conce ning he suppo o he use o languages o he han Du ch in Su inam o he h ee main le els o educa ion. No use o English was epo ed and he e is mode a e suppo o educa ion in languages o he han Du ch. 5. FUTURE The e y las inding om he S aa an he Nede lands p ojec deals wi h he u u e o S anda d Du ch. The le mos column in Table 3 below p esen s he pe cen ages o hose who ag ee wi h he s a emen “I hink i is impo an ha child en speak Du ch”. The na i e speake s o Du ch in he o icially bilingual a eas o F isia and B ussels show a dec ease in hei adhe ence o S anda d Du ch, bu he e and in all o he a eas a la ge majo i y is in a ou o ansmi ing S anda d Du ch o he nex gene a ion. The e is also a la ge p o-S anda d Du ch majo i y among non-na i e speake s, excep in mul ilingual Su inam. As a as we can ely on hese esul s, he u u e o Du ch does no look g im a all. 40 45 50 55 60 Suppo o o he languages P ima y educ ion Seconda y educ ion Highe educa ion FRANS HINSKENS. A Se en-League S ides Sigh seeing T ip Th ough Pas and P esen o S anda d Du ch | 24 doi.o g/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.06 BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) h p://jou nals.lki.l /bend inekalba ISSN 2351-7204 “I hink i is impo an ha child en speak Du ch” Na i e speake s ( o ally) ag ee neu al ( o ally) disag ee YEAR QUESTIONNAIRE 2016 2018 2016 2018 2016 2018 Ne he lands 93,9 % 92,6 1,1 0,9 4,9 6,5 F isia 97,8 89,3 0,0 2,0 2,2 8,6 Flande s 94,4 95,1 1,1 0,8 4,6 4,0 B ussels 95,9 85,4 4,0 6,1 0,0 8,5 Su inam no da a 83,6 no da a 13,9 no da a 2,5 Non-na i e speake s ( o ally) ag ee neu al ( o ally) disag ee YEAR QUESTIONNAIRE 2016 2018 2016 2018 2016 2018 Ne he lands 93,8 88,2 2,7 8,1 3,4 3,7 F isia 95,2 84,5 2,4 11,3 2,4 4,2 Flande s 94,3 100,0 1,1 0,0 4,5 0,0 B ussels 92,8 75,0 7,1 0,0 0,0 25,0 Su inam no da a 44,5 no da a 51,1 no da a 4,4 TABLE 3. The pe cen ages o he esponden s who (dis)ag ee wi h he claim “I hink i is impo an ha child en speak Du ch” – b oken down o egion and mo he ongue Recen la ge-scale online su eys ha e shown ha Du ch is i mly ancho ed and s able in all pa s o he language a ea in all domains o language use. E en in he highly mul ilingual Su inam i is he la ges language – in he Ne he lands and Flande s i is so in absolu e e ms. F om he same su eys, a i ude da a collec ed in all pa s o he language a ea FRANS HINSKENS. A Se en-League S ides Sigh seeing T ip Th ough Pas and P esen o S anda d Du ch | 25 doi.o g/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.06 BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) h p://jou nals.lki.l /bend inekalba ISSN 2351-7204 show ha he as majo i y o bo h na i e speake s and non-na i e speake s (s ongly) belie e ha i is impo an ha child en speak Du ch, so o he ime being he e is no need o ea o he u u e o Du ch. REFERENCES Ad iescommissie Taal a ia ie 2019: Visie op aal a ia ie en aal a ia iebeleid. Visie eks an de Ad iescommissie Taal a ia ie in opd ach an he Algemeen Sec e a iaa an de Taalunie, Janua i 2019, Den Haag: Taalunie. h p:// aalunie e sum.o g/si es/ u / iles/downloads/Visie eks %20 aal a ia ie%20- %20 eb ua i%202019.pd . Aue Pe e 2005: Eu ope’s sociolinguis ic uni y, o : A ypology o Eu opean dialec /s anda d cons ella ions. – Pe spec i es on Va ia ion. Sociolinguis ic, His o ical, Compa a i e. N. Delbecque, J. Van de Auwe a, D. Gee ae s (eds.), Be lin/New Yo k: Mou on de G uy e , 7–42. Aue Pe e ( o appea ). Re lec ions on Linguis ic Plu icen ici y. Aue Pe e , Hinskens F ans 1996: The con e gence and di e gence o dialec s in Eu ope. New and no so new de elopmen s in an old a ea. – Con e gence and di e gence o dialec s in Eu ope [special issue Sociolinguis ica 10], P. Aue , F. Hinskens, K. Ma heie (eds.), 1–30. Bennis Hans, Hinskens F ans 2014: Goed o ou . Nie -s andaa d in lec ie in he hedendaags S andaa dnede lands. – Nede landse Taalkunde 19, 2, 131–184. B ede ode Ge b and Ad iaenszoon 1617: Spaansche B abande . Digi alized e sion DBNL: h p://www.dbnl.o g/ eks /b ed001spaa01_01/b ed001spaa01_01_0027.h m#26. Clyne Michael 1992: Plu icen ic languages: In oduc ion. – Plu icen ic languages: Di e ing no ms in di e en na ions, M. Clyne (ed.), Be lin: De G uy e , 1–10. C ys al Da id 2005: A Dic iona y o Linguis ics and Phone ics, 5 h edi ion, Ox o d: Blackwell.