Priešdėlinių lietuvių kalbos veiksmažodžių leksikalizacija

BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 LAIMA JANCAITĖ Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas KEY WORDS: lexicalization, word formation, prepositional verbs, linguistics of textbooks, semantics, Lithuanian language. The aim of this article is to identify the criteria for the recognition of the lexicalization of prepositional verbs and to apply them to the analysis of textbooks. A prepositional verb becomes lexicalized when it becomes a semantically independent word whose lexical meaning is not related to the formant and the basis of the verb. It is important to describe lexicalized verbs and ways of recognizing them in more detail, because these cases are important for lexicographers, who create text-based dictionaries, for language technologies, because computers have to recognize exceptional cases of lexicalisation, and for foreigners, who are learning Lithuanian, because it is also important for them to understand these individual, exceptional cases of word formation. The article initially discusses the broader concept of lexicalisation in order to reveal the context of this phenomenon. Then, using the theoretical literature, the criteria for the recognition of lexicalisation of prepositional verbs are established, and then the example of four common prepositional verbs shows how the criteria could be applied to the recognition of lexicalisation in texts. INTRODUCTION Lexicalisation is an important process of word formation, indicating exceptions to word formation. In general, the lexical meaning of the prepositional verb differs little from the lexical meaning of the Laima Jancaitė. Lexicalization of prepositional verbs in Lithuanian | 2 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.05 BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 base word, but has additional semantic features. However, sometimes it can be completely different from the base verb. In this case, it is already a semantically independent word, which cannot be called a derivative. It is therefore only formally a prepositional verb (otherwise – prepositioned), because it is not semantically related to the base word. For example, the verb deceive appears to be a derivative of the verb get, but it is not semantically related to it (the meanings of these words are skiriasi). Kiti pavyzdžiai: ištikti ir tikti; padėti (reikšme „pagelbėti“) ir dėti; pradėti ir dėti ir t. t. Pasitaiko ir taip, kad semantinę sąsają tarp priešdėlinio ir pamatinio veiksmažodžių įžvelgti galima, very similar). However, the prepositional verb has no general meaning, i.e. it cannot be linked to other derivatives of the same preposition according to the constructive or semantic groups (it has an individual action meaning, but it does not have a group action meaning). In this case, the prefix gives only one verb, in a particular case, a certain meaning. For example, the verb persekioti is related to the base word sekioti, but, according to Jonas Paulauskas, “together it means ‘not to give rest, to try to harm or destroy’”, i.e., the following is understood indirectly (Paulauskas 1958: 432–433). Moreover, in no other case does the prefix overgive the verb this shade of meaning. Cases of lexicalization need to be described and studied in detail to make it clear how to distinguish lexicalized prepositional verbs from ordinary prepositional verbs. To describe in more detail such verbs and ways of distinguishing them is relevant for several reasons. First of all, this is important for lexicographers who create text-based dictionaries – after studying the cases of lexicalisation, they can be described more clearly and indicated in dictionaries; the topic of lexicalisation is also relevant to language technologies, since computer analysis requires the recognition of exceptional cases of lexicalisation; This is also important for foreigners learning Lithuanian – they need to understand the rules of Lithuanian grammar and at the same time understand exceptions, individual, exceptional cases. This article describes how lexicalized verbs can be identified using textbooks; This analysis is useful in that it can reveal how learners recognize lexicalization from usage, what usage Laima Jancaitė. Lexicalization of prepositional verbs in Lithuanian | 3 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.05 BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 information from the context of word usage can be recognized cases of lexicalization. The article leksikografams naudinga pateikti žodynuose ir kaip, atliekant kompiuterizuotą teksto analizę, iš briefly reviews the broader concept of lexicalisation (see Chapter 1) in order to see the broader context – the links of lexicalisation with various linguistic phenomena, not only with word formation. For a more detailed analysis, the lexicalisation related to word formation is chosen and prepositional verbs are studied. This part of the speech is perhaps the most complex, verbs form the center of the sentence, have many functional forms. Apie vedinių leksikalizaciją yra rašęs Saulius Ambrazas (1990), apie veiksmažodžių Aldona Paulauskienė (1994: 37, 41), namely about prepositional verbs in the second volume of the Lithuanian leksikalizaciją – Jonas Paulauskas (1958), Albertas Ružė (2000). J. Paulauskas apie tai rašė ir grammar Morphology (1971; hereinafter – LKG II), in the chapter Prepositional Verbs, and this is also written about in the chapter Prepositional derivatives of the Contemporary Lithuanian Grammar (2005; hereinafter – DLKG), prepared by Evalda Jakaitienė. The aim of this article is to establish criteria for the recognition of the lexicalization of prepositional verbs and to apply them to the analysis of textbooks. Methods used in the thesis – descriptive and textbook linguistics. The criteria for the recognition of lexicalization are determined by analyzing the theoretical literature and applied by selecting 9 prepositional verbs common in textbooks: describe, perform, issue, establish, sell, begin, accept, make, occupy (although the results of the study are summarized after analyzing all 9 verbs, in this article the application of the criteria is illustrated by 4 verbs used with certain meanings: determine, issue, sell, describe). The main work 1 1 The criteria for recognition of lexicalization are described in more detail and applied to more verbs in Laima Jancaite’s master’s thesis Priešdėlinių lietuvių kalbos žodžių leksikalizacijos atpažinimas (2020). Laima Jancaitė. Lexicalization of prepositional verbs in Lithuanian | 4 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.05 BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 sources – Contemporary Lithuanian Language Textbook (hereinafter – CLT) and Morphologically Annotated Textbook (toliau – MATAS). Though the lexicalisation is discussed in theoretical works, they focus more on the general meanings of prepositional derivatives (i.e. prepositional verbs are generalized according to semantic groups or described their grouping meanings), and lexicalisation is more mentioned as an exception to the rule. This article discusses lexicalisation separately, and also writes how it could be detected using texts, i.e. a more objective kalbos ištekliumi, o ne remiantis vien kalbos jausmu. 1. A WIDE INTERPRETATION OF LEXICALIZATION Lexicalisation in scientific works and dictionaries is not limited to word formation, but covers many different processes. This section discusses what processes can be considered lexicalisation. Specialiajame leidinyje – Kalbotyros terminų žodyne (toliau – KTŽ) leksikalizacija “The transformation of some language elements (morphems, word combinations, alphabetic abbreviations, etc.) into constant language units – word equivalents: ERA – electrographic reproduction apparatus, and the era copy is not sufficiently clear; ranka moti and ranka moti ‘ignore’, etc.’ (Gaivenis, Keinys 1990). This concept emphasizes the appearance of word equivalents – these are not real words, they only perform word functions; it is important that such constructions arise from units already existing in the language. Among the examples given is the use of an acronym as a common word. The Universal Lithuanian Encyclopedia (hereinafter – VLEe) presents an even more detailed concept of lexicalisation (author – E. Jakaitienė): “lexicalisation, the transformation of a non-lexical element of language (grammatical form, morpheme) or a combination of such elements into an independent lexical Laima Jancaitė. Lexicalization of prepositional verbs in Lithuanian | 5 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.05 BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 unit. For example, the emergence of adverbs from funny forms (svoju, skooliais, žaibu, vakarop), the semantic separation of the plural (pieniai ‘seed of fish males’, viduriai ‘internal organs of the abdomen’), the transformation of the exclamator into a sensation (varge!), i.e. the transformation of the formant of the action into a separate word (All ultras are people of reactionary beliefs; Fascists, Stalinists and others played with the fate of nations), the contraction of several words into an adult word (sudiev < su Dievu, padėkdie < padėk Dieve). Sometimes lexicalisation is also considered as the transformation of free word combinations into idioms, tropical phraseologisms or compound terms naming a single concept (birch porridge ‘punishment’, tongue poke ‘to complain’, thunder goat ‘bird of the tilvik family’). This type of lexicalization is usually called syntactic.” It can be seen that both the KTŽ and the VLEe present a similar gali tapti žodžių ekvivalentais ir kalboje pradėti būti vartojami kaip vienetai, lygiaverčiai žodžiams. concept – it is mentioned that both morphemes and word combinations, etc. Thus, lexicalization can be various processes. However, it is not only important that it covers many processes, but also that it can be treated differently. For example, Jurgita Cvilikaitė writes that lexicalized is “named by word” (Civilkaitė 2005: 34), while Jurgita Girčienė associates the process of lexicalization with “the integration ir kai kurie užsienio autoriai, pavyzdžiui, Geertas Booijus teigia, kad žodis leksikalizuojasi tada, kai of lexical variants into the language system” (Girčienė 2012: 32). Similarly, writing is possible and begins to be used abundantly, becomes a habit (Booij 2005: 17–18). This thesis focuses on the fact that lexicalisation is associated with certain semantic exceptions, when grammatical elements become lexical (this is written in VLEe: lexicalisation can occur when the syllable becomes fixed, when the plural is semantically separated, etc.). The article focuses on lexicalisation related to word formation – cases when a prepositional verb becomes a semantically independent word. LAIMA JANCAITĖ. Priešdėlinių lietuvių kalbos veiksmažodžių leksikalizacija | 6 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.05 BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 2. LEXICALIZATION OF PREPOSITIVE LITHUANIAN VERBS This chapter examines what is written in the theoretical literature about the lexicalization of Vedic texts. Possible causes of lexicalization, types of lexicalization of prepositional verbs and, most importantly, how to recognize this lexicalization are reviewed. S. Ambrazas, writing about the lexicalization of Vedic words, states that “during this process, Vedic 2 words acquire new, usually more special lexical meanings, which are not directly conditioned by their composition” (Ambrazas 1990: 60). Thus, S. Ambrazas associates lexicalization with cases when the vedic begins to be considered no longer as vedic, because their lexical meaning begins to depend less on the action. The author writes about the types of lexicalisation – he states that lexicalisation can be complete and partial. According to him, complete lexicalisation occurs when “the relation of the motivation of the vedic to the base word disappears completely”, and partial lexicalisation occurs “when the relation of the vedic to the base word remains and the new lexical meaning does not overshadow the original functional meaning” (Ambrazas 1990: 60–61). An example of complete lexicalization is the word galas. According to S. Ambrazo, this word is no longer considered a derivative in modern linguistics, although it is made from the verb gelti and previously had the meaning of "deadly bite, bite". As an example of partial lexicalization, the author refers to the changed relationship of the names of the verbs with the derivatives of the suffix -imas (-ymas). According to him, now many of the derivatives of the extremities have acquired special meanings and become terms of individual fields, for example, the word mūšis, which had the meaning of "beating", galūnių vediniai ir priesagos -imas (-ymas) vediniai žymėjo veiksmo procesus ir būsenas (Ambrazas has acquired the meaning of "fight, battle". As indicated earlier, XVI–XVII c., 1990: 61). It can be seen that S. Ambrazas speaks of a certain graduality: some Vedic can be 2 Although S. Ambrazas analyzes only the derivatives of prepositions and endings, he relies on them and gives examples of them, but he generalizes the idea without excluding the derivatives of prepositions as exceptions. Laima Jancaitė. Lexicalization of Lithuanian prepositional verbs | 7 lexicalized more, others – less. The doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.05 BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 linguist also indicates the reason for lexicalization. According to him, lexicalisation is a historical process; semantic change occurs gradually and, although now semantic connections between the base word and the derivative are sometimes difficult to see or not possible at all (so the derivative is no longer considered a synchronous derivative), semantic connections were seen in the past. According to S. Ambrazu, the lexicalization of Vedic words is historical, i.e., Vedic words lose their semantic connection with the formants and foundation of the wording over time. Although formally they appear to be Vedic, they sometimes have unusual, unitary meanings that cannot be recognized from the forms and foundation of the work. Jonas Paulauskas, writing about prepositional verbs (Paulauskas 1958: 327– 444), discusses in detail the meanings of each preposition (in this work the view is that one preposition is not used without a verb, therefore this is called the meanings of prepositional derivatives). For example, the expression of the prefix is given as follows: "The prefix has only one basic meaning – the directional meaning, which coincides with the meaning of the preposition from" (Paulauskas 1958: 350). A couple of examples: The fingers from Onytė have already become famous; "I Don't Wanna Be Alone" (1958) 3. The prepositions described are related to many different verbs, so the preposition gives the same meaning to more than one verb, and all those verbs form one group. The definition of lexical meaning given by E. Jakaitienė VLEe states: “The content of a word consists of meanings of various abstractions: grammatical (of the part of language to which the word belongs), general (of the verb or semantic groups to which the word belongs) and individual.” Thus, it can be said that the meaning that the prefix gives to many different words is general. J. Paulauskas does not specify whether 3 3 E. Jakaitienės pasiūlyto bendrosios reikšmės termino nereikėtų painioti su Stasio Keinio (1999: 21) ir Vinco 1978: 162–164) used the term of general (categorical) action. The latter authors call the general (categorical) meaning of the verb the meaning when not with one formant of the verb, but with the whole fiber “words of a similar meaning of the verb are formed”; For example, “the performers of an action and the persons or other beings who are characterized by the characteristic resulting from that action” are named by various different vedas: writer, bearer, finger, plepy, guard, etc. (Keinys 1999: 21). S. Keinys (1999: 20–22) and V. Urbutis (1978: 144–244) present this meaning of action alongside other meanings of action – individual and group. E. Jakaitienė, writing about the general meaning, does LAIMA JANCAITĖ. Priešdėlinių lietuvių kalbos veiksmažodžių leksikalizacija | 8 not mean the general meaning. doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.05 BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 describes the meanings of operative or semantic groups, but the prepositional meanings it describes could be linked to the group meanings of the operative (see: Urbutis 1978: 145; Keinys 1999: 21). However, J. Paulauskas also writes about “exclusive meanings” (Paulauskas 1958: 432) – these cases are different from the described general meaning of prepositions, because they cannot be associated with more than one verb, these verbs do not have a general meaning (group action meaning). The term "lexicalisation" is not mentioned by the linguist, but the distinctive meanings he describes can be linked to lexicalisation. This highlights one of the criteria for recognizing lexicalisation – a prepositional verb is lexicalized if it does not have a general (group action or semantic groups) meaning, i.e. if the prepositional derivative cannot be assigned to a group of verbs having a certain general meaning. In writing about exclusive meanings, J. Paulauskas states that “[P]repositions can influence the meaning of the root of some ordinary verbs, changing it more or less” (Paulauskas 1958: 432). Like S. Ambrazas, the author writes that there are two kinds of these exclusive meanings: “Prepositions give some ordinary verbs some new, specific shade, which cannot be extended to other verbs” (so, as mentioned, verbs made with them do not have the meaning of group action), and “[i]n other cases, prepositions completely change the meaning of the ordinary action, and the meaning as part of the word content. It is true that it hints that this meaning can also be of functional groups, in order to understand that it has in mind the group meaning of the action, i.e. the veiksmažodžio šaknies reikšmę“ (Paulauskas 1958: 433). Iš to aiškėja dar vienas leksikalizacijos general meaning referred to can be either the group meaning of the action or the meaning of semantic groups. According to the kurias įeina žodis, reikšmė. Nors S. Keinio ir V. Urbučio pateikti terminai E. Jakaitienės nevartojami, būtų galima degree of abstraction, the group meaning of the work is between the lexical and grammatical meaning, writes V. Urbutis (1978: 144–145). Thus, this work is based on the description of the general meaning given by E. Jakaitienė and the description of the meaning of group work given by S. Keinis and V. Urbutis (Keinys 1999: 21; Urbutis 1978: 145). As V. Urbutis points out, the group action meaning is characteristic of “all examples with the -tojas suffix: dūsautojas, keliautojas, prašytojas, tarnautojas have the group action meaning “the one who performs the action marked by the base verb” (Keinys 1999: 21). darybos tipo ar šiaip artimų darinių grupės (kalbos dalies viduje) atstovams“ (Urbutis 1978: 145). S. Keinys pateikia Laima Jancaitė. Lexicalization of prepositional verbs in Lithuanian | 9 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.05 BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 recognition criterion – a prepositional verb is lexicalized if it is not semantically related to the base verb, i.e. the meaning of the prepositional verb is completely different from that of the base verb. Thus, the synchronic prepositional verb cannot be considered a derivative – it only has the derivative form (although J. Paulauskas writes that the meaning of the verb root is changed, but one root is not used, therefore this article tends to say that the meaning of the base word is different). As an example of partial lexicalization, J. Paulauskas gives the verb įsakyti: although the meaning of the base verb sakyti is semantically similar to the meaning of the verb įsakyti, the prefix “gives a new – command, requirement – shade” (Paulauskas 1958: 432). As examples of complete lexicalization, the verbs neglected, deceived, deceived, etc. are mentioned (Paulauskas 1958: 433–434). Thus, according to J. Paulauskas, it is also possible to say that there is a certain degree of lexicalisation. However, J. Paulauskas points out that there is an unclear boundary between the case when the base verb only veiksmažodžio reikšmė keičiama tik šiek tiek (veiksmažodis neturi bendrosios reikšmės, priešdėlis gives it some meaning, a certain shade of meaning) and the case when it is completely changed (i.e. the verb is completely lexicalized, synchronously no longer considered a derivative) (Paulauskas 1958: 433). Therefore, it is difficult to establish objective criteria for the recognition of total and partial lexicalization. For this reason, when applying the criteria of recognition of lexicalization, it was decided not to divide lexicalization into total and partial, since in both cases it is a kind of exception to the rules (as J. Paulauskas writes, of exceptional significance). In applying these criteria, it should be borne in mind that a prepositional verb is lexicalized if its semantic connection with the base verb is not apparent, and in cases where the semantic connection is apparent, the prepositional verb is considered lexicalized if it does not have a general meaning. J. Paulauskas mini ir dar vieną priešdėlinių veiksmažodžių leksikalizacijos atpažinimo The second prefix is added to such prefixed verbs, the first prefix of which is closely connected with the verb and forms a new verb, and the third prefix is added to such prefixed verbs, the first prefix of Laima Jancaitė. Lexicalization of prepositional verbs in Lithuanian | 16 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.05 BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 which is closely connected with the verb and forms a new verb, and the fourth prefix is added to such prefixed verbs, the second prefix is added to such prefixed verbs, the first prefix of which is closely connected with the verb and forms a new verb. As J. Paulauskas points out, the most often lexicalized words are widely used, having many meanings, therefore the criteria for checking the lexicalization were chosen on the basis of the most commonly used verbs (describe, perform, issue, establish, sell, begin, accept, conclude, occupy). This article illustrates such a verification by using the example of four of the verbs examined: characterise, issue, identify, sell. In the frequent dictionary of written Lithuanian language (hereinafter – DRLKŽ), compiled on the basis of 1 million words of morphologically annotated text, it is stated that the verb nustatyti – the most frequent verb with the prefix nu- (it is the 107th word by frequency), the verb išleisti – the most frequent verb with the prefix iš- (the 204th word by frequency), the verb parduoti – the most frequent verb with the prefix par- (the 725th word by frequency), the verb apibūdinti – the second most frequent verb with the prefix api- (the 602nd word by frequency). It should be borne in mind that a verb can be lexicalized in all or only some meanings. For example, the verb pradėti is lexicalized only as meaning “to take what to do, to give a start”, as indicated in the Dictionary of Contemporary Lithuanian Language (hereinafter – DŽ7i), and is not lexicalized as a verb meaning “not to put in place” (DŽ7i); The verb nutūkti, as indicated in DŽ7i, has one meaning – ‘to think, to understand’, and when used in this sense is lexicalized. However, the aim of this article is not to examine the meanings of verbs and to determine which verbs are lexicalized, but to illustrate how the criteria for the recognition of lexicalization could be applied in the text. The first criterion applied is that a prepositional verb is lexicalized if the base verb is not used in the current language. It is convenient to apply this criterion first, because it is easy to check, just need as much text as possible. It is found that, for example, the verb to describe (its meaning, as stated in DG7i, is “to indicate characteristic signs, to characterize”) is used in the DLKT LAIMA JANCAITĖ. Priešdėlinių lietuvių kalbos veiksmažodžių leksikalizacija | 17 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.05 BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 14,958 times. The text contains only two cases of use of the base verb: Vaižgantas provides a list of all the actors listed under the heading “Person’s acts”; Especially vividly and comprehensively characterized leading persons, politicians. The first case of usage is from an older language: it is part of Vaižganto text title. As mentioned in Chapter 2, lexicalisation must be judged on the basis of the facts of the present language, not of the older language. Considering the volume of the textbook, two cases of usage are to be considered as statistically insignificant (only two were found, cases of prepositional verb usage – much more). Thus, it can be said that the verb describe – lexicalized, because its base verb characterize is not used in the present language (the verb is no longer considered a derivative in the present language). The second criterion used is the ability of the prepositional verb to join the second preposition. As already discussed, a prepositional verb is considered lexicalized if it can join another preposition. This criterion is convenient to apply to the second, because it is also easily verified. Although the absence of lexicalisation by this criterion does not mean that the verb is not lexicalized, it is important because it allows the lexicalisation recognition process to be automated – the probability that two prepositions will be automatically recognized is very high. This criterion, like the first one, should be tested in a large text. For example, in DLKT, the following derivatives of the verb sell (the base word is give) are used: išparduoti, išparduoti, reparduoti (the derivative išparduoti is mentioned in DRLKŽ). Thus, it can be said that the verb sell is lexicalized in relation to the base word give (it is no longer considered a derivative synchronously), because it can be joined by another prefix. If these two criteria do not detect lexicalization, a further criterion is applied, the semantic connections with the base verb (synchronously there is a derivative) – the prefix adds semantic components to the orientuotas į bendrąją reikšmę. Jei priešdėlinis veiksmažodis turi bendrąją reikšmę, jis turi turėti base verb, but changes the meaning little. If there is no semantic connection between the prepositional and the base verb, it can be said that the prepositional verbs have semantic connections. When checking this, it is worth considering the context of the verb's use. For example, if the lexical conjugation of a Laima Jancaitė. Lexicalization of prepositional verbs in Lithuanian | 18 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.05 BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 veiksmažodis bendrosios reikšmės neturi. Taigi, svarbu patikrinti, ar priešdėlinis ir pamatinis prepositional verb used in a certain meaning differs greatly from the lexical conjugation of all meanings of the base verb, it can be said that that prepositional verb is semantically very distant from the 5 meanings of the base verb. For example, the verb nustatyti, used with the meaning "confirm by facts, clarify" (DŽ7i), tends to join nouns belonging to the abstract lexical semantic group: Examining the eyes, we can determine the redness and dryness of the eyes (DLKT). In this case, redness and dryness of the collocates are joined. The verb nustatyti, used in the meaning of "pre-mark, distinguish" (DŽ7i), also tends to join nouns belonging to the abstract lexical semantic group: The procedure for the examination of veterinary medicines is determined by the State Veterinary Service (DLKT). In this case, the collocation order is connected. That the verb determine, used with these meanings, tends to join abstract nouns belonging to the lexical semantic group, was established in the text MATAS by analyzing and comparing the concordances of the prepositional verb determine and its base verb construct. After analyzing the concordance of the base verb to build, it became clear that it tends to join specific nouns: Puts the bottle in the corner, markstosi, wipes his eyes; Lithuanians build residential and industrial buildings abroad; mopeds and bicycles are allowed in two rows (DLKT). In this case, connected collocates bottle, residential and industrial facilities, mopedai ir dviračiai. Atvejų, kai veiksmažodis statyti prisijungia abstraktų leksinei semantinei grupei 5 Apie tai, kad iš vartosenos aplinkos galima nustatyti žodžių reikšmes, yra rašyta, pavyzdžiui, Rūta Marcinkevičienė: in order to understand a word, we must take into account the context of its use, because we cannot know what a word means until we hear it or read it in the text (Marcinkevičienė 2011: 9). John Sinclair wrote about the extended unit of meaning – it is usually not the word that has a meaning, but a unit of language larger than the word Markov 2000, pp. 42. Laima Jancaitė. Lexicalization of prepositional verbs in Lithuanian | 19 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.05 BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 (Sinclair 1996: 114, cited from Sinclair 1996: 114). Since the verb determine, used in the meanings of the lexical conjunction „patvirtinti faktais, išaiškinti“ ir „iš anksto nužymėti, nuskirti“, leksinis junglumas labai skiriasi nuo of the base verb, it can be said that the verb determine, used in these meanings, is semantically very distant from the base verb and is lexicalized. Thus, when looking for cases of lexicalisation and assessing the lexical conjugation of verbs, it is convenient to take into account lexical semantic groups, but sometimes it is necessary to take into account collocates. An example could be the verb to release, used in the meaning of "to prepare, to teach" (DŽ7i). There were few examples of the use of the verb leisti, used with this meaning, in the text MATAS, so the concordance of the verb and the base word leisti was checked in the DLKT. Based on DRLKŽ, the three most common forms of the verb išleido – išleido, išleista, išleista – were selected and their concordances were compared with the corresponding forms of the base word – leido, leisti, leista. It turned out that the verb to release, used in the meaning “to prepare, teach”, connects nouns belonging to the lexical semantic group of people, as well as the basic verb to release, used in certain meanings. Nevertheless, the verb to release very often tends to join collocates graduates and release: Until 1940 Vytautas The major university has released 3790 graduates; On December 16, 1919, the Military Aviation School issued the first and last issue (DLKT). The verb to allow such collocations to join is unwilling. Thus, sometimes it is not enough to take into account lexical semantic groups – lexicalization can be recognized by collocates. It can be said that this recognition criterion is important, but subjective: tekstyną tenka atsirinkti, pagal ką bus tikrinamas leksinis junglumas – pagal leksines semantines when analyzing groups (if so, by what) or by collocates. and the lexical conjugation of the prepositional Jeigu priešdėlinio veiksmažodžio semantinių sąsajų su pamatiniu veiksmažodžiu randama and the base verb is similar, this does not mean that the prepositional verb is not lexicalized – it may not have the general (group action or semantic groups) meaning. So we need to check further. One way is to take into account grammatical conjugation. Verbs with a certain general meaning are characterized Laima Jancaitė. Lexicalization of prepositional verbs in Lithuanian | 20 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.05 BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 by a certain grammatical conjugation. Thus, it is important to find out what grammatical conjugation is characteristic of verbs with a certain general meaning. For example, the verb nustatyti, used in the meaning of “regulate”, tends to join the ending of nouns belonging to the lexical semantic group of objects: precise astronomical instruments can be easily determined; put things in places and set (gali turėti kitą bendrąją reikšmę arba neturėti nė vienos iš bendrųjų reikšmių) ir yra leksikalizuotas. clocks (DLKT). When analyzing the non-consonant meanings of verbs with a prefix, it is clear that the derivatives of this prefix tend to join nouns belonging to the lexical semantic group of objects: “Derivatives of a prefix denote the spread of the action said by the main word in space or on the surface of something.” (LKG 1971: 208). However, when mentioning the verbs with this prefix, LKG gives the example Skujom, šakeliem ir šiškom nuklotą kepina saulė nenaudingą plotą (LKG 1971: 208). It is therefore clear that nouns belonging to the lexical semantic group of objects are connected to the derivative conjugation by the infinitive rather than by the final vowel. The one-word verb to establish such a general meaning has to be – not “to adjust”, but “to add a lot” (DŽ7i). DZ7i presents such set pots. Example found in DLKT – Tables champagne and cognac to determine. As can be seen, the verb nustatyti, used in the meaning of “to add a lot”, connects nouns belonging to the lexical semantic group of objects with the indefinite verb, so it can be said that it has the general meaning described by LKG: pavyzdžiai: Nustatyti stalą valgiais ir, kai veiksmažodis vartojamas kaip sangrąžinis, – Visus kampus “The prepositional derivatives denote the expansion of the action said by the main word in space or on the surface of something” (LKG 1971: 208). The verb nustatyti, used in the meaning of “regulate”, tends to join nouns belonging to the lexical semantic group of objects with the final vowel, so it does not have this general meaning. Laima Jancaitė. Lexicalization of prepositional verbs in Lithuanian | 21 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.05 BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 This checks whether the verb has at least one general meaning. The derivatives of a certain prefix may have more than one common meaning, so it is necessary to check that the prefix verb does not have any of them. If no common meaning is identified, the verb is considered lexicalized. Thus, it is possible to conclude that the verb to determine, the recognition criteria, vartojamas reikšme „sureguliuoti“, yra leksikalizuotas. Tai objektyvesnis leksikalizacijos it is convenient to check in the text. Thus, the lexicalisation recognition criteria can be applied in the text in the following order (if lexicalisation is determined, no further criteria are needed). First, it is checked whether the base verb of the concern prepositional verb is used and, if it is not used, the prepositional verb is considered lexicalized. It is then checked whether the prepositional verb can join another preposition, and if such cases are found, the derivative of one preposition is considered lexicalized. This means that if the value of the index is equal to the value of the index, then the index will be equal to the value of the index, and the index will be equal to the value of the index. Finally, on the basis of the grammatical conjunction, it is checked whether the prepositional verb has a general meaning. If the grammatical conjugation is different from that of other verbs with common meanings, the prepositional verb is considered lexicalized. CONCLUSIONS Lexicalisation is a phenomenon of wide scope, covering not one language domain and not completely understood in the same way. The lexicalization of prepositional verbs is associated with the semantic independence of the vedic and the individuality of the meaning: a verb becomes lexicalized when it becomes a semantically independent word and no longer is only the result of word formation or when it has only a LAIMA JANCAITĖ. Priešdėlinių lietuvių kalbos veiksmažodžių leksikalizacija | 22 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.05 BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 individual meaning of the verb, but does not have the general (group verb or semantic groups) meaning. The article describes what criteria for the recognition of prepositional verbs lexicalisation emerged from theoretical works, and how these criteria were tried to apply in textbooks. On the basis of two textbooks, analyzing the lexicalization of 9 prepositional verbs (describe, perform, issue, determine, sell, start, accept, make, occupy) and the descriptions of the lexicalization tendencies of 4 of them (determine, issue, sell, describe) in this article, a certain order of application of the lexicalisation criteria becomes clear: if the lexicalisation is recognized by one criterion, the other criterion is not needed. First, in a large text, it is checked whether the base verb of the prepositional verb is used: if it is not used, the prepositional verb is considered lexicalized. This is the first criterion to be used, because it is easy to verify. Then, in a large text, it is checked whether the prepositional verb can join another preposition: if it can, the prepositional verb with one preposition is considered lexicalized (except for the verb to say). This criterion is also convenient to apply, because it is also easy to verify. If the prepositional verb has semantic connections with the base verb, then it is said to be lexicalized. In the text, semantic connections were checked by comparing lexical conjunction: the concordances of the prepositional and the base verb were analyzed, and whether the prepositional and its base verb are collocates were considered. Although this criterion of prisijungia toms pačioms leksinėms semantinėms grupėms priklausančius žodžius ir tokius pačius recognition of lexicalization is subjective, it is very important. It takes a lot of time to check it (a lot of concordances have to be reviewed), so the third criterion was used. Laima Jancaitė. Lexicalization of prepositional verbs in Lithuanian | 23 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.05 BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 Galiausiai tikrinta, ar priešdėlinis veiksmažodis turi bendrąją reikšmę: jeigu neturi nė of one general meaning, the verb was considered lexicalized. This is checked with regard to grammatical conjugation: if the grammatical conjugation of the prepositional verb is different from that of the verbs with common meanings, the verb is considered to be lexicalized. This is a more objective criterion, it is convenient to apply, but it takes a lot of time (a lot of concordance needs to be reviewed). Although these lexicalisation recognition criteria can be applied in textbooks, it has become apparent that the recognition of lexicalisation of each verb may require different criteria, so there are no universal criteria. There may also be cases where, based on these criteria, lexicalization may not be recognized (more criteria may be needed to recognize that a prepositional verb has no common meaning). Then the lexicalisation can be sought outside the text or examined what other criteria may exist that could be applied in the text. The study of the recognition criteria for lexicalization of prepositional verbs is useful for semantics. In this work the criteria are systematized and described, in theoretical publications more attention is paid to general meanings rather than exceptional cases of lexicalisation. Furthermore, other cases of lexicalization (e.g. vowel stabbing, plural semantic separation, etc.) could be studied. ŠALTINIAI DLKT – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos tekstynas. Prieiga internete: http://tekstynas.vdu.lt/tekstynas [žiūrėta 2019 m. rugpjūčio mėn.–2020 m. gegužės mėn.]. LAIMA JANCAITĖ. Priešdėlinių lietuvių kalbos veiksmažodžių leksikalizacija | 24 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.05 BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 DRLKŽ – Dažninis rašytinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas. A. Utka, Kaunas: Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas, 2009. Prieiga internete: http://donelaitis.vdu.lt/publikacijos/Dazninis_zodynas.pdf. DŽ7i – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas (internetinis), vyr. red. S. Keinys, 7-as patais. ir papild. leid., Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2015. 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Received 2020 06 02 Adopted on 30 October 2020