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LIETUVIŲ KALBOTYROS KLAUSIMAI, V LIETUVOS TSR MOKSLŲ AKADEMIJA ON THE EXPLANATION OF THE MEANINGS OF PREFIXED VERBS IN THE “DICTIONARY OF THE LITHUANIAN LANGUAGE” J. PAULAUSKAS In the “Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language,” prefixed verbs are placed in the entries of the corresponding non-prefixed verbs, but are listed separately in alphabetical order as independent words, with definitions and illustrative sentences1. Since the meaning of a prefixed verb most often depends on the meaning of the corresponding non-prefixed verb and the prefix, when defining the meaning of a prefixed verb in the Dictionary, it is necessary to take into account the meanings of these two components that make up the prefixed verb. When a prefixed verb retains the meaning of the corresponding non-prefixed verb, in many cases its definition can be given either by using the definition of the corresponding non-prefixed verb (sometimes only part of it) or simply by citing the corresponding non-prefixed verb, whose meaning is explained in its own entry. This is useful and convenient to do in the “Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language” also because, as already mentioned, prefixed verbs are placed next to non-prefixed verbs with the same root. When the prefix completely changes the meaning of the root of a prefixed verb (e.g., duoti and parduoti; gauti and pagauti; tikti and sutikti, etc.), the non-prefixed verb or its definition cannot be used to define it. The meaning of each such prefixed verb must be defined independently. Thus, when defining the meaning of a prefixed verb, it is necessary to take into account its relationship to the meaning of the non-prefixed verb. When defining the meanings of prefixed verbs, it is important to determine how various prefixes modify the meanings of non-prefixed verbs. Prefixes can impart general meanings to certain semantic groups of verbs; for example, verbs denoting motion, when used with the prefix į-, acquire the meaning of direction inward (įeiti, įtraukti, įvežti). These meanings of prefixes can also be formulated uniformly in defining the meanings of various prefixed verbs. Having reviewed many definitions of prefixed verbs in the “Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language 1 This has been done since Volume III. In the first two volumes of the Dictionary, prefixed verbs were not listed separately within entries, but were assigned to the definitions of non-prefixed verbs. 215 “in the dictionary,” one may conclude that the meanings of prefixes are defined in them in three ways: 1) by a prepositional construction, 2) by an adverb, 3) by a verb. Deviations also occur in practice, but, generally, an effort is made to follow these three methods of explanation developed in the process of editing the Dictionary. When a prefix gives a verb only the meaning of the end of an action, making it a perfective verb, the Dictionary explains only the root meaning of the prefixed verb. Only the prefix of the verb being explained (sometimes another prefix as well) is added to the verb used in the explanation; this prefix also gives the explaining verb the meaning of the end of an action. This method of explanation is sometimes used in other cases, too. In this way, the lexicographer explaining the meanings of prefixed verbs—that is, formulating an explanation so as to bring out both the verb’s root meaning and the meaning imparted to it by the prefix, as well as the completed action marked by the prefix—must solve a fairly complex problem. First, they must determine the meaning of the prefix and link its explanation to that of the corresponding unprefixed verb, or directly to the unprefixed form of the verb; they must also ensure that the verb being explained and the verb used in the explanation are of the same aspect. In addition, when explaining the meaning of a prefixed verb, it is necessary to take into account the close interrelationship between the meanings of the unprefixed verb and the prefix, and to establish indivisible prefix meanings, since only under this condition can the meaning of the prefixed verb be accurately understood and discussed. I. The meaning of a prefixed verb is explained most simply by adding to the verb used in the explanation of the corresponding unprefixed verb’s meaning the prefix of the verb being explained or some other prefix. We do this most often when the prefix of the verb being explained has only the meaning of the end of an action. For example: gelbėti — to rescue, to pull out of trouble, and iš-gelbėti — to save, to pull out of trouble; gerinti — to make better, to mend, to improve, and pagerinti — to make better, to repair, to improve; irti — to collapse, to crumble into pieces, and iš-irti — to collapse, to crumble into pieces. It is common practice to use only part of the explanation of the unprefixed verb—synonymous verbs (or a synonym) used in that explanation, or only the descriptive explanation (omitting the synonyms), or part of it. For example: kedenti — to tease (wool) before carding, to pluck, and iškedenti — to tease out; galabyti — to put to death, to kill, and nugalabyti — to kill; kietėti — to become hard, to grow stiff, to set, to grow firm, and sukietėti — to become hard; kiaulinti — to call someone a pig, to revile, and apkiaulinti — to revile thoroughly; jaugti — to make a mess; to overturn; to stuff or cram things together in a disorderly heap; to trample (a room), and sujaugti — to throw together, to heap up untidily. This method of explaining the meanings of prefixed verbs is occasionally applied also in cases where, in addition to the meaning of the end of an action, the prefix of the verb being explained brings out some other meaning as well. The meaning of a verb prefix may also be left unexplained separately when the meaning of a rare verb is explained by a better-known verb, or when such a more widely known verb is used in the explanation. For example: užkemėroti — to clutter up; apgleižnyti — to feel around; kerbti — to tie loosely, and prikerbti — to tie on loosely. 216 Here it is also necessary to mention verbs whose prefixes impart a directional meaning. As we know, these prefix meanings are the most prominent and can even be understood without the verb. Therefore, less frequently used verbs of motion with prefixes indicating direction can also be explained by a more widely used verb with the same prefix. For example: kinklinti—to walk slowly, and parkinklinti—to return slowly on foot; kervinti—to walk slowly, awkwardly; keblinti, joti, and atkervinti—to come slowly, awkwardly, to ride up. The use of the explanatory verb’s prefix together with the verb used to explain it is not common. Apart from the cases mentioned, it would be difficult to cite more. For prefixes have various meanings, which they can impart to the same verb. Therefore, a prefixed verb can be explained solely by another prefixed verb only when the prefixes of both verbs have one, or at most two, overlapping and highly prominent meanings. Most often, the meaning of the prefix must be brought out through other formulations. Of course, it is impossible to draw a strict boundary between the meanings of verb prefixes that need explanation and those that do not. In general, it is better to explain prefix meanings that are understandable even without explanation than to leave unclear ones unexplained. It should be noted that in the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language there are cases where the meaning of a prefix has not been adequately explained. For example: pagainioti—to drive about; pagaišti—to delay; pakemeruoti—to wave one’s hands or something else; pajaukinti—to tame. The diminutive meaning that the prefix pa- imparts to these verbs is not brought out in the dictionary, and this is a shortcoming in the explanation. Likewise, it is only the illustration, not the explanation, that shows what meaning the prefix pra- gives the verb pragirkščioti, which is explained by the word pragirtuati, although in fact it means to spend everything on drinking, to squander everything in drunken revelry. Explaining it with the single word pragirtuati is all the more unsuitable because the meaning of pragirtuati—to spend on drinking—is not given in its own entry, since it was absent from the material available. In the cases mentioned and similar ones, the meaning of the prefix should be defined descriptively. II. The descriptive method is used quite often to explain the meaning of a prefix. At the beginning, three prominent variants of the descriptive explanation of verb-prefix meanings were mentioned; it is useful to review them separately here. 1. To explain a prefixed verb, a prepositional construction is used together with the explanation of the corresponding unprefixed verb (or part of its explanation—a synonym); the verb (or synonym) ordinarily takes the prefix of the verb being explained. For example: joti—to travel, go on horseback, and prajoti—to pass by on horseback; kasti—to dig; to grub; to make a hole… and įkasti—to dig into, to put into the ground; kelti—to take or push something upward; to put something in a higher place… and užkelti—to put something behind or on top of something; dribti—to fall, tumble, and išdribti—to fall out of something. This method of explanation is relatively rare; it is applied to verbs denoting motion whose prefix imparts a particular directional meaning. 2. More often, the meaning of a verb prefix is explained by an adverb. An adverb and a synonym of the verb being explained, bearing the same prefix, can be used to explain verbs with a directional meaning. For example: atlėkti—to fly nearer; išvaryti—to drive, thrust out; nukarinti—to lower down; apkrauti—to place things all around. A prepositional construction and an adverb can both be used to explain the same verb with a directional meaning. For example: prikeverzoti—to come closer to something. 217 Adverbs are particularly often used to explain prefixed verbs with various secondary meanings of prefixes. To define verbs to which a prefix gives diminutive, intensifying, and other meanings, the definition of the unprefixed verb is used, but, in addition to an adverb discussing the corresponding secondary meaning of the prefix a little, somewhat, much, etc., the prefix of the verb being defined is also added. For example: krėsti — to put or dump something thick, and atkrėsti — to set aside or dump a little of something thick; kratyti — to pour or throw something loose, and nukratyti — to pour off a little; kratyti — to shake violently from side to side, and užkratyti — to shake to death; krauti — to pile things on something or somewhere, and prikrauti — to add a lot; karšti — to tease and comb wool with certain tools before spinning, and pakaršti — to tease the wool a little with a wool comb. Verbs whose prefix denotes diminutive, intensifying, comparative, and other meanings are often defined by an adverb and a verb with the same root, but with a different prefix, usually one that highlights the endpoint of the action. For example: pergąsdinti — to frighten very much; prikentėti — to endure a great deal; užkelti — to lift too much or too high; prakepti — to bake somewhat hurriedly; pagrubti — to become somewhat coarse; apginti — to drive someone out earlier than someone else; prakelti, užkelti — to get up earlier than someone else; apgerti, nugerti — to drink more than someone else; pergyventi — to outlive someone; persikerėti — to overexert oneself. The “Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language” also contains definitions of prefixed verbs that fail to take account of the aspect of the defining verb. For example: pakiauknoti — to bark a little (= to bark a little, yap); parglūdinti — to trudge home (= to shuffle or trudge home); iškezlinėti — to walk with a waddling gait for a while (= to walk with a waddling gait for a while). Likewise, a definition is also inadvisable if one defining verb is unprefixed—imperfective—and another is prefixed—perfective, as is the verb being defined. For example: paglamžuoti — to crumple a little, fondle (= to fondle a little, caress). 3. Another verb is used to explain the meaning of a verb prefix; in some cases, together with the corresponding unprefixed verb’s adverbial participle form, and in others with its infinitive, it explains the meaning of the prefixed verb. a) The meaning of a prefixed verb is explained by the corresponding unprefixed verb’s adverbial participle form and another verb that highlights the meaning of the prefix. Besides indicating direction, prefixes can also impart a meaning of movement to verbs whose root meaning does not denote movement. In the definition, the verb expressing movement takes the prefix of the verb being defined. For example: įdainuoti — to enter or drive in while singing; parbildėti — to return home rumbling; atklegoti — to come shouting; kemėruoti — to wave or swing one’s arms or something else, and įkemėruoti — to enter while waving an object. This method of explaining the meanings of prefixed verbs is widely used to define verbs with various secondary meanings of prefixes. Prefixes can give a verb meanings of being spoiled, becoming exhausted, being killed, or dying, even though the meaning of the corresponding unprefixed verb bears no resemblance to such an additional meaning. These meanings of prefixes are explained using verbs, but their prefix need not be the same as that of the verb being defined. For example: išbristi — to spoil by wading; perdžiūti — to go bad while drying; pradainuoti 218 (the voice) – to damage by singing; to blow out (a scythe) – to damage by mowing; to rest one’s arms – to tire oneself by leaning; to get tired – to tire oneself by begging; to beat to death – to kill by beating; to hack to death – to kill by hacking; to hang – to bring about (someone’s) death by hanging. Prefixed verbs expressing outdoing someone in some respect, reciprocation, and the like are explained in the same way. For example: to out-harrow – to surpass by harrowing; to outtalk, to talk down – to defeat by talking; to outshout – to defeat by shouting; to earn mushrooming – to obtain, earn by gathering mushrooms; to earn by wading – to earn by wading; to lie one’s way to success – to earn, win by lying down; to drink oneself into debt – to incur debt by drinking; to repay by raking – to reciprocate by raking, and so forth. b) The meaning of a prefixed verb is explained by the infinitive form of the corresponding unprefixed verb and another verb that brings out the meaning of the prefix. It should be noted that there are few cases in which verbs specifying the meaning of the prefix are used in the explanation alongside the unprefixed infinitive form of the verb being explained, but all such cases are clear. When a prefix gives a verb the meaning of bringing an action to an end, this meaning can be explained by the verb (to) finish. For example: to finish speaking – to finish speaking; to have a meal – to finish eating; to ripen fully – to finish ripening; to grieve through – to finish grieving; to complete – to finish assembling. The explanatory formulas to finish speaking, to finish eating, etc., may have a broader meaning than that of the prefixed verbs they explain, to finish speaking, to have a meal, etc. To finish speaking means not only the end of an action but also its progress toward completion. In the first case, a completed aspect is foregrounded, thus coinciding with the aspect of the verb being explained. In the second case, to finish speaking denotes an ongoing aspect. Despite a certain mismatch in aspect between the verb being explained and the words used in the explanation, this wording may be used, since the verb being explained, with its clear meaning of bringing an action to an end conveyed by the prefix, cannot be understood from the explanation to finish speaking as a verb of ongoing aspect. When a verb prefix indicates the beginning of an action, prefixed verbs are generally explained using the verb to begin or to take up and the unprefixed infinitive form of the verb being explained or of its synonym. For example: to begin to see – to begin seeing; to start swaying – to take up swaying; to strike up (a song) – to begin leading; to fall ill – to take up being ill; to start moving – to take up moving; to start shining – to begin shining. Prefixed verbs expressing the ability or capacity to perform the action denoted by the simple verb are likewise explained using the infinitive form of the unprefixed verb together with ongoing-aspect verbs such as to be able, to manage, to know how or can. Prefixed verbs with this meaning remain in the ongoing aspect, like their corresponding unprefixed forms; therefore, their meaning must also be explained using verbs of ongoing aspect. For example: to be able to tell – to know how to tell (well); to be able to herd – to be capable of herding; to remain standing – to be able to stand; to be able to bark – to know how to bark; to be able to imprison – to be capable of imprisoning; to waddle awkwardly – to manage to walk while waddling awkwardly. It should be said that by no means can the meanings of all prefixed verbs be explained according to some set of rules drawn up in advance. Quite a few prefixed verbs have specific meanings whose explanations cannot be fitted into any rules and which must be defined individually. For example: to heal over – for a disease of the body’s surface to go away; to palm off – to give deceptively; to cut out – to cut pieces from fabric with scissors, from which a garment will be sewn. 219 ON THE EXPLICATION OF THE MEANINGS OF PREFIXED VERBS IN THE “DICTIONARY OF THE LITHUANIAN LANGUAGE” J. PAULAUSKAS Summary The article discusses the explication only of those prefixed verbs that retain their “root” meanings. The explication of such verbs usually consists of two closely interconnected components. In explicating the “root” meaning of a prefixed verb, the definition of the corresponding unprefixed verb or the unprefixed form of the same verb is used. The meaning of the verb’s prefix is explained either by a prepositional construction, an adverb, or some other verb. In addition, the verb used in the explication acquires a prefix so that the verb being defined and the defining verb do not differ in aspect either. The article presents several specific techniques for formulating the meanings of prefixed verbs in the “Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language”.