Sociolingvistiniai lietuvių kalbos tyrinėjimai

SOCIAL LINGUISTICAL PROBLEMS QUESTIONS OF LITHUANIAN LINGUISTICS, XIX (1979) REVIEW, REVIEWS Sociolinguistic studies of the Lithuanian language Complex problems,,The laws of the development of national languages in connection with the development of socialist nations” On the initiative of the Scientific Council, a work was prepared and published in 1969—1976 under the general title,,The laws of the development of literary languages of the peoples of the USSR in the Soviet era”. This multi-volume capital work was edited and an extensive theoretical introduction was written by the Chairman of the Council J. Desheriev. The work consists of individual collective monographs, which in turn consist of descriptions of individual languages. The first monograph, “Iranény and Iberian — the main processes of structural development of Caucasian languages” is devoted to Tajik, Ossetian, Kurdish, Adygean, Lakhi and Abkhaz languages. The second monograph “The main processes of structural development of the Turkish, Finno-Ugric and Mongolian languages” describes the languages of Kazakhs, Bashkirs, Tuvans, Gagauzes, Estonians, Komi-Zyryans, Buryats, Samoyeds and other northern peoples. The changes in the literary languages of Armenian, Lithuanian, Moldovan, Azerbaijani, Uzbek and Georgian in the Soviet years are analyzed in the monograph,,- The Structural Development of the Old Languages“. The final book of the talk is J. Desheriev's monograph "Development of Social Function of Literary Languages". “The Laws of the Development of Literary Languages of the Peoples of the USSR in the Soviet Era” is a frontal study based on complex methods, which has never been used in Soviet or foreign language science. On the one hand, in the chapters written by individual language specialists, the changes in language structures, lexical, phraseological and stylistic enrichment of the languages of the USSR peoples in the Soviet years are examined, on the other hand, J. Desheriev’s monograph looks at the languages under consideration, so to speak, from the “outside”, sociologically investigates the functioning of language in society, determines the spheres of social language use and their changes depending on the development of culture, economy and society. ir This monograph examines the laws of use and development of literary languages of the USSR nations. This studio is distinguished by several features. First of all, it is a sociological research, where the focus is not on the structure of language, but on the functional side of language, i.e. its use in society. The study seeks, so to speak, a direct correspondence between the use of language and the fields of social activity, it is believed that, for example, the growth of industry intensifies the use of the language that serves it, expands the scope of application of this language. Such and similar problems are raised for the first time in the literature of social linguistics and sociology, and this alone constitutes the value of Desheriev’s book. The application of statistical methods also depends on the nature of the sociological work. Statistical data are widely used in the work, they are grouped and analyzed as follows: 3aKOHOMEPHOCTH ! PA3BHTHS JHTEPATYPHBIX Hi3bIKOB Hapojios CCCP B coserckyio anoxy. [Moxa obutei pe. Bye, Ouj. Hayk IO. HIM. Jlewepuesa. [ku. 1]. OcHOBHBIE NPOUECCH BHYTPHCTPYKIYPHot Pa3BHTHS HPAHCKHX H HOEPHIICKO-KaBKa3CKHX i3bIKOB. OTB. Pei. Toma A-p Oh. Hayk H. A. Backakos (M., (kn. 1969). 2.] OcroBHBIE NpOUECCH BHYTPHCTP YKTYDpHOTO pa3BHTHS TIOPKCKHX, (PMHHO-YTOPCKHX H MOHTO/IbCKHX 5i3biKOB. OTB. head. Take a-p two. sayk H. A. BackakoB (M., [kH. 1969). 3]. BuyTpHCTPYKTYpHOE pasBHTHE CTAPONHCHMEHHBIX Si3bIKOB. OTB. pen. Toma A-p Oh. Kayk IO. He's the one. [dewepues (M., [ku. 1973). 4]. dewepues IO. JI. Passutie 06MECTBEHHLIX (QYHKUHI JuTepaTypHLIX i3bIKOB. — M., 1976. 185 to give a full picture of the pre-revolutionary situation and achieve the results of public language use in the years of Soviet rule. Each federal republic is assigned a separate section. The use of the national literary languages of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics is characterized by distinguishing the constant spheres of language functioning, namely: industry, agriculture, secondary general and special and higher education, technology and science, the press, fiction and art, as well as other spheres of social life and activity. Based on this uniform plan, the sociolinguistic situation and the peculiarities of the use of national literary languages and Russian as the language of communication of the peoples of the USSR in Ukraine, Belarus, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Lithuania, Moldova, Latvia, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Armenia, Turkmenistan and the Estonian SSR are described in detail. Such frontal comparison and investigation, as well as a common analysis of the public use of national literary languages, yield valuable sociolinguistic results of great theoretical and practical significance. In the Soviet country, the necessary conditions are created for the unrestricted functioning and expansion of national languages and cultures. Many national languages are widely used in education, science, technology, spiritual culture, etc. During the years of Soviet rule, for many peoples and nationalities of autonomous republics and regions, literature in their mother tongue was created, a national intelligentsia was formed, books and magazines were published in their mother tongue. On the other hand, there was a natural social need to have a single language for communication between all the nations and peoples of the USSR, and this role was given to Russian. Russian language "increasing role in the life of Soviet society, emerging. and the development of the Soviet people, the new historical community of people, the intensification of the processes of rapprochement of nations, peoples and their cultures, is conditioned by social factors, objective laws of the construction of socialism and communism,” —emphasizes the author of the book (p. 420), The fact that of all the languages of the nations and peoples of the USSR, the role of the language of communication fell precisely to the Russian language depended on the fact that Russian is the mother tongue of more than half of the population of the USSR; Ukrainians and Belarusians easily learn and master Russian, which is genetically very close to their languages; Russian is also spoken by the rest of the population of the USSR, especially the intelligentsia. It correctly emphasizes the fact that the peoples of the USSR chose the Russian language for inter-ethnic communication of their own free will, and highlights the progressive role of the Russian language in the life of Soviet society. Four aspects of the social role of the Russian language are distinguished, namely: Russian language as the national language of the great Russian nation; Russian as a language of communication among the nations of the USSR: Russian as one of the main sources of development and enrichment of the languages of the USSR nations; Russian as one of the languages of international communication. The necessity of increasing the role of the Russian language as the language of communication between the nations of the USSR in the life of the Soviet people depends, first, on the need to prevent the strengthening of the linguistic barriers between the republics, secondly, on the fact that representatives of all the nations and peoples of the USSR can inherit the Soviet and foreign cultural heritage, thirdly, that the achievements of the scientific and technical revolution and the economic and cultural achievements of each Soviet republic belong to all the peoples. Empirical observations of language contact and bilingual situations show that the constitutive elements of language are essentially constant. Therefore, no language can assimilate another language by adopting its characteristics. On the contrary, national languages are developing and flourishing. The following statement of the author has an extraordinary theoretical and practical value: “The emergence of some common features in the languages of the peoples of the USSR (phonetics, grammar) is a rather long process. Therefore, when examining the problem of forecasting the linguistic development in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, we cannot be guided by the concept of the convergence of languages, the melting of languages, the formation of a linguistic union as a concept of great social significance and effectiveness” (p. 425). The linguistic development of small and unwritten nations and ethnographic groups is characterized by the fact that their representatives voluntarily begin to use the literary language of the nation among whom they live and whose culture and economy are higher, and the languages of these nations and ethnographic groups gradually narrow their spheres of use and go out of use (for example, out of 6900 Karaites, only 16.59 consider 186 Karaites as their mother tongue). In the tenth chapter of the book, “Development of social functions of Lithuanian and other literary languages in the Lithuanian SSR”, the most important historical events of the Lithuanian nation, changes in socio-economic life, social structure of the population, ethnolinguistic processes and their influence on the use of languages (Lithuanian, Russian, Polish) are described. Based on extensive statistical data, it shows how Soviet Lithuania rises primary, general and special, as well as secondary and higher education, develops science and technology, enriches social-political, scientific-technical, pedagogical literature and periodical press, expands the network of cultural-educational and children's institutions, develops art and fiction and how the Lithuanian language is used here. Statistically, the functioning of the Lithuanian language is also described in the fields of industry, agriculture, transport and communications, commerce, public catering, domestic services, health care and finance, writing and official correspondence, radio and television. In connection with this, J. Dešeriev notes:,,The social functions of Lithuanian, like Latvian, have grown to the maximum, its lexical-semantic, stylistic and syntactic systems have expanded unprecedentedly. During the long history of Lithuania, the Lithuanian language has not seen such a comprehensive functional and structural development” (p. 230). We can only agree with this description of the functioning of the Lithuanian language. Collective monograph,,- Development of National-Russian Bilingualism“? In the introduction J. Desheriev describes the significance of national-Russian bilingualism, theoretical-- methodological bases and aspects of bilingualism research. In the conditions of Soviet reality, the aim of bilingualism, especially of its main type, national-Russian, is to help peoples come closer together and enrich their national cultures. The knowledge of Russian, one of the most developed languages of international and national communication, helps in this. Of the several aspects of bilingualism research, the sociological is preferred. In this aspect, the following are studied: 1) socio-economic, ethnolinguistic and historical assumptions of the development of bilingualism in Azerbaijan, Lithuania, the Estonian SSR and the Buryatia ASSR and 2) social, demographic and national features of the functioning of languages. One of the positive features of the monograph is that bilingualism is studied dynamically, i.e., its qualitative and quantitative parameters and social variation are considered. In this respect, Lithuanian-Russian bilingualism is divided into four degrees. The Lithuanian-Russian bilingualism of the first degree corresponds to the requirements of the Russian language proficiency programmes of classes Ii—IV, the requirements of the programmes of classes II—V—VIII. Lithuanian-Russian bilingualism of the third degree is determined on the basis of the Russian language teaching requirements of the programmes for grades IX—XI in secondary schools. Bilingualism of the fourth degree corresponds to the knowledge of Russian language of students of higher education. These four degrees of Lithuanian-Russian bilingualism are described in detail V. Michalchenko. There is a marked tendency to expand Lithuanian-Russian bilingualism and Russian-Lithuanian bilingualism in the Republic. According to the 1970 census, 34,894 Lithuanians were fluent in Russian. Russian is the most widely spoken language among Lithuanians in cities of national importance, and less in district centres. Rural people speak Russian less well – the older generation usually does not speak it. “A distinctive feature of Lithuanian-Russian bilingualism is that Lithuanian is a national language with rich writing traditions. Its great functional expansion in the Soviet years activated the processes of normalizing the form of literary language, greatly expanded the use of literary language in the Lithuanian nation. The Lithuanian language satisfies all the communication needs of the socialist Lithuanian — nation”, notes V. Michalchenko. = | 2 Fan Tlie HanHOHaibHO-pycCcKOTrO Apysabiuua. Hours. pepaktop A-p. Oizo. K. Jdewepues IO. JI. 187 In the districts (Zarasai, Ignalina, Švenčionys, etc.), where a large number of Russians and people of other nationalities have lived for a long time, two trends can be seen: 1) the formation of socially active Lithuanian-Russian bilingualism and 2) a relatively small social demand for active Russian-- Lithuanian bilingualism. These trends are due to the fact that in the nationally mixed districts the Russian language functions extensively as a means of communication between nations. Lithuanian language is taught to Russians who have lived in the republic for a longer period of time and who need it in their work and activities. Lithuanian language is particularly needed by Russians — the inhabitants of the countryside. The knowledge of Lithuanian language among the Russian nationality population in the republic is inversely proportional to the density of Russian population. In regions where the Russian population is large, Lithuanian language proficiency is low. For example, according to the 1970 census, in Zarasai district the Russian population is 20.39%, but the Lithuanian language is spoken by only 41.194. Meanwhile, in the Šiauliai district, where the total population of Russian ethnicity is only 3.19, 719% of the people of Russian ethnicity speak Lithuanian. There is a certain pattern in the determination of the mother tongue of bilinguals. If one language is spoken in the family, the informants of all nationalities (Lithuanian, Russian, Polish, etc.) consider the language of their nationality as their mother tongue, while the mother tongue of informants from mixed families often does not coincide with their nationality language. V. Michalchenko rightly distinguishes the command of a second language from its functioning in various spheres of life. The younger and middle generations of the people of the republic were educated in Russian language schools, so it is possible to assume that most Lithuanians are more or less fluent in Russian. But a completely different situation is with its functioning. Lithuanian-Russian bilingualism is socially active only under certain ethnic conditions (a large percentage of Russian and other nationalities). Russian language is used here as a means of communication between different nationalities; in addition, it is read special literature, it functions in the spheres of radio, television, press. Socially active Lithuanian-Russian bilingualism is typical of the industrial centers of the republic and some districts (Šalčininkai, Vilnius, Švenčionys, etc.). The rest of the population of the republic speaks Russian less well, so the functioning of the Russian language here is more passive, the learning of live communication in school may not be supported, so in such cases we can only talk about bilingualism very conditionally. Simas "King of the Rings: The Return of the King" (PDF). Developed by Czeslaw Kudzinowski. Volume I (A — N), VI +543 p. Volume II (O — Ž), 527 p. Poznan, 1977. Mikalojus Daukša’s postilla from 1599 is one of the most important monuments of ancient Lithuanian writing. Because of the correctness of the language, the richness of the vocabulary and especially the accentuation, the data of this book are widely used by linguists not only in Lithuanian studies, but also in Indo-European studies in general. Now the Polish linguist Czesław Kudziński has made these data more accessible to scholars: he has published a large, two-volume (even 1076 pages!) index-dictionary, which records all the words of the Daukša postila and their forms. Professor Czesław Kudziński of the University of Poznań—a well-known Polish Baltist. He graduated from Vilnius University in 1935, where he studied comparative Indo-European linguistics. In 1935—1937 he specialized in Finnish-Ugric linguistics in Helsinki, and in 1937—1939 in Budapest, where he defended his PhD dissertation on the Finnish sound system. While living and studying in Vilnius, he learned Lithuanian and became involved in the study of various problems of Baltic linguistics. In 1958, he and other Polish linguists published the text of the New Testament based on the manuscript of S. Chilinski’s translation of the Bible, which is kept in the British Museum in London. He has prepared for publication the 53rd volume of the writings of the Polish ethnographer and folklorist O. Kolberg 188