Некоторые направления развития лексики литовского литературного языка в советский период

KALBŲ KONTAKTAI LIETUVOS TSR LIETUVIŲ KALBOTYROS KLAUSIMAI XXIII (1983) VIDA SIMONAITĖ SOME TRENDS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE VOCABULARY OF THE LITHUANIAN LITERARY LANGUAGE IN THE SOVIET PERIOD 1. Social factors in the development of the vocabulary of the Lithuanian literary language in the Soviet period Language arose as a historical necessity from the urgent need for people to communicate and evolved with the development of society. The founders of Marxism-Leninism regarded it as a social phenomenon in two dialectically interconnected aspects—as “the immediate actuality of thought” (Marx, K., Engels, F. Works, vol. 3, p. 448) and as “the most important means of human communication” (Lenin, V. I. Collected Works, vol. 25, p. 258). As a means of communication and expression of thought, language is connected with other social phenomena and plays an active role in the life of society1. Inseparable from society, language reflects every social change. As Yu. D. Desheriev notes (1977, p. 8), “language is a peculiar barometer of social development. In a contemporary language, social life of its speakers is reflected as in a mirror.” The more complex the social formation, the more complex the social functions of language. The pace of vocabulary development accelerates during periods of revolutionary transformation of society, transition from one social formation to another, and qualitative changes in scientific and technological development. Social progress often gives an impetus to the development of vocabulary. However, while discussing at length the social origin of language and its dependence on society, F. Engels warned against oversimplifying the question of the interrelationship between linguistic and social phenomena, and against explaining all linguistic phenomena as the result of economic processes (Marx, K., Engels, F. Works, vol. 37, p. 395). Every language is a distinct whole, with its own structural features and internal laws of development, and its own relationships among sound complexes, morphological elements, and syntactic structural units. It is unjustified to mechanically transfer to language the processes, trends, and laws characteristic of other social phenomena. 1 On the Marxist-Leninist understanding of language, see: Desheriev, Yu. D., 1977, pp. 10–14; Zhirmunsky, V. M., 1969, pp. 5–25; Hartung, W., 1979, pp. 27–47; Große, R., Neubert, A., 1974, pp. 9–24; Neubert, A., 1974, pp. 25–46; Schmidt, W., 1972, pp. 9–35, and others. 124 Most linguistic facts may also change according to the internal laws of language development, independently of human will. For example, the gradual disappearance of noun inflections in Indo-European languages, a process lasting centuries, does not depend on external social conditions. The internal laws of language development are explained by the fundamental law of dialectics—the law of the unity and struggle of opposites. The concept of “language development” is understood in two senses: the so-called “intralinguistic” and the sociological, functional. In the first case, the changes usually discussed are those observed in grammar and vocabulary in different historical periods. The sociological aspect examines the functional development of language and those processes in the structure of language that are determined by social factors (cf. Isaev M. I., 1968, pp. 81—82). Thus, language develops according to its own internal laws, that is, according to its potential for development in a particular direction; however, the realization of these laws is determined by social factors and the conditions under which the language functions. Социальные факторы, по мнению Ю. Д. Дешериева (1968, с. 56), обусловливают функционирование и развитие языка двумя путями: 1) путем стихийного (или самопроизвольного) воздействия социальных факторов на языковую действительность и 2) путем сознательного регулирования обществом процессов языкового развития. Не на всех уровнях языка одинаково отражается его связь с социальными процессами, с развитием общества. Медленнее всего изменяется грамматический строй, а самым подвижным элементом является лексика, так как в ней наиболее выпукло и непосредственно отражаются сдвиги, происходящие в жизни общества. С эволюцией жизни общества, производительных сил и производственных отношений, культуры, науки, искусства меняется и лексика. В каждую эпоху активизируется та часть лексики, которая связана с самыми актуальными явлениями жизни. Для новых реалий необходимы и новые названия. Обычно трудно провести резкую грань между историей реалии и историей слова. Часто история слова помогает проникнуть в историю общественных понятий определенной эпохи (см. Кон И. С., 1970, с. 86—89). With the restoration of Soviet power in Lithuania in 1940, a new stage of social development began for the Lithuanian people. The establishment of popular, genuinely democratic power, and the nationalization of land, banks, and large-scale industry created the prerequisites for socialist transformations of the national economy. Leninist national policy opened up new opportunities for the flourishing of Lithuanian culture, national in form and socialist in content, and thereby for the development of the Lithuanian literary language as an integral part of this culture. Changes also took place in the Lithuanian literary language, especially in its vocabulary. This was due primarily to social, extralinguistic factors: changes in socio-political conditions, in- 125 industrialization, the emergence of new branches of industry, the collectivization of agriculture, the development of scientific research and an extensive network of public education, the emergence of new mass media, as well as changes in the speakers of the language themselves. After Soviet power was restored in Lithuania, new state and administrative organizations and institutions, local government bodies, and public organizations appeared. A new administrative-territorial division was adopted. The accelerated development of the republic’s industry was carried out systematically. Alongside the development of traditional sectors—food, light, and woodworking industries—the energy industry and construction industry were established. Entirely new branches of industry also emerged and developed: machine-tool building, instrument making, electronics, compound feed production, chemicals, microbiology, and others. To make the most rational use of local natural and labor resources, new industrial complexes began to be established not only in large cities but also in the republic’s district centers. The nature of labor changed: mechanization and automation of production processes, as well as the brigade-contract method, are being introduced everywhere. Agriculture was transformed on socialist foundations. Collectivization opened up broad prospects for the development of the countryside. Today, agriculture is being shifted to an industrial basis: large livestock complexes equipped with the latest machinery and automation are being built, increasingly productive machinery is coming to the fields, and land reclamation is being carried out centrally. The rapid development of the national economy and the emergence of previously unknown objects, processes, and concepts demanded an intensive creation of new words, in which linguists also participate. During the years of Soviet power, considerable scientific potential was created in the republic. Scientific research is advancing rapidly, and the ranks of scientists are growing. Scientific research is conducted in various fields: the physical and mathematical sciences, the chemical and biological sciences, and the social sciences. The achievements of the republic’s scientists, the application of research results in mass production, and the wide popularization of science have brought about a rapid “invasion” of new words and concepts into the literary language. During the years of Soviet power, a Leninist cultural revolution was carried out in the republic. Today, Soviet Lithuania is a land of universal literacy. From its very first days, Soviet power introduced universal compulsory primary education, and compulsory secondary education has now been implemented. A new form of study has also become widespread—vocational training combined with secondary education. Higher education, too, has become accessible to all. 126 The network of cultural and educational institutions is constantly expanding: clubs, libraries, museums, theaters, and cinemas. Whereas in 1940 the republic had 75 club institutions, 201 public libraries, and 15 museums (Литовская ССР, 1980, с. 142), Soviet Lithuania currently has 1,486 club institutions, 2,104 libraries, whose collections contain more than 30 million books, and 38 museums (Griškevičius P., 1980, p. 159; Šepetys L., 1980, p. 8). The republic has 11 professional theaters and 36 amateur theaters (Баркаускас А., 1980, с. 170). Great attention is also paid to cinema. Concerts, theaters, cinemas, exhibitions, and other cultural events are attended by more than 57 million people each year (Šepetys L., 1980, p. 8). Amateur artistic activity in Soviet Lithuania is distinguished by its mass participation. In 1940–1941, about 16,000 people took part in it (Griškevičius P., 1980, p. 162); today, 24,000 amateur choirs, ensembles, orchestras, and choreography and theater groups are active, bringing together around 400,000 enthusiasts (Баркаускас А., 1980, с. 198). One of the main indicators of cultural development is the increase in the publication of newspapers and journals and the development of book publishing. Not only the press, theater, and cinema, but also television and radio have become firmly established in the everyday lives of Soviet people. Radio and television broadcasts are conducted in the Lithuanian literary language. The rapid growth of culture creates favorable conditions for the realization of the people’s creative potential. At every stage of their development, culture and language are closely interconnected. The growth of culture, like the development of other spheres of social life, contributes to the refinement of language: the enrichment of its vocabulary and the increasing differentiation of stylistic and syntactic resources. Moreover, the pace of cultural development determines the pace and trends in the development of the literary language. Thus, the influence of culture on language development can be regarded as an indisputable fact. However, the reverse relationship also exists—the influence of language on culture. As F. P. Filin (1968, p. 11) notes, “in socialist countries pursuing Leninist national policy, language becomes a powerful lever of national progress and cultural advancement.” It is the principal means of expressing and revealing culture. Consequently, the relationship between language and culture is manifested in their complex interactions. In the words of M. I. Isayev (1976, p. 57), on the one hand, language serves as an instrument for the development of culture, as well as other social phenomena; on the other, it often acts as an element of the national form of culture (when, for example, literature is concerned). The vocabulary of the Lithuanian literary language was replenished and changed under the influence of changes not only in society’s life, but also in the composition of its speakers. After all, the active agent is not only language itself, through which people’s knowledge and experience are consolidated and expanded, but also people’s attitudes toward it—those of its speakers. A person’s attitude toward their native language is conditioned 127 by the very social nature of language. It is a fundamental precondition for the existence of society and of the individual as a member of that society. People’s active stance toward their language depends on the character of society, which is usually determined by its social and economic structure. The preamble to the USSR Constitution (1977, p. 4) states that Soviet society is “a society in which mighty productive forces, advanced science and culture have been created, in which the people’s well-being is constantly growing and increasingly favorable conditions are taking shape for the all-round development of the individual.” The more conscious and educated language speakers are, the greater their influence on the literary language, especially its vocabulary. After all, linguistic activity, like the activity of consciousness, is conditioned by the material and cultural needs of socialist society. Consequently, linguistic processes are closely linked to the development of the individual. The new person of socialist society is, in the words of K. Marx, an all-round personality. They “do not reproduce themselves in any single particularity, but produce themselves in their entirety; they do not seek to remain something finally established, but are in an absolute movement of becoming” (Маркс К., Энгельс Ф. Соч., т. 46, ч. 1, с. 476). During the years of Soviet rule, the qualitative composition of the population changed substantially: the number of workers increased, while that of peasants decreased considerably. The working class grew not only in numbers; its levels of education, professional training, and culture also rose. Today, more than a third of workers have secondary or higher education, their qualifications are considerably higher, and their professional skills have improved (Griskevičius P., 1980, p. 17). The proportion of the urban population in the republic’s total population is increasing and now exceeds 60%*. Population migration, intensified by the process of urbanization, has a major influence on vocabulary development: from villages to cities, from district centers to the republic’s capital and other cities in the country. The peasantry has also changed substantially. In terms of social position, education, and outlook, it is increasingly converging with the working class. The machine operator has become the most common occupational representative in the countryside. The activity of particular social groups also influences the development of the vocabulary of the Lithuanian literary language. In the previous century, the Lithuanian literary language was used predominantly by the intelligentsia. Today, both workers and peasants use it in everyday communication. Participating in the governance of the Soviet state and in the work of various public bodies, representatives of all classes and strata of Soviet society address problems of great significance and discuss important issues of social life, seeking to combine practical activity with theory. In such communication, they use the literary language, observing its generally accepted, codified norms. 128 Changes in life and the scientific, technological, and cultural revolution also created conditions for the evolution of language. After all, “the more complex the structure of society and the higher its level of development, the greater the role played by information within it, and the greater the importance of its principal means of transmission—language” (Andreev N. D., 1969, p. 25). The sphere of use of the Lithuanian literary language also expanded. The general education school plays an important role here: during the years of Soviet rule, not only did the number of pupils grow, but the quality of graduates’ preparation also improved. Constantly great attention is paid to the study of the native language, and young people have been provided with favorable conditions for mastering the Lithuanian literary language. Literature and the press are an important sphere of use and an important means of developing the Lithuanian literary language. Numerous works of fiction, scientific and technical, pedagogical, and popular-science literature, as well as newspapers and magazines, are published in Lithuanian. In 1940, only 336 books in Lithuanian, with a total circulation of 3.2 million copies, were published in the republic (Tarybų Lietuvai 25 metai, 1965, p. 194), whereas in 1979 there were 1,305 books and brochures with a total circulation of 13.5 million copies (Lietuvos TSR liaudies ūkis per 40 metų, 1980, p. 234). At the beginning of 1979, the republic had 1,773 copies of newspapers and magazines per 1,000 residents (Griškevičius P., 1980, p. 166). The Lithuanian Film Studio operates successfully in the republic. The most significant works of domestic cinema are dubbed into Lithuanian. The development of various spheres of social life, especially culture; the transition of agriculture to an industrial basis; the erasure of significant differences between town and countryside; and the deepening of socialist democracy changed the social structure of the population and accelerated the process of language integration. Today, the Lithuanian literary language, which has become accessible to all in both spoken and written forms, is used everywhere. Under its influence, the process of leveling dialectal features is accelerating, since dialects have become an insufficiently effective means of mass information and communication. During the Soviet period, communication with all the peoples and ethnic groups of the country intensified, and this, in turn, influenced not only the economy, the progress of science and technology, and culture, but also the development of the Lithuanian literary language. With the restoration of Soviet power in Lithuania, not only social, economic, and cultural contacts among peoples intensified, but so did interaction between languages. An important feature of life in Soviet society is the constantly growing role of the Russian language. During the Soviet period, Lithuanian-Russian language contacts became more active. Russian, as the language of interethnic communication, influences the development of the Lithuanian literary language, especially its vocabulary and word formation. Many international words and terms, new concepts, and 9. 949 129 certain word-formation methods, e.g., abbreviations and words with international components, enter Lithuanian through Russian. Russian contributes to the activation of some existing meanings of words in the Lithuanian literary language and to the emergence of new ones. Thus, the social and extralinguistic factors considered greatly favor the emergence of new words and phrases, changes in word meanings, and the activation of certain word-formation methods and types in the Lithuanian literary language. During the Soviet period, the vocabulary of the Lithuanian literary language developed in the following directions: 1) new words and phrases appeared; 2) word meanings changed; 3) the use of a number of words and phrases narrowed, or they passed into the passive vocabulary. 2. The emergence of new words and word combinations One of the main and most productive trends in the development of vocabulary is the emergence of new words and word combinations. They may arise in a language to denote previously unknown phenomena, objects, or their properties, or as new designations for facts of reality that already exist. The emergence of new words and word combinations in the first group is dictated by urgent necessity. Those belonging to the second group usually arise when a desire develops to provide a more expressive, more precise name in place of the generally accepted one. Another language may also influence the formation of new words, resulting in a borrowed word or one formed on its model entering common usage. The continuous replenishment of the vocabulary with new lexical units is a natural phenomenon in language development, since the need to designate newly emerged objects or phenomena is constant. The new vocabulary of the Lithuanian literary language encompasses the most diverse aspects of public life. This paper examines those areas of vocabulary which, in our view, provide sufficient material for reflecting the processes taking place in the vocabulary of the Lithuanian literary language during the Soviet period. A group of new words and word combinations in the field of mass political activity. During the Soviet period, mass political work acquired great importance and was enriched with new forms. In connection with this, new words and word combinations appeared2. draugovininkas DLKŽ₁ 128, tarptautininkas DLKŽ₁ 838; agitbrigada T 1974 226, agitkolektyvas T 1975 41; metodininkas visuomenininkas T 1977 225; agitacinis darbas DLKŽ₁ 5, ideologinis darbas K 1978 4 17, internacionalinis auklėjimas K 1978 4 17, komunistinis auk- 2 All the words and word combinations in this group that denote persons may also have feminine forms, for example: draugovininkė, tarptautininkė, etc. 130 lėjimas DLKŽ₁ 62, paskaitinis darbas DLKŽ₁ 518, propagandinis diafilmas T 1974 257, teisinis auklėjimas T 1974 269, vaizdinė agitacija K 1978 4 17; masinis politinis renginys T 1975 41, visuomeninis kultūrinis darbas T 1974 263, idėjinis-politinis auklėjimas K 1978 4 28, karinis-patriotinis auklėjimas T 1974 257, marksistinis-lenininis mokymas T 1974 257. A group of new words and word combinations in the fields of science and education. Many new words and word combinations related to the achievements of science and education appeared. These are names for types of schools: agromokykla T 1978 243, automokykla T 1975 52; aštuonmetė mokykla DLKŽ₁ 44, internatinė mokykla SA 1974 10 63, pagalbinė mokykla TM 1974 11 14, partinė mokykla T 1975 34, proftechninė mokykla K 1975 6 64; specialioji vidurinė mokykla T 1978 132; partinio ūkinio aktyvo mokykla T 1974 280. Names of new branches of science and types of research activity: bulvininkystė MG 1976 4 36, ryšininkystė T 1974 272, runkelininkystė ŽOTŽ 254, žąsininkystė T 1979 114; muziejininkystė T 1976 43; automatika DLKŽ₁ 64, kibernetika STTŽ 91, memuaristika LM 1974 43; aplinkotyra T 1973 99, knygotyra MLTE III 66, medienotyra MATŽ 42, medžiagotyra T 1978 189, upėtyra DLKŽ₁ 877; gruntotyra3 DLKŽ₁ 190, kinotyra KKult 30 48, klubotyra LM 1974 48, landšaftotyra MLTE III 10, mašinotyra MT 1973 11 41, teatrotyra TŽŽ 747; bioelektronika STTŽ 17, bioenergetika ŽOTŽ 18, biogeocenologija T 1974 281, biomatematika STTŽ 17, biometeorologija TM 1980 1 5, elektroakustika FTŽ 70, hidroakustika FTŽ 106, makrofizika FTŽ 174, mikroelektronika MG 1976 4 11, mikrosociologija ŠBSK 18, plazmochemija T 1979 85, radiochemija T 1975 27, radioelektronika T 1974 276, sociolingvistika T 1978 24, vibrotechnika T 1977 282. New names for scholars, researchers, and specialists in various branches of science also came into use: dujininkas T 1974 263, šilumininkas T 1975 19, tikimybininkas T 1977 154; vakuumininkas T 1976 117; dokumentalistas T 1977 147, higienistas SA 1974 10 60; ekologas MG 1978 5 43, kinologas T 1978 132, klimatologas VN 1974 265, transplantologas T 1978 127; dailėtyrininkas VN 1974 285; eilėtyrininkas LM 1975 26, menotyryrininkas MG 1975 5 23, pelkėtyrininkas DLKŽ₁ 544, tautotyryrininkas DLKŽ₁ 842, žemėtyrininkas DLKŽ₁ 960; biomedikas Š 1975 15 15, geobotanikas VN 1974 265, geochemikas MG 1978 5 43, radiobiologas MG 1980 2 13. 3 Compound words with the second component -tyra are generally formed with the linking vowel -o-, although under general word-formation rules, words with a stem ending in -a- more often contain the linking vowel -a-: gruntotyra. 4 See footnote 2. 9* 131 Another subgroup may include names of types and methods of scientific work and research: agrotermofikacija MNV 16 15, makroprogramavimas STTŽ 121, metaprogramavimas STTŽ 133; agroekonominis tyrimas ŽŪTŽ 157, aviacheminis darbas T 1976 189, biosocialinė problema SA 1974 11 49, mikrocheminė diagnostika ŽŪTŽ 58, radiocheminis tyrimas T 1975 27, radioizotopinis tyrimas SA 1974 12 10, rentgenostruktūrinė analizė MNV 14 15, termobranduolinė reakcija DLKŽ 847; loginis-matematinis metodas SA 1974 11 49, matematinis-statistinis metodas T 1974 284. Group of new words and phrases in the field of space. With the beginning of the space age and the first achievements in space exploration, a new lexical domain—the vocabulary of space—has taken shape in the Lithuanian literary language5. Group of new words and phrases in the field of culture and art. The achievements in cultural life during the years of Soviet rule led to the emergence in the Lithuanian literary language of new vocabulary relating to culture and art. These are names of cultural and artistic institutions and collectives: fotoklubas T 1975 3, fotomuziejus VN 1976 10; kultūros klubas DLKŽ 316, kultūros namai T 1975 47, kaimo kapela T 1974 252, saviveiklinis choras DLKŽ 688. A separate subgroup consists of names for specialists and workers in culture and the arts6: estradininkas LM 1974 48 — “variety performer,” kinininkas PiktJV 168 — “film scholar,” klubininkas LM 1975 8 — “club specialist or worker,” muziejininkas T 1975 37 — “museum worker,” televizininkas SluckUMN 12 — “television worker”; fotomūnininkas T 1975 37, fotožurnalistas JG 1974 10 18. Names for works in the field of culture, various events, and other words related to cultural life also entered the language: fotopuybraiža K 1976 6 51, fotokūrinys T 1976 191, fotomenas LM 1976 6, fotoparoda T 1976 105, teleapybraiža KKult 30 77; fotoekspozicija LM 1976 10, fotoiliustracija T 1976 105, fotomontažas Š 1976 8 17, fotoromanas LM 1975 28, telefilmas BulotSG 64; koncertas-pašnekėsys VN 1975 57, koncertas-susitikimas T 1975 72, paskaita-koncertas LM 1974 44, seminaras-vakaronė T 1975 47, spektaklis-disputas T 1975 3, vaidininmas-vakaronė LM 1974 43, vakaras-susitikimas7 LM 1976 26, portretinė apybraiža LM 1976 26. A group of new words and word combinations in the field of physical culture and sport. During the years of Soviet rule, physical culture and sport became accessible to all. The achievements of Soviet athletes in world and all-Union sporting 5 О космической лексике см.: Simonait ytė V. Kosmoso leksika. — Kalbos kultūra, 1981, sąs. 40, p. 7—11. 6 See footnote 2. 7 Many such names are unsuccessful: instead of vakaras-susitikimas = susitikimų vakaras, spektaklis-disputas = spektaklis su aptarimu, and so on. 132 arena, a wide network of sports facilities, and the involvement in physical culture activities of everyone, young and old (the GTO standards), made the sports movement genuinely mass in character, which undoubtedly found reflection in the vocabulary of the modern Lithuanian literary language. All linguistic innovations related to sport enter active use among the majority of the population through radio, television, and the press. Words from this lexical field are very popular in the everyday speech of young people. Military-technical sports developed widely, and this lexical category was correspondingly enriched. The following words, for example, appeared: motobolas S 1978 37; autožygis T 1975 104; autokrosas T 1978 96, autoral'is T 1978 96, aviamodeliavimas T 1978 96, motokrosas S 1975 14 7, motosportas S 1975 14 7; orientacinis sportas T 1976 110, povandeninis sportas T 1978 96, stendinis šaudymas S 1978 37; karinis-sportinis žaidimas SA 1974 10 63; povandenininkas T 1975 171, skraidyklininkas T 1978 263; motobolininkas T 1976 145, orientacininkas T 1976 110, stendininkas, -ė DLKŽ₁ 740; motolenktynininkas LR 50, motosáulys RamSSŽ; autoralininkas T 1975 41, aviamodelininkas, -ė T 1977 178. The sources of additions to sports and physical-culture vocabulary are not only words formed in Lithuanian, but also a considerable number of foreign words, which enter Lithuanian most often through Russian. Sports and physical-culture vocabulary can be divided into several lexical-semantic groups. The first subgroup comprises terms denoting the basic means of physical education, types of sports and physical-culture activities, and sporting actions. It includes types and subtypes of sport and the names of sports games: badmintonas T 1973 99, biatlonas S 1982 11, dziudo T 1978 74, motobolas S 1978 137, regbis S 1978 37; vandensvydis T 1978 85; autožygis T 1975 104, motosportas Š 1975 14 7; autoral'is T 1978 96, motoralis T 1979 96; figūrinis čiuožimas DLKŽ₁ 154, figūrinis važinėjimas T 1975 16, laivų modelizmas T 1976 140, povandeninis sportas T 1978 96, savigynos imtynės S 1978 37, skridimas skraidyklėmis T 1979 270, stendinis šaudymas S 1978 37; karinis-sportinis žaidimas SA 1974 10 63 and types of sporting contests and competitions: mačas S 1978 37, spartakiada S 1978 37; septynkovė LRKŽ 659, šešiakovė DLKŽ₁ 809; motodangiakovė T 1979 232; mikromačas T 1978 218, motokrosas Š 1975 14 7. The second subgroup comprises names of sports and physical-culture facilities, objects, and sports equipment. Among these, one can distinguish names of sports rooms, structures, and equipment for special purposes: kartodromas T 1979 150; 133 motoklubas LR 6, mototrasa T 1978 96; irklavimo bazė S 1978 37, kroso trasa T 1978 240, olimpinis kaimelis T 1976 176, sporto kampelis S 1978 37, sporto kombinatas T 1978 64, sporto rūmai S 1978 37, treniruotė aikštelė S 1978 37, treniručių bazė T 1978 73; aviacijos sporto klubas T 1978 96; techninių sporto klubų kompleksas T 1978 96; names of sports equipment: skraidyklė T 1978 263; mopedas DLKŽ₁ 409, motoroleris DLKŽ₁ 410; ledrogės S 1978 37; motodviratis T 1975 152, motošalmas T 1975 91. The third subgroup consists of names for participants in various sports: yrininkas, -ė T 1976 118, povandenininkas, -ė T 1975 171, riedulininkas, -ė T 1978 120, skraidyklininkas T 1978 263; biatlonininkas T 1978 75, motobolininkas T 1976 145, orientacininkas, -ė T 1976 110, regbininkas S 1978 37, stendininkas, -ė DLKŽ₁ 740; kartingistas T 1979 150; vandensvydininkas SluckUMN 35; autoralininkas T 1975 41, aviamodelininkas, -ė T 1977 178; dvira­tininkas plentinininkas T 1979 220, džiudo imtynininkas T 1978 28. The lexico-semantic subgroup of names for participants in various sports is a highly dynamic category of sports and physical-culture vocabulary. The mass participation of women in the sports and physical-culture movement also enriched the vocabulary of this sphere with feminine nouns. Naturally, women do not participate in some sports, for example judo, rugby, and sambo. In such cases, the corresponding feminine nouns are also absent. A group of new words and phrases in the field of industrial and production activity. This is one of the largest groups of new words and phrases. Within it, a subgroup can be identified consisting of names for new structural units of production: autogamyкla K 1978 4 74, radijo gamykla (trš.); įmonė tiekėja T 1974 263, įmonė užsakovė SA 1974 10 56; buitinė įmonė SA 1974 10 29; apdailos cechas T 1975 35, štampavimo cechas T 1978 104; detalių apdorojimo cechas T 1978 148. A separate subgroup consists of names for new machines, mechanisms, various devices, structures, and tools: daugintuvas DLKŽ₁ 109, dvigubintuvas STTŽ 326, kaitintuvas (elektrinis) DLKŽ₁ 275, ramintuvas LRKŽ 624, ribotuvas DLKŽ₁ 664, žymėtuvas LRKŽ 872; atskyriklis DLKŽ₁ 58, bandiklis DLKŽ₁ 71, iškoviklis DLKŽ₁ 238, išleidiklis (oro) DLKŽ₁ 240, kibirškiklis DLKŽ₁ 303, šliužiklis DLKŽ₁ 818, niekiklis DLKŽ₁ 848; staklymas T 1975 32; dulkėgaudis LKŽ II 823, purvaguodė DLKŽ₁ 639; bangolaidis LKŽ I 645, šviesolaidis STTŽ 260; vandenlaivis KKult 30 81; bangomatis DLKŽ₁ 71, greičiamatis DLKŽ₁ 184, jėgomatis DLKŽ₁ 267, srovėmatis DLKŽ₁ 735, tankmatis LRKŽ 779; duonvežis KKult 26 28, šilumvežis T 1975 22; atomlaivis LKŽ I 408, elektrolaivis 134 T 1974 300, elektrokaras T 1976 73, elektrovežimėlis T 1979 81, betonmaišė T 1975 90; blokvežis KKult 26 28, cementvežis KKult 30 35, kolonvežis T 1975 36; turbolavis T 1973 241; autokoduotuvas STTŽ 375, autožadintuvas T 1975 56, fotodaugintuvas MNV 60 16, servodaugintuvas STTŽ 264, servostiprintuvas STTŽ 264; fotoskaitiklis STTŽ 358, hidrovariklis MNV 15 5, mikrojungiklis STTŽ 139, mikrovariklis VN 1975 170, servovariklis STTŽ 264, termokeitiklis STTŽ 315, vibrokeitiklis FTŽ 388; autoprie kaba KKult 26 20, autoregės LRKŽ 100, autosvarstyklės T 1976 214, autotr aukinys T 1979 170, autovilkikas T 1975 224, hidrolėktuvas T 1979 8, hidrosiurblys MNV 15 7, hidrostotis MTŽ 70, motevežimėlis T 1975 54, servopavara STTŽ 264, termokrosnis T 1978 32, turbog rąžtas DLKŽ₁ 868, turbosiurblys KS 102, vibropavara T 1977 282; autocisterna K 1979 7 62, autokranas T 1974 304, autoplatforma SluckUMN 14, autovagonas KKult 2 50, elektrofiltras T 1975 52, fototelegrafas T 1974 272, hidroagregatas T 1975 13, hidrošlanga T 1976 224, mikrotelefonas KKult 13 70, teleekranas MG 1975 1 51, videomagnetofonas T 1975 48, videotelefonas LM 1974 46. With the development of the chemical industry, names for its new products appeared: kapronas DLKŽ₁ 283, lavsanas DLKŽ₁ 361, triacetatas DLKŽ₁ 860; kietlydinis T 1974 280, putlydinis MNV 19 12, putplienis MNV 19 12; putaliuminis MNV 19 11, putbetonis DLKŽ₁ 644, putmetalis MNV 19 11; biokuras ŽŪTŽ 18; autobenzinas T 1974 257, autokosmetika T 1977 149, hidrokremas MT 1975 1 14, monokristalas T 1975 147, plastcementas LM 1976 45, polietilenas DLKŽ₁ 582, polieteris T 1975 26, polipropilenas T 1974 304; One more subgroup comprises names of people by profession, specialty, or occupation8. dujininkas T 1974 263, pjūklininkas, -ė DLKŽ₁ 568, šilumininkas, -ė T 1975 19; aparat ininkas T 1975 46, galvanininkas T 1975 61, cementininkas MG 1974 12 15, karbiuratorininkas T 1974 255, konditerininkas DLKŽ₁ 325, lokatorininkas T 1976 85, operacininkas JG 1976 10 18, skreperininkas T 1976 282, trikot ažininkas T 1975 32, tunelininkas T 1978 208, vakuumininkas T 1976 117; autošaltkalvis VN 1977 193, autovairuotojas T 1978 27, hidrostatytojas KKult 4 50, motopjūklininkas T 1977 162, naftotiekininkas T 1977 195; autoelektrikas T 1976 115, autogreiderininkas T 1975 44, autokranininkas VN 1975 58, autotransportininkas T 1975 67, turboremontininkas T 1978 232; betonuotojas-dailidė T 1978 75, darbininkas komplektuotojas MNV 15 13, derintoja-pal eidėjas T 1974 300, dizelininkas-šaltkalvis T 1975 55; elektrikas automatininkas T 1974 284, inžinierius elektrikas T 1974 271, inžinierius mechanizatorius T 1974 271, inžinierius technologas T 1978 132, laborantas aparatininkas T 1978 75, meistras derintojas T 1975 49, meistras operatorius TM 1974 11 11, stalius-dailidė JG 1981 5 18, statybininkas montuotojas T 1974 266, tekintojas karuselininkas JG 1981 5 18, tekintojas revolverininkas T 1976 213, šaltkalvis surinkėjas T 1975 24, šaltkalvis vamzdininkas K 1975 7 47, šturmanas elektrikas T 1975 175. 8 See footnote 2. 135 A group of new words and phrases in the field of agriculture. The collectivization of the countryside, carried out during the years of Soviet power, was reflected in the vocabulary of the Lithuanian literary language and contributed to the emergence of new words and phrases denoting new social relations, new forms of labor organization, and a new way of life in the village. The lexical field reflecting new phenomena in rural life took shape mainly during the period of complete collectivization; however, it continues to be replenished and change as collective and state farms are strengthened organizationally and economically, and as the political, general educational, professional, and cultural levels of collective farmers and state-farm workers rise. A separate subgroup comprises names of economic units and subdivisions: zoocentras MG 1976 4 40, zooferma T 1976 184; agropramoninis kompleksas T 1976 40, gyvulininkystės ferma DLKŽ₁ 154, gyvulininkystės kompleksas T 1977 266, kiaulininkystės ferma DLKŽ₁ 302, kiaulininkystės kompleksas T 1978 247, kompleksinė brigada T 1974 288, laukininkystės padalinys K 1978 4 37, mechanizuota paukštidė LKŽ IX 647, pagalbinis ūkis ŽŪ 1974 11 5, paukštininkystės ferma TM 1974 11 11, pienininkystės kompleksas T 1974 272, tarybinis ūkis T 1979 9; kolūkinis gamybinis susivienijimas T 1979 86. Another subgroup may comprise names of new and improved agricultural machines, mechanisms, various devices, structures, and tools: barstytuvas (fertilizer) T 1975 47, dalintuvas (feed) T 1977 125, draskytuvas (peat) KKult 25 71, kaupiotuvas ŽŪTŽ 318, kupetuotuvas ŽŪTŽ 107, lietintuvas KKult 30 51, lukštenuvas (maize) ŽŪTŽ 348, sklaidytuvas (straw) ŽŪTŽ 275, užverst(uvas) (ditches) MTŽ 62, vagotuvas DLKŽ₁ 908, vartytuvas (hay) DLKŽ₁ 920; metiklis (straw) ŽŪTŽ 276, paisiklis (threshing machine) DLKŽ₁ 483; kūgiakrovė ŽŪTŽ 287; velėnpjovė ŽŪTŽ 58; šakniarovė DLKŽ₁ 803; kupetvežis ŽŪTŽ 107, piemvežis DLKŽ₁ 560. Names of new professions and specialties⁹ are widely used: augalininkas BTŽ 65, kupranugarininkas LRKŽ 351, linininkas T 1975 13; buldozerininkas T 1975 44, kombainininkas DLKŽ₁ 323, silosininkas T 1974 260; hidromelioratorius TM 1974 11 11, zooinžinierius T 1976 278; agronomas daržininkas T 1974 269, agronomas laukininkas MK 1973 9 7, šaltkalvis kombainininkas T 1975 49, traktorininkas-kombainininkas T 1975 49, traktorininkas-mašinistas T 1975 49, traktorininkas-šėrikas TM 1974 11 11, vairuotojas-Kombainininkas T 1975 49. 3. Changes in word meanings The renewal of the vocabulary of the Lithuanian literary language in the Soviet period also took place through changes in word meanings. Many words are not semantically fixed. Their meanings are constantly changing: ⁹ See footnote 2. 136 new meanings arise, some meanings die out, or meanings move from one conceptual sphere to another or from one stylistic layer to another. The factors that change word meanings, like all developments in vocabulary, are both social (extralinguistic) and internal (linguistic) in nature. Social factors are, above all, changes in public life, since “word meanings, as well as the relations between the meanings of the same word and between the meanings of different words, are, of course, determined by the history of the language, which is linked to the history of the people” (Shmelev D. N., 1973, p. 22). At the same time, changes in word meanings are also conditioned by the internal laws of language development, the interaction between the meanings of the word itself, and so on. The directions in which the meanings of individual words in the vocabulary of the Lithuanian literary language changed during the Soviet period were highly varied, sometimes even unexpected, but they remained within the bounds of the basic patterns governing the development of the entire lexical-semantic system. Words acquire new meanings not only because of the need to denote new objects or phenomena, but also in connection with the socially significant reassessment of existing reality. Sometimes there is a need for a new, more expressive designation of familiar facts. Changes in the meanings of words in the Lithuanian literary language during the Soviet period occur mainly through an increase or decrease in the semantic scope of words. 3.1. Increase in the semantic scope of words. An increase in the semantic scope of words, or the acquisition of new meanings by words, occurs when they are used to denote a wider range of concepts and is based on words’ capacity to have multiple meanings. It is rightly noted that “the polysemy of a word is the basis for the development and growth of language” (Lyberis A., Ulvydas K., 1958, p. 78). The new meanings acquired by words encompass an ever larger range of objects, modes of action, and features of phenomena. Of course, words acquire new meanings as a result of a fairly lengthy process. S. Kezite (1972, p. 107) notes that “in many cases it is not difficult to see how, in the process of the development of meanings, new meanings arise through a gradual separation from the concreteness of the basic meaning.” These newly arising meanings of words are called secondary meanings. They may be literal or figurative. 3.1.1. Direct meanings of words. Words used in their direct meaning merely name objects in reality, but do not include an evaluation of the object being named; in other words, they are emotionally neutral. Many words acquired new meanings during the Soviet period: apylinkė (surrounding area) — “the smallest administrative-territorial unit in the Lithuanian SSR: an apylinkė”; draugas, -ė (friend, comrade) — “a member of a Soviet institution, enterprise, or collective; a Soviet person.” In socialist society it was especially widely used 137 as a form of address or as an adjunct to a surname, instead of the former ponas used in bourgeois society; grandis (a separate component part (ring) of a chain, a link) — “the smallest organizational unit of workers at a production site; a component part, a member of some system,” cf.: linininkystės grandis DLKŽ₁ 182, prekybos grandis K 1978 188, specializuota pašarų ruošėjų grandis T 1978 188; …production practice is an important link in the training of specialists T 1978 137. The main link in our judicial system is the people’s court DLKŽ₁ 182; kraštas (country, locality, region) — “a large administrative-territorial unit in the USSR”; laukininkystė (field cultivation) — “the cultivation of agricultural crops; the science of agricultural crops”; liaudis (ordinary people, the people) — “the entire population, the inhabitants of a state or country”; sritis (part of a country, territory, region) — “a large administrative-territorial unit”; vakarai (one of the four cardinal directions, west) — “a name for capitalist countries,” cf.: But the USA seeks to ensure that such a government (a coalition government) is led by a unit that is oriented toward the West T 1978 271; milijonierius (possessor of wealth valued at a million; millionaire) — “possessing a million of particular things,” cf.: kultūros milijonierius MK 1978 1 4; rajonas (an area defined by geographical, economic, or other characteristics; district) — “a small administrative unit in the USSR”; reidas (raid) — “an inspection carried out by a group of activists on behalf of public organizations,” cf.: Several crews of automobile inspectors and members of the public were preparing to set off on the fourth mass inspection raid T 1978 277; veteranas (veteran) — “an experienced, distinguished worker in a particular field”; cf.: darbo veteranas T 1978 134, gamybos veteranas T 1979 129, irk-lavimo veteranas T 1978 251, kombainininkas veteranas T 1979 200, kolūkio veteranas T 1979 79, mėsos pramonės veteranas Š 1979 4 15, milicijos veteranas T 1978 259, mokslo veteranas DLKŽ₁ 931, muzikos veteranas LM 1979 17, partijos veteranė T 1978 220, spaudos veteranas T 1978 288, teatro veteranas LM 1979 8, traktorininkas veteranas T 1978 150, ūkio veteranas T 1980 15. A change in a word’s meaning is usually revealed in word combinations. It has been established that “the constant or frequent use of a word in certain combinations, in particular speech contexts, may affect its meaning” (Panov M. V., 1968, p. 111). Any meaning of a polysemous word is most often manifested in word combinations and in situational context, since in the process of speech the context and situation narrow, clarify, and specify such abstract, broad meanings. Furthermore, the use of a word in any more or less stable contexts is usually connected with the relevance of that particular word use for certain groups of language users 138 , for particular genres of writing, etc. Whether such a word use becomes a general-language factor in each specific case, and whether an independent meaning of the word takes shape on its basis, depends “on many reasons, including social factors, namely, first, society’s interest in the reality named by the word, and, second, the social and linguistic assessment of the milieu in which this word use arose” (Panov M. V., 1968, p. 112). At the same time, the possibility of combining a word with other words is largely determined by its meaning. Words with different meanings also have different possibilities for such combinations. Consequently, the disclosure of new meanings depends on context to varying degrees. In the Lithuanian literary language of the Soviet period, many long-established words broadened their sphere of use, and new word combinations arose in which words acquired different meanings or shades of meaning: darbininkas, -ė (toiler, worker) — “worker, activist”; cf.: kultūros darbininkas LM 1979 16, literatūros darbininkas P 1981 1 160, partijos darbininkas K 1978 9 61; kampelis (small corner, nook) — “a specially equipped room for educational, political, cultural, sanitary, and other activities in schools, institutions, and enterprises”; cf.: deputatų kampelis T 1978 204, raudonasis kampelis DLKŽ₁ 280, poilsio kampelis T 1978 184; in Russian, красный уголок П 1978 260; krūvis (workload) — “the amount of work performed”; cf.: metinis paskaitų krūvis DLKŽ₁ 341, visuomeninio darbo krūvis DLKŽ₁ 341; metraštis (description of historical events, chronicle) — “an account of someone’s activities”; cf.: komjaunimo metraštis K 1978 10 4, tautų draugystės metraštis T 1978 215, žygdarbių metraštis T 1978 288; mokykla (school) — “that which provides practical knowledge and experience”; cf.: komunistinio darbo mokykla T 1978 213, meistriškumo mokykla T 1978 150, pažangaus patyrimo mokykla T 1978 202; šaka (branch) — “a part, division, field, or sector”; cf.: liaudies ūkio šaka T 1978 148, pedagogikos mokslo šaka T 1968 150, sporto šaka T 1978 189, žemės ūkio šaka DLKŽ₁ 802; taškas (point) — “a place, a point designated for a particular purpose”; cf.: pardavimo taškai DLKŽ₁ 840, prekybos taškai T 1978 207, techninio aptarnavimo taškai T 1978 114; tinklas (network) — “a group of institutions with the same purpose, located in different places”; cf.: gydomųjų įstaigų tinklas T 1979 228, krepšinio sekcijos tinklas T 1980 12, mokslinių įstaigų tinklas K 1978 7 4, partinių organizacijų tinklas K 1978 10 10, prekybos tinklas TM 1978 8 11, statybos kombinato tinklas T 1978 154, vaikų įstaigų tinklas K 1978 6 69; brigada (military formation, brigade) — “a group carrying out production or public assignments”; cf.: agitatorių brigada DLKŽ₁ 88, darbininkų brigada T 1978 189, komjaunimo ir jaunimo brigada K 1978 6 90, 139 ship assemblers’ brigade T 1979 158, crop-growing brigade DLKŽ₁ 88, students’ production brigade TM 1979 51, specialized team of doctors T 1978 188; geografija (geography) — “the sphere of distribution of some phenomenon”; cf.: geography of office events LM 1979 49, geography of tours LM 1979 1, geography of concerts T 1979 34, geography of the competition KV 1979 19, geography of rugby T 1978 272, geography of sports T 1978 235, geography of the holiday T 1978 150; gvardietis, -ė (guardsman) — “activist, shock worker”; cf.: labor guardsman (trans.), five-year-plan guardsmen T 1977 227. Russian influenced the emergence of most of the meanings or new shades of meaning of the words mentioned above. For example, in Russian: the most important link in the system of communist education of workers П 1979 224; chronicle of the five-year plan П 1979 285; network of healthcare institutions П 1979 227, retail network for consumer goods П 1979 282; mechanized outlets П 1979 273; motor transport enterprise brigade П 1979 285, Komsomol-youth brigade СП 1979 232; veteran of the Party П 1979 277, veteran of labor П 1979 283. 3.1.2. Figurative meanings of words. Alongside the expansion of the semantic scope of words during the Soviet period, words also acquired figurative meanings. As Yu. Pikčilingis (1975, p. 234) notes, “the use of a word in a figurative meaning is tantamount to a revolution in its stylistic character, tantamount to transforming what was dull and neutral into something stylistically informative and vivid.” The use of words in figurative meanings expands their semantics and enriches the language. Many words in the Lithuanian literary language acquired figurative meanings during the period in question. At the same time, their use in the direct, or primary, meaning became less frequent. This happens either because the role in society of the objects or phenomena denoted by the direct meanings of these words diminishes, or because the words in question acquire figurative meanings that, being abstract and broad, expand the possibilities for combining these words with words from various spheres of life (cf. Shmelev D. N., 1964, pp. 5—6). In addition, words and expressions from the most topical areas of life usually acquire figurative meanings. It is known that a figurative meaning arises when a word denoting a particular phenomenon of reality (an object, action, state, property, etc.) is consciously applied to another phenomenon on the basis of some common feature, analogy, or connection (cf. Kėzytė S., 1961, pp. 234—235). And, as Yu. Pikčilingis (1975, p. 234) asserts, “when a word is used figuratively, its ‘archiseme,’ its semantic core, is obscured and suppressed; it continues to exist only latently, while potential semes come to the fore—what gives the word new content, what provides additional information about the object it denotes.” The basis of a figurative meaning is usually the most common, best-known, and most concrete meaning of a word. 140 One of the most obvious features of the modern Lithuanian literary language is the widespread use of diverse terms. This process is driven by social and extralinguistic factors: the increased role of science, the spread of technology, the higher educational level of language users, the expansion of the social functions of the literary language, and the broad promotion of scientific knowledge in the press, on radio and television, and in cinema. It is natural, however, that this process became especially active during the Soviet period. Moreover, as V. V. Vinogradov notes (1961, p. 6), “here the connection between the development of language, its lexical system, and the history of the people’s material and spiritual culture is revealed vividly and clearly.” Alongside the spread of terms in the literary language, their use in figurative meanings has increased. This is an international phenomenon characteristic of all languages, including Lithuanian. At present, terms from various particularly topical fields of science and technology are used figuratively in the Lithuanian literary language. They most often enrich the sociopolitical vocabulary. During the period under study, terms from biology, physics, mathematics, and medicine were the most widely adopted in the lexicon in figurative meanings10. The study of outer space popularized some astronomical terms and encouraged their figurative use11. Other astronomical and geographical terms have also acquired figurative meanings: horizontas (horizon) – “the scope of knowledge, ideas, and opportunities for action”; cf. darbo horizontai1 DLKŽ 197, kūrybos horizontai LM 1978 26, žmonių sąmoningumo horizontai T 1978 203; klimatas (climate) – “mood, state of relations”; cf. ideologinis klimatas T 1974 266, partinio gyvenimo klimatas T 1978 194, politinis klimatas T 1960 80, psichologinis klimatas K 1978 6 13, tarptautinis klimatas T 1978 185; meridianai (meridians) – “the limits within which a particular phenomenon or activity extends”; cf. brolybės meridianai VN 1979 8, marinistų kūrybiniai meridianai T 1978 276, meno ir literatūros meridianai LM 1978 48, tėvynėj žūklės meridianai T 1979 99. Many terms and words relating to technical and industrial vocabulary have also acquired figurative meanings: kalvė (forge) – “an institution or organization for training specialist personnel”; cf. filologų kalvė LM 1978 48, sporto kadrų kalvė T 1979, vairuo- 10 For the use of these terms in figurative meanings, see: Simonaitytė V. Terminų vartojimas perkelinėmis reikšmėmis. – Kalbos kultūra, 1980, sąs. 39, p. 21–22. 11 Ibid., pp. 22–23. 141 forge T 1978 78, forge of agricultural personnel DLKŽ₁ 279, journalists’ forge LM 1978 43; raktas (key) – “a means of understanding or deciphering something”; cf.: key to success at work T 1978 143, key to thought LM 1979 6, key to genuine, noble art T 1978 278; smagratis (flywheel) – “that which arouses and sustains the activity of something”; cf.: flywheel of military provocations T 1979 260, flywheel of militarism T 1978 139; spyruoklė (spring) – “a motivating cause of activity, an impetus toward something, an occasion, impulse, stimulus”; cf.: the spring driving work, affairs, and problems LM 1979 6, the spring of work efficiency T 1974 266; svertas (lever) – “a source or occasion for the emergence and spread of something”; cf.: a lever for increasing labor productivity DLKŽ₁ 800, a lever for increasing achievements T 1978 273, a lever for economic growth T 1978 202, a lever for managing agricultural production T 1978 154; variklis (engine) – “impetus, driving force”; cf.: engine of life KE 209, engine of branches of the national economy T 1978 148, engine of human action DLKŽ₁ 918; cechas (a basic production unit of an industrial enterprise, a shop) – “people of one profession or some common category; a department or place specially intended for something”; cf.: writers’ workshop LM 1978 52, health workshop T 1979 32; konvejeris (conveyor) – “continuous work, activity”; cf.: Because of the incident, the busy-season work conveyor was disrupted for too long T 1978 221. The green conveyor never stops T 1979 165; mašina (machine) – “an organization that mechanically performs some work or solves some tasks”; cf.: propaganda machine LKŽ VII 902, state machine LKŽ VII 902; mechanizmas (mechanism) – “the internal structure or system of a phenomenon”; cf.: mechanism of personality LM 1979 17, mechanism of language DLKŽ₁ 390, mechanism of poetry criticism LM 1978 41, psychological mechanism T 1979 188, mechanism of the state DLKŽ₁ 390; spiralė (spiral) – “an endless, uninterrupted phenomenon”; cf.: spiral of time LM 1979 1, spiral of development LM 1979 6. Russian may also have activated the use of words and word combinations in figurative meanings. In Russian, as in Lithuanian, words and terms from various fields have acquired figurative meanings; cf.: labor – engine of culture LRKŽ 842; key to professions П 1979 284; forge of personnel LRKŽ 310; … preventing interruptions in the conveyor: field – transportation – receiving point СЛ 1979 235; management mechanism П 1979 272, economic mechanism СЛ 1979 234; spiral of the arms race СЛ 1979 235; writers’ shop СЛ 1979 220. Many terms and words from military vocabulary are also used in figurative meanings: 142 mūšis (battle) — “great efforts to achieve or accomplish something,” cf.: mūšis už derlių T 1978 234; užnugaris (rear) — “facilities for managing someone’s activity,” cf.: Žemės ūkio valdyboj pasakojo, kad daugiagiriečiams ypač daug padeda apgalvotai tvarkomas kombainų užnugaris, visų pirma džiovyklių ūkis… T 1978 210; armija (army) — “a mass of people united by common interests and living conditions,” cf.: geležinkelininkų armija T 1979 170, mechanizatorių armija T 1978 154, mokytojų armija T 1978 251, prekybininkų armija T 1978 240, tarybinių mokslo darbuotojų armija T 1979 87; frontas (front) — “an area of state, cultural, economic, or social activity,” cf.: darbo frontas DLKŽ₁ 157, ekonomikos frontas K 1978 7 6, ideologinis frontas K 1978 6 71, kovos už komunizmą frontas T 1979 106, literatūros frontas T 1979 230, taikos frontas T 1978 144; manevras, manevravimas (maneuver, maneuvering) — “an action involving ingenuity, a way out of a difficult situation,” cf.: … ekonominis manevras, operatyviai sprendžiant gamybos pertvarkymo uždavinius vartotojo interesais T 1979 200. Taigi operatyvus, sumanus manevravimas darbymetyje, kuris visada labai svarbus, dabar įgyja tikrai nepaprastą reikšmę T 1978 208; mobilizacija (mobilization) — “the concentration of considerable forces to solve a particular task,” cf.: mokslinių jėgų mobilizacija DLKŽ₁ 406, pramonės mobilizacija DLKŽ₁ 406; pozicija (position) — “an attitude, a principled stance on an issue,” cf.: Auklėjimo procese svarbu ugdyti aktyvią žmogaus poziciją T 1978 150; strategija (strategy) — “the art of directing political and social struggle,” cf.: brigados strategija VN 1981 58, didmeistrių strategija T 1978 218, mokslinė strategija MG 1979 12 14; taktika (tactics) — “methods and means of social and political struggle to achieve a stated goal,” cf.: kovos su vėžiu taktika VN 1978 212, revoliucinė proletariato taktika DLKŽ₁ 833. Compare also the figurative meanings of the corresponding terms and words from this sphere in Russian: битва за урожай П 1979 263; умелое маневрирование ресурсами П 1979 284; идеологический фронт П 1979 272, трудовой фронт П 1979 282, хлебный фронт П 1979 272. Nowadays, with the growing role of sport in our lives, terms and other words from sports vocabulary are increasingly used figuratively¹². Many words from other spheres of life also acquired figurative meanings in the Soviet era: aukštuma (height) — “a higher-level institution, a center,” cf.: stiprinti socialistinės vadovaujamosios aukštumas DLKŽ₁ 63; diegimas (planting) — “dissemination, widespread application, implementation,” cf.: 12 See Simonaitýtė V., 1980, p. 23–24. 143 introduction of scientific achievements into production T 1978 208, introduction of new equipment and technology T 1978 272; cf. įdiegimas: introduction of better seed drills on collective farms LKŽ II 499, introduction of new equipment and technologies T 1978 266; mazgas (узел) — “a place of intersection, connection, linkage; a group of facilities for general purposes located in one place,” cf.: railway junction DLKŽ₁ 388, transport hub T 1978 170, industrial hub T 1978 137, radio station DLKŽ₁ 388, health center T 1978 151, distribution hub T 1978 151, international telephone exchange T 1978 262; nukrypėlis (тот, кто уклонился от предела, нормы) — “someone who has deviated from the prescribed limit or norm” — “someone who has deviated from the main political line, a deviationist,” cf.: nationalist deviationist LKŽ VIII 889; plėšiniai (целина) — “any untouched field of activity,” cf.: virgin territory of dramaturgy T 1979 87; šeima (семья) — “a group of people, an organization with shared interests,” cf.: family of fraternal literatures T 1978 276, family of engineers T 1979 157, family of spacefaring nations T 1979 84, medical community KV 1979 51, Olympic family T 1978 155, family of the district’s communists T 1979 130, family of the republic’s Young Communists T 1978 155, family of Soviet peoples T 1978 218; tarpsluoksnis (прослойка) — “a social group distinguished by social or political characteristics,” cf.: petty-bourgeois strata DLKŽ₁ 838; tiltas (мост) — “that which connects, unites,” cf.: Methodology is a branch of pedagogical science that directly builds a bridge from theory to practice T 1978 150; bridges of friendship T 1978 190, bridges of literary fraternity T 1978 213; žingsnis (шаг) — “an undertaking, deed, action, campaign,” cf.: steps in great construction projects T 1978 190, the broad strides of the collective-farm village T 1979 38; arena (арена) — “sphere of activity,” cf.: arena of political struggle DLKŽ₁ 40, arena of the Spartakiad T 1978 160, international arena T 1978 143; autografas (автограф) — “a distinctive mark or sign of achievements,” cf.: “...Gagarin traced humanity’s first autograph in the stony expanse of the Universe... T 1979 81; figure skaters’ autographs on the ice T 1976 160; dinastija (династия) — “representatives of different generations of one family doing the same work or having the same profession,” cf.: weavers’ dynasty T 1979 72, furniture-makers’ dynasty KV 1979 30, workers’ dynasty K 1978 4 9, engineers’ dynasty T 1976 22, prison officers’ dynasty K 1975 11 58, milkmaids’ dynasty T 1973 3, space dynasty MADK 253; panorama (вид (обычно с высоты) какой-либо местности, простирающейся на большое пространство, панорама) — “an overview of activity,” cf.: panorama of cultural life T 1979 265, panorama of the Olympic competitions T 1978 223. Cf. also in Russian: introduction of automated calculation СЛ 1979 232, introduction of democratic principles and norms into the life of socialist society П 1979 278, introduction of an integrated quality management system СЛ 1979 235, introduction of the results obtained into practice СЛ 144 1979 235, the introduction of the practices of the best teams from related enterprises P 1979 277; a family of writers СЛ 1979 220, a family of Soviet peoples П 1979 276; the giant’s strides П 1979 285, the strides of cosmic integration СЛ 1979 234; an arena of political struggle LRKŽ 66. In Lithuanian literary language, there are cases in which a word is used in a figurative sense only in the locative case: rikiuotėje (in formation) — “having become involved in work”; cf.: energetinis blokas — rikiuotėje T 1979 234, ideologinio darbo rikiuotėje T 1979 246, taikaus darbo rikiuotėje T 1979 128, the “Vilija” complex — rikiuotėje T 1979 3; cf. Russian энергоблок в строю СЛ 1979 234; sargyboje (on guard) — “taking care of something, safeguarding something”; cf.: geros nuotaikos sargyboje T 1978 241, pagrindinio įstatymo sargyboje LM 1978 40, sveikatingumo sargyboje T 1978 220, švaraus oro sargyboje RV 1979 11, taikos ir socializmo sargyboje K 1980 5 19, teisėtvarkos sargyboje T 1979 241; cf. Russian на страже основного закона СЛ 1978 232. Many terms and words from different lexical domains could acquire figurative meanings earlier as well, but during the Soviet period their use in these meanings became more intensive and gave rise to numerous new word combinations: branduolys (nucleus) — “the principal, most important part”; cf.: idėjinio auklėjimo darbo branduolys T 1978 184, lietuvių literatūros branduolys LM 1979 14, muzikos branduolys T 1978 260; ratas (circle) — “field; a group of people united by something”; cf.: gamybos ratas T 1978 208, platus profesijų ratas T 1978 180, veiklos ratas DLKŽ₁, 653; vartotojų ratas T 1978 213; varžtai (vice) — “oppression, restriction”; cf.: ekonominiai varžtai LM 1978 26, imperializmo varžtai DLKŽ₁, 921, kultūros ir civilizacijos varžtai DLKŽ₁, 921; žvaigždė (star) — “a celebrity, a very famous person”; cf.: komunistinio darbo žvaigždė K 1978 12 3, tarybinio meno žvaigždė T 1978 208; apogėjus (apogee) — “the summit, the highest point of ascent, an achievement”; cf.: kūrybinės brandos apogėjus LM 1979 29, mūsų teatrų veiklos apogėjus LM 1979 28, šalies pirmenybių apogėjus Š 1978 12 24, TSRS tautų vasaros spartakiados apogėjus T 1980 12; štabas (headquarters) — “a governing body”; cf.: the štabas of “Komjaunimo prožektorius” T 1978 208, liaudies draugovės štabas T 1979 228, statybos štabas T 1979 228; cf. Russian: информационный штаб П 1979 278, республиканский штаб по строительству нефтеперерабатывающего завода СЛ 1979 234. Some words that have fallen out of active use continue to exist, acquiring new figurative meanings or new shades of figurative meaning in constructions with a noun in the genitive case; cf.: sporto karalienė T 1979 136, upių karalienė T 1978 208, sporto karalius T 1979 138, šachmatų karūna T 1979 265, pasaulio šachmatų sestras T 1979 265. 10. 949 145 Not only individual words but also fixed phrases can be used figuratively. In such cases, the phrase undergoes lexicalization, becoming, as it were, a single word. The words that make up the phrase lose their original meaning: apvalus stalas (round table) — “an open, public exchange of views on a particular issue, a meeting in which all participants are completely equal: no one occupies the central place, no one sits in a corner or at the edge,” cf.:... jie eina tarnybines pareigas, po to, sakysime, skaito paskaitas, rašo straipsnius, reiškia mintis prie apvalaus stalo... K 1978 6 78. At present, the phrases apskritas stalas, apskritasis stalas are used as synonyms, cf.: pokalbis prie apskrito stalo KV 1979 51; Gruzijos ir Lietuvos rašytojai susitiko Tbilisyje prie apskritojo stalo tęsti balandžio mėnesį Vilniuje ir Kaune pradėto dialogo apie tarybinės literatūros heroj aus moralinį dorovinį veidą ir jo gyvenimišką poziciją T 1978 232. Nowadays, more and more such fixed phrases are appearing, cf.: grandinine reakcija T 1979 267, problema Nr. 1 K 1978 10 59, visuomeniniais pagrindais K 1978 12 73; cf. in Russian: ценная реакция LRKŽ 193, на общественных началах P 1979 273, проблема номер один P 1979 268. Each word may have several figurative meanings, but not all of them spread and become established in the literary language. Some are used by many people in frequently recurring contexts, while others are occasional, used only in particular circumstances by individuals. Any meaning of a word, including a figurative one, becomes established through prevailing usage and dissemination. In some cases a new meaning of a word may arise; in others, only a nuance of meaning; and in still others, the usage may be merely contextual (cf. Kėzytė S., 1972, p. 113). In language, one should distinguish figurative meanings of words that have already taken root and spread from narrow, contextual ones, which are often accidental, have not yet taken shape or are unlikely to do so, have not gained wider currency and use, and have not entered the stable system of lexical meanings in the language. Thus, a figurative meaning of a word must be distinguished from its figurative use (cf. Jakaitienė E., 1980, p. 39; Kėzytė S. 1961, p. 236; Pikčilingis J., 1975, p. 235–236). After all, not every instance of a word’s figurative use means that it has acquired a stable figurative meaning. It is not always easy to distinguish a word’s figurative meaning from its figurative use, since there are no strict criteria here. Moreover, a figurative use of a word found only in particular circumstances may spread in the language, become established, and thus turn into an independent figurative meaning of the word. The figurative use of a word is situational and occasional and, as a rule, gives speech a more intense emotional and expressive coloring than the word’s widespread, ordinary figurative meaning. Therefore, when words are used figuratively, one must take into account the register of speech and the stylistic requirements of the context. For example, in ne- 146 w phrases, the figurative meanings of words and terms may be used in works of literature. Specialized terminology, as a source of expressive linguistic resources, has made extensive inroads into journalism. Words and terms may be used figuratively for various stylistic purposes; nevertheless, their deliberate and unjustified use in such meanings should be avoided: Furniture—the companions of humankind LM 1978 31; ...the Olympics are a symbol of peace and friendship among nations. Those who do not understand this, or pretend not to, knowingly assume the role of “Cold War athletes”... T 1980 38; ...the process of disunity and the breakdown of the system are not only a moral catastrophe for the individual, but also undoubtedly lead to lower work performance K 1978 9 88; a citadel of health and beauty Š 1978 28; the screen of the Olympic Games T 1978 223; the screen of peace and friendship T 1978 121; ...number theory is the proving ground where the power of modern mathematical tools is tested MG 1979 11 3; a proving ground of brilliance JG 1979 11 28; ...diplomacy in the family is a kind of family therapy TM 1978 8 17; a terrace of fulfilled dreams T 1978 180, and others. 3. 2. Reduction in the semantic scope of words. The vocabulary of the Lithuanian literary language in the Soviet period is characterized not only by the emergence of a large number of new word meanings, but also by a reduction in the semantic scope of some of them. For example: pra非常ymas (petition) — loses the meaning it had under earlier social relations; the word pareiškimas is now used in this sense DLKŽ₁ 508; seniūnas, -ė (village elder) — has likewise lost its meaning of an administrator in a village; it now denotes the person elected as head of a group, cf.: Aukščiausiosios Tarybos seniūnas (trš.), kurso seniūnas DLKŽ₁ 693; tarnas, tarnaitė (servant, maid) — no longer denotes hired domestic help. The word is now used for a person who carries out someone’s will, cf.: deputatas — liaudies tarnas DLKŽ₁ 837. In official vocabulary, the words merga, bernas, pusbernis, pusmergė are no longer used to mean exploited hired workers. In these senses, as with other similar words, they are found only in literary and historical works. 4. Narrowing of the use of words and phrases Alongside the emergence of new words and changes in their meanings, the use of some words is also becoming narrower. Many words and phrases that were widespread during the years of bourgeois rule are disappearing from active use or dying out. This applies particularly to that part of the vocabulary of the Lithuanian literary language that was associated with the old regime, 10* 147 the old administrative and governmental system, and denoted social relations that have passed into the past. First of all, words and phrases denoting institutions that exploited working people and the bourgeois administrative and managerial apparatus fell out of active use; that is, names of organs of bourgeois power, its institutions, privileges, class distinctions, offices, ranks, and titles: antstolis DLKŽ₁ 18, nuovada DLKŽ₁ 451, nuovadas DLKŽ₁ 451, ponas DLKŽ₁ 583, ponia DLKŽ₁ 583, prievaiždas DLKŽ₁ 611, urmininkas, -ė DLKŽ₁ 877, valdininkas, -ė DLKŽ₁ 913, verslininkas, -ė DLKŽ₁ 928, viršaitis DLKŽ₁ 944; burmistras DLKŽ₁ 93, departamentas DLKŽ₁ 114, grafas DLKŽ₁ 181, policija DLKŽ₁ 582, policininkas DLKŽ₁ 582; savivaldybė DLKŽ₁ 688; darbo birža DLKŽ₁ 82, policijos viršininkas RLKŽ II 206. After collectivization, words denoting forms of the old, individual land tenure also lost their relevance: dvaras DLKŽ₁ 139, palivarkas DLKŽ 537, pusininkystė DLKŽ₁ 641; bajordvaris LKŽ I 571, bajorkaimis LKŽ I 572. In the socialist countryside, words denoting rural exploiters and the village’s ruling class fell out of use or passed into the passive vocabulary: dvarininkas, -ė DLKŽ₁ 139, tijūnas DLKŽ₁ 849, valakininkas, -ė DLKŽ₁ 912; didžiažemis, -ė DLKŽ₁ 118, dvarponis, -ė DLKŽ₁ 139. Words denoting the rural poor, exploited people, and aspects of their daily life fell out of active use: duoneliautojas, -a DLKŽ₁ 137, gry tel ninkas, -ė DLKŽ₁ 188, kampininkas, -ė DLKŽ₁ 280, kumetynis DLKŽ₁ 344, kumetis, -ė DLKŽ₁ 344, palūkanos DLKŽ₁ 496, palūkininkas, -ė DLKŽ₁ 496, prasčiokas, -ė DLKŽ₁ 595, pusininkas, -ė DLKŽ₁ 641, sklypininkas, -ė DLKŽ₁ 712, trobelininkas, -ė DLKŽ₁ 864, varguolis, -ė DLKŽ₁ 918, vekselis DLKŽ₁ 925. With the development of technology and the improvement of material living conditions, many words denoting household objects and utensils have also disappeared or are disappearing from active use: arklas DLKŽ₁ 41, aukštinis DLKŽ₁ 63, dūminė DLKŽ₁ 135, kultuvas DLKŽ₁ 343, spragilas DLKŽ₁ 732, milinyys DLKŽ₁ 401, naginės DLKŽ₁ 414, piesta DLKŽ₁ 560, smuklė DLKŽ₁ 724, smuklininkas, -ė DLKŽ₁ 724, spingsulė DLKŽ₁ 731, svirnas DLKŽ₁ 801, vyža DLKŽ₁ 949. During the years of Soviet power, the system of public education was radically reorganized, and words and phrases denoting educational institutions of the old era were therefore displaced from the language: gimnazija DLKŽ₁ 173, progimnazija DLKŽ₁ 632; klासिकinė gimnazija (rš.), mergaičių gimnazija RLKŽ I 174, mokytojų seminarija DLKŽ₁ 691, realinė gimnazija DLKŽ 662. 148 Words denoting pupils of these educational institutions are also used less and less often: gimnazistas, -ė DLKŽ₁ 173, seminaristas, -ė DLKŽ₁ 692. The sphere of use of religious vocabulary has also narrowed considerably: gavėnia DLKŽ₁ 166, pamaldos DLKŽ₁ 496, pasninkavimas DLKŽ₁ 522, vienuolynas DLKŽ₁ 937, vienulis, -ė DLKŽ₁ 937; kapelionas DLKŽ₁ 282, komunija DLKŽ₁ 324, mišios DLKŽ₁ 405, sutana DLKŽ₁ 790; bažnytinė vėliava RLKŽ II 568, paviktinė sutana RLKŽ II 189, vakarinės pamaldos DLKŽ₁ 496. Many other words denoting obsolete, outdated concepts are also used less and less often or disappear altogether from the active vocabulary: parapijietis, -ė DLKŽ₁ 506, pasaulietis, -ė DLKŽ₁ 512, sodietis, -ė DLKŽ₁ 726. Of course, not all obsolete words and phrases disappear from active use at the same time; sometimes, owing to circumstances, they coexist in the language with new words. In the Lithuanian SSR, the old administrative division was retained for some time, so the words valsčius, apskritis and apylinkė, rajonas. coexisted in active use in the Lithuanian literary language. However, with the establishment of new forms of social life, such obsolete words nevertheless gave way to new ones. Many entered the historical vocabulary or are sometimes used to denote phenomena of the past or life in capitalist countries. Over recent decades, some phrases that appeared in the Lithuanian literary language during the years of Soviet power have become obsolete, fallen into less frequent use, or passed into the passive vocabulary: kuopelė DLKŽ₁ 345; baltagvardietis, -ė DLKŽ₁ 69, raudonarmietis, -ė DLKŽ₁ 654, raudongvardietis, -ė DLKŽ₁ 654; ežeras DLKŽ₁ 179, nepas DLKŽ₁ 493; darbininkų fakultetas RLKŽ II 330, liaudies komisaras DLKŽ₁ 323, liaudies komisariatas DLKŽ₁ 323, revoliucinis komitetas T 1978 278; kaimo vargarmenės komitetas DLKŽ₁ 918, Liaudies komisarų taryba RLKŽ II 446. These words appeared in Lithuanian at a time when the objects and phenomena they denoted had already disappeared or were disappearing into the past. They may still be used today in reference to the recent past of the Soviet period. Such, in broad outline, are the significant phenomena that occurred and are occurring in the vocabulary of the Lithuanian literary language during the Soviet period. The principal one is the expansion of the vocabulary: during this period, Lithuanian was enriched with far more new words and phrases than ever before. Far fewer words passed into the passive vocabulary. The study of these processes has begun, but many issues in the development of the vocabulary of the Lithuanian literary language still await investigation. 149 List of adopted abbreviations BTŽ – Botanikos terminų žodynas. – V., 1965. BulotSG – Bulota J. Smeigtuko galvutė: Humoreskos. – V., 1973. DLKŽ – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas. – V., 1954. DLKŽ1 – Dictionary of Contemporary Lithuanian. 2nd ed., supplemented. – V., 1972. FTŽ – Fizikos terminų žodynas. – V., 1979. JG – Jaunimo gretos. K – Komunistas. KE – Smolka K. Kaip elgtis. Žmogus tarp žmonių. – V., 1978. KKult – Kalbos kultūra. KS – Keidinas M. Kosmoso spąstuose. – V., 1973. KV – Kalba Vilnius. LKŽ – Lietuvių kalbos žodynas. – V., 1956–1978, t. 1–11. LM – Literatūra ir menas. LR – Kiseliovas V. Linksmasis romanas. – V., 1976. LRKŽ – Lyberis A. Lietuvių–rusų kalbų žodynas. – V., 1971. MADK – Arlაზovas M., Arskis F., Azernikovas V. et al. Short stories about the great cosmos: I Want to Know. – V., 1965. MATŽ – Aiškinamasis medienos apdirbimo terminų žodynas. – V., 1971. MG – Mokslas ir gyvenimas. MK – Mūsų kalba. MLTE – Mažoji lietuviškoji tarybinė enciklopedija. – V., 1971, t. 3. MNV – Mokslo naujienos visiems. MT – Mokslas ir technika. MTŽ – Melioracijos terminų žodynas. – V., 1960. P – Pergalė. PiktJV – Pikturna I. Jūrų vėjai: Apsakymai. – V., 1975. RamSŠŽ – Ramuckas J. Surask savo žvaigždę: Apyrąžė. – V., 1975. RLKŽ – Rusų–lietuvių kalbų žodynas. – V., 1967, t. 1–2. rš. – writings from the pre-Soviet period without separate abbreviations. RV – Raudonoji vėliava. S – Sportas. SA – Health Protection. SluckUMN – Sluckis M. Uostas mano – neramus. – V., 1968. STTŽ – Kairys V., Kaminskas A., Kudirka Z. et al. Russian–Lithuanian–English Dictionary of Computer Technology Terms. – V., 1971. Š – The Lighthouse. ŠBSK – Popovas S. Šiuolaikinės buržuazinės sociologijos kritika. – V., 1969. T – Truth. TLR – Tarybų Lietuvos rašytojai. – V., 1977, t. 1. TM – Soviet Woman. trš. – writings from the Soviet period without separate abbreviations. TŽŽ – Tarptautinių žodžių žodynas. – V., 1969. VN – Evening News. ŽŪ – Agriculture. ŽŪTŽ – Anskaitis V., Kilas M. Russian–Lithuanian Dictionary of Agricultural Terms. – V., 1971. P – Truth. SL – Soviet Lithuania. 150 СПИСОК ЛИТЕРАТУРЫ Маркс К. Критика политической экономии (Черновой набросок 1857—1858 годов). — Маркс К., Энгельс Ф. Соч. 2-е изд., т. 46, ч. 1, с. 49—508 Маркс К., Энгельс Ф. Немецкая идеология. — Соч. 2-е изд., т. 3, с. 7—544. Энгельс Ф. Письмо Энгельса Йозефу Блоху в Кенигсберг. Лондон, 21 (—22) сент. 1890 г. — Маркс К., Энгельс Ф. Соч. 2-е изд., т. 37, с. 393—397. Ленин В. И. О праве наций на самоопределение. — Полн. собр. соч. (ПСС), т. 25, с. 255—320. Конституция (Основной Закон) Союза Советских Социалистических Республик. — М., 1977. Андреев Н. Д. Язык в обществе, используемом кибернетические машины. — В кн.: Вопросы социальной лингвистики: Сб. статей. Л., 1969. Баркаускас А. Моя республика. — Вильнюс, 1980. Виноградов В. В. Вступительное слово. — В кн.: Вопросы терминологии: Материалы Всесоюз. терминологического совещания 25—29 мая 1959 г. М., 1961, с. 3—10. Дешериев Ю. Д. Социальная лингвистика: К основам общей теории / АН СССР. — М., 1977. Дешериев Ю. Д. Проблема функционального развития языков и задачи социолингвистики. — В кн.: Язык и общество. М., 1968, с. 55—81. Жирмунский В. М. Марксизм и социальная лингвистика. — В кн.: Вопросы социальной лингвистики. Л., 1969, с. 5—25. Исаев М. И. Языковое строительство как один из важнейших экстралингвистических факторов развития языка. — В кн.: Язык и общество. М., 1968, с. 81—99. Исаев М. И. Языковая политика и языковое строительство в культурной революции. — В кн.: Развитие языков и культур народов СССР в их взаимосвязи и взаимодействии. Уфа, 1976, с. 57—66. Кон И. С. История и социология (О некоторых проблемах современной буржуазной социологии). — Вопросы философии, 1970, № 8, с. 79—90. Литовская ССР / Главная редакция энциклопедий, Гл. ред. Й. Зинкус. — Вильнюс, 1980. Русский язык и советское общество. Лексика современного русского литературного языка / Под ред. М. В. Панова. — М., 1968. Филин Ф. П. К проблеме социальной обусловленности языка. — В кн.: Язык и общество. М., 1968, с. 5—22. Харутюг В. О смысле и содержании марксистско-ленинской концепции языка. — В кн.: Актуальные проблемы языкознания ГДР: Язык — идеология — общество. М., 1979, с. 27—47. Шмелев Д. Н. Проблемы семантического анализа лексики (на материале русского языка). — М., 1973. Шмелев Д. Н. О семантических изменениях в современном русском языке. — В кн.: Развитие грамматики и лексики современного русского языка. М., 1964, с. 4—17. Griškevičius P. TSRS tautų greto­se. — V., 1980. Griškevičius P. Vieningose TSRS tautų greto­se. — Komunistas, 1980, Nr. 7, p. 11—21. Grobė R., Neubert A. Thesen zur marxistisch-leninistischen Soziolinguistik. — In: Beiträge zur Soziolinguistik: Linguistische Studien. Halle (Saale), 1974, S. 9—24. Jakaitienė E. Lietuvių kalbos leksikologija. — V., 1980. Kėzytė S. Perkeltinės žodžio reikšmės ir jų pateikimas „Lietuvių kalbos žodyne“. — Kn.: Lietuvių kalbotyros klausimai, 1961, t. 4, p. 233—253. Kėzytė S. Žodžio reikšmės platėjimo atvejų pateikimas „Lietuvių kalbos žodyne“. — Lietuvos TSR MA darbai. A serija, 1972, t. 2(39), p. 105—120. Lyberis A., Ulvydas K. 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SIMONAITYTĖ KURIOS NE KURIOS TARYBINIŲ METŲ LIETUVIŲ LITERATŪRINĖS KALBOS LEKSIKOS RAIDOS KRYPTYS Reziumė Lietuvių literatūrinės kalbos raida tarybiniais metais suintensyvėjo. Tai susiję su daugelio socialinių faktorių. Dideli socialinio, ekonominio ir kultūrinio tarybinės visuomenės gyvenimo pakitimai atsispindi kalboje, pirmiausia jos leksikoje, ir prisideda prie jos raidos. Tarybinių metų lietuvių literatūrinės kalbos leksikai turėjo įtakos ir kalbos vartotojų sudėties permainos. Tarybiniais metais lietuvių literatūrinė kalba išplėtė savo vartojimo sferą. Lietuvių literatūrinė kalba dabar vartojama visose gyvenimo srityse. Tarybų valdžios metais vyksta intensyvus bendravimas ir bendradarbiavimas su visomis šalies tautomis ir tautybėmis veikia ne vien ekonomiką, techniką, kultūrą, bet kartu ir lietuvių literatūrinę kalbą. Suaktyvėję lietuvių ir rusų kalbų kontaktai sustiprino rusų kalbos poveikį lietuvių literatūrinei kalbai, ypač jos leksikai. Per rusų kalbą į lietuvių literatūrinę kalbą ateina daug naujų sąvokų su jų pavadinimais. Rusų kalba daro įtaką lietuvių literatūrinės kalbos kai kurių žodžių darybos tipų aktyvizacijai bei žodžių reikšmių kitimui. Kūrybiškai panaudodami tą įtaką, lietuvių literatūrinę kalbą darome lankstesnę ir veiksmingesnę. Judriausia literatūrinės kalbos dalis yra leksika. Leksikos pakitimai yra įvairūs: kinta žodžių reikšmės, atsiranda naujų žodžių ir žodžių junginių, o dalis jų pasitraukia į pasyviąją žodyno atsargą arba visai išeina iš vartosenos. Kaip ir anksčiau, tarybiniais metais svarbiausia lietuvių literatūrinės kalbos leksikos raidos kryptis yra naujų žodžių ir žodžių junginių atsiradimas. Jais ypač pasipildė tos leksikos sritys, kurios nusako mokslo pažangą, masinį-politinį darbą, kultūrinį bei meninį gyvenimą, pramonės, žemės ūkio raidą. Pasirodė daug žodžių ir žodžių junginių, apibūdinančių fizinio auklėjimo ir sporto sritį, pradeda formuotis ir nauja leksikos sritis – kosmoso leksika. Svarbi lietuvių literatūrinės kalbos leksikos raidos kryptis tarybiniais metais yra ir žodžių reikšmių kitimas. Pagrindiniai lietuvių literatūrinės kalbos žodžių reikšmių kitimo būdai yra šie: žodžių reikšmių gausėjimas, žodžių reikšmių perkėlimas ir žodžių reikšmių mažėjimas. Reikšmių gausėjimui lemiamos įtakos turėjo naujas gyvenimas ir naujos visuomeninių santykių formos. Tarybiniais metais daugelis žodžių įgijo naujų reikšmių arba naujų reikšmės atspalvių. Suaktyvėjo ir reikšmių perkėlimo procesas. Perkeltines reikšmes paprastai įgyja aktualiausių sričių žodžiai bei terminai. Vartojant perkeltinėmis reikšmėmis žodžius, būtina atsižvelgti į kalbos stilių, į stilistinius konteksto poreikius, bet įmantraus ir nepagrįsto vartojimo šiomis reikšmėmis vis dėlto reikia vengti. Tarybinių metų lietuvių literatūrinėje kalboje pastebimas ir kai kurių žodžių reikšmių mažėjimo procesas. Iš žodžių reikšmių mažėjimo pavyzdžių galima nurodyti senūną (dabar reiškia tik išrinktą kokios nors grupės vyresnįjį), plg.: Aukščiausiosios Tarybos seniūnas, kurso seniūnas. 152 Tarybiniais metais pastebima ir kai kurių žodžių bei žodžių junginių vartosenos siaurėjimas arba pasitraukimas į pasyviąją žodyno atsargą. Iš aktyviosios vartosenos pirmiausia pasitraukė tie žodžiai ir žodžių junginiai, kuriais nusakomas buržuazinis administracinis valdymo aparatas, seni visuomeniniai ir politiniai santykiai, praeities ekonomika, kultūra, švietimas, buitis, papročiai. Tokie žodžiai ir žodžių junginiai tampa literatūrinės kalbos istorija. Bendroji lietuvių literatūrinės kalbos leksikos raidos kryptis yra žodyno plėtimasis: lietuvių kalba tarybiniais metais daugiau naujų žodžių ir žodžių junginių įgijo, negu jų prarado. V. SIMONAITYTĖ SOME DEVELOPMENT TENDENCIES OF THE VOCABULARY OF THE LITHUANIAN LITERARY LANGUAGE IN THE SOVIET PERIOD Summary The development of the Lithuanian literary language in the Soviet period has greatly intensified. This intensification is due to many social factors. The vocabulary of the Lithuanian literary language of the Soviet period has also been influenced by changes in the language users’ structure. In the Soviet years the Lithuanian literary language has widened the sphere of its usage: it is being used in all the fields of our life. The contacts between the Lithuanian and Russian languages that have become more active intensify the influence of the Russian language on the Lithuanian literary language, its vocabulary in particular. The creative use of this influence makes the Lithuanian literary language more flexible and effective. Vocabulary is the most lively part of the literary language. Various are its changes: new words and word combinations turn up, the meanings of the words change, some words and word combinations become part of the passive vocabulary or disappear completely. In the Soviet years, as well as in the previous period, the main trend in the development of the Lithuanian literary language is the rise of new words and word combinations. Another important trend is changes in the meanings of the words. The principal ways of changes in the word meanings in the Lithuanian literary language are as follows: increase of the word meanings, division of the word meanings and decrease of the word meanings. In the Soviet years the narrowing of usage of some words and word combinations has also been observed. The general development tendency of the Lithuanian literary language vocabulary is its broadening: in the Soviet years the number of the words and word combinations acquired exceeds that of the lost.