Lietuvių literatūrinės kalbos sudurtiniai daiktavardžiai su pirmaisiais tarptautiniais dėmenimis

LIETUVIŲ KALBOTYROS KLAUSIMAI XXVII (1988) LIETUVIŲ KALBA IR BILINGVIZMAS VIDA SIMONAIT YTĖ-RUDAITIENĖ COMPOUND NOUNS IN THE LITHUANIAN STANDARD LANGUAGE WITH FIRST INTERNATIONAL COMPONENTS During the Soviet years, changes took place in Lithuanian word formation, but these changes do not disrupt the established norms of the Lithuanian standard language; they merely expand the possibilities of word formation. This is most often associated with the intensification of certain word-formation methods and types, which was determined by many internal (linguistic) and social (extralinguistic) factors. Among the extralinguistic factors, the first to be mentioned is the change in the composition of users of the Lithuanian standard language, especially the increase in the number of people who use it. For, according to L. Ščerb(a) (1957, p. 126), “the standard language creates less by itself than it takes from what life creates, while linguistic life flows and boils most vigorously in the language of particular groups of people.” Therefore, every national language, which is the result of centuries-long development, reflects the way of life, culture, and psychological traits of the people who created it. Thus, the riches of the vocabulary and grammatical structure of developed languages are a reflection of the many-centuries-long historical experience of the people (the users of the language), and the result of their long-term knowledge of the objects and phenomena of the surrounding world, their characteristic features and properties, and the regular relations between them (Конанев, Михневич, 1984, с. 163). Today, word formation in the Lithuanian standard language is particularly productive with Lithuanian affixes and word components of foreign origin. Many affixes and various word components are taken from words of foreign origin. This process is usually also conditioned by international terminology. For terminology often serves as an intermediary through which new international words enter all styles of the Lithuanian standard language, from which various word-forming components and affixes are then adopted. Today, parts of international and Lithuanian words are combined especially frequently. Nouns are formed in the greatest numbers. Social causes also encourage this. Production grows every day, and new means of production are needed: factories require much more productive lathes, machines, other mechanisms and production equipment; fields require agricultural machinery; laboratories require many new facilities. New professions and new fields of science and technology emerge, and they too need new names. Nouns, many of them compounds, most often perform the function of providing new names. The formation of compound nouns is one of the most productive ways of forming nouns in the contemporary Lithuanian standard language. Therefore, the study of compound-noun formation “is also relevant to language practice: identifying characteristic types, formation rules, and tendencies of compound nouns can also show how neologisms should be created (or how those already created should be assessed)” (Urbutis, 1961, p. 66). 180 Today, compounds whose first component is of foreign origin are becoming more numerous. It is claimed that the borrowing of lexical units or other elements that enrich languages is the most characteristic feature of the development and interaction of the languages of the peoples of the USSR in the present era (Дешериев, Протченко, 1968, с. 202). As the Latvian language researcher V. Skujiņa (1979, p. 57–58) states, “when international words with the same prefixal and suffixal elements are borrowed, those affixes become more active in the language and, over time, acquire the functions of independent word-formation formants.” International components are frequently used in the formation of Lithuanian words, as in the formation of words in other languages, especially terms. Prepositive components of international terms occur very frequently. Many consider them components of compound words, and sometimes prefixoids (Gaivenis, 1973, p. 26). In certain cases, it is difficult to draw a boundary between newly formed prefixed words and compound words. There are still no reliable criteria for determining when a morpheme at the beginning of a word can be regarded as a prefix and when as part of a compound word. In the Lithuanian standard language of the Soviet years, compounds (especially nouns) with first international components such as aero-, agro-, astro-, auto-, avia-, bio-, electro-, photo-, hydro-, cosmo-, macro-, micro-, moto-, radio-, servo-, stereo-, tele-, thermo-, turbo-, velo-, vibro-, video- are becoming quite widespread. Some of them have been used in compound formation for a relatively long time. For example, aero-, auto-, hydro-, radio-. Others have only recently begun to perform a similar function. For example, with the first international component cosmo-, in the contemporary Lithuanian standard language we find not only the words kosmodromas (cf. Russian космодром), kosmonautas (cf. Russian космонавт), but also kosmochemija (cf. Russian космохимия), kosmosportas (cf. Russian космоспорт), kosmotelefonas (cf. Russian космотелефон), kosmotelevizija (cf. Russian космотелевидение), and so on. The reasons behind the abundance of compound nouns with international components in the Lithuanian standard language of the Soviet years should be sought in the development of society during the period under consideration. New times and specific social conditions determine the emergence of words and the methods by which they are formed. New words reflect the direct connection between language and social life, as well as the main ways in which vocabulary is enriched: borrowing words from other languages, forming new words from the language’s internal resources, forming them from morphemes of classical languages, changes in word meanings, and so on. The social (extralinguistic) and internal (linguistic) factors behind the growing number of compound nouns with the aforementioned international components are closely interrelated. Among the social factors, the foremost are the development of science and technology and, in particular, the importance of the fields of science to which terms containing these components belong. As noted above, social life, the accelerated development of science and technology, and the invention of new powerful mechanisms and means of production required new designations for scientific, technical, and social concepts, including words with international components. For, “language is the most precise barometer of the social life of every human community, reacting sharply to new changes and fluctuations in the structure of society” (Мако́вский, 1980, с. 3). The internationalization of all spheres of life had a major influence on the growth in the number of compound nouns with first international components. Since many values created by different nations are international in character, the growth of society’s material culture and intellectual level encourages 181 the internationalization of the language’s vocabulary. Of course, during this period the internationalization of terminology is becoming a fundamental problem. But it should be borne in mind that native-language and international terms can coexist in parallel, for example: akmenligė – litiazė, bandymas – eksperimentas, and so on. They may be synonyms or have stylistic differences. The parallel use of native and foreign-language terms is characteristic of both Lithuanian (Klimavičius, 1975, p. 91–123) and other languages, for example Estonian (Saari, 1980, Nr. 11, lk. 654–666, Nr. 12, lk. 737–742; 1981, Nr. 4, lk. 201–210; Nr. 5, lk. 282–288; Caapu, 1981, c. 216; Куль, 1984, c. 123–137), Latvian (Скуиня, 1984, c. 14–26), and others. Sometimes international words that have become established in a language outcompete newly formed Lithuanian equivalents. For example, psichologija – sielotyra, dialektologija – tarmėtyra, and the like. These international words are established in Lithuanian literary language, and there is no need to replace them. Thus, Lithuanian equivalents for international words need not be created when the latter are already established (Gaivenis, 1981, p. 6). Nor should international words be used in place of existing Lithuanian words. For example, there is no reason to replace the established Lithuanian term upėtyra with the international term potamologija. Alongside the synonymous use of international and Lithuanian words, the issue also arises of using Greek and Latin morphemes in word formation. For instance, hybrids of this kind are becoming widespread in contemporary Lithuanian literary language, where a Lithuanian element is added to an international element, or vice versa. Such hybrids are used synonymously with purely international nouns, for example: teatotryra ir teatrologija, patentotyrininkas ir patentologas, teatrot y rininkas ir teatrologas, and so on. However, where possible, mixing elements should be avoided (Gaivenis, 1981, p. 6), and it is better to use: teatrologija, patentologas, teatrologas. As culture, education, and learning advance, internationalisms from the fields of science and technology penetrate literary language; “they are universally recognized, natural forms of lexical-semantic expression for the most important concepts of contemporary culture” (Аку-ленко, 1972, c. 198). The need for international terms is particularly acute for the purposes of international scientific communication and cooperation. In this respect, the formation of new terms from morphemes borrowed from Ancient Greek and Latin is also relevant. These morphemes are used in many languages (including the world’s major languages—Russian, English, German, and French) to form terms, and acquire the status of elements of international terms. These term elements, or components, are useful because the meaning of the corresponding group of such elements is understood by scholars in particular fields. Consequently, the meaning of terms formed with these elements in one language will be clear to scholars in the same field who speak many other languages. Today, scientific international terminology is beginning to be used on a mass scale in various styles of literary language. Specialized words associated with one profession or another are penetrating not only scientific style but also everyday style, since nowadays the boundaries between narrow terminological and everyday concepts are increasingly disappearing. We “are witnessing how the terms of one branch of science or another are entering newspapers, social and political journals, fiction, and radio and television broadcasts” (Соколова, 1971, c. 50). The expansion of the social functions of literary language, together with the increase in the education of language users during the Soviet period, accelerated the spread of terms into various domains and styles of Lithuanian literary language. The growing number of translations of foreign scientific and literary works encou 182 rages the use of international elements in the word formation of contemporary Lithuanian literary language as well. Intensive language contact also contributed to the increased activity of international elements in Lithuanian word formation. The influence of languages in contact is highly significant for the development of a national language in every period of its existence. Under the influence of languages in contact, certain word-formation patterns become more active—both those that are only slightly productive and those that are unproductive—and new word-formation patterns are also created on the basis of models widespread in other languages. This may provisionally be called the borrowing of word-formation patterns (Скуиня, 1984, с. 20). The activity of slightly productive and unproductive word-formation patterns undoubtedly enriches a language and usually proceeds on the basis of word-formation resources that have long existed (or were adopted earlier and have already become established in the language). The Russian language has a particularly strong influence on Lithuanian literary language. In Russian, as a language of international communication, new concepts and new terms generally become established earlier than in other languages. Russian, whose grammatical structure is fairly close to that of Lithuanian, stimulates certain Lithuanian word-formation methods and types. Derived and compound words alike may serve as word-formation models. For example, Russian derivatives with the suffixes -ость, -ство — бесконфликтность, вредительство, несудимость, новаторство, сезонность, ударничество, and others, stimulated the formation of Lithuanian derivatives with the suffix -umas, for example: patikimumas, tarybiškumas, vartotojiškumas, and others. During the Soviet years, many new trucks appeared, for which new names were also needed. These are specialized cargo vehicles with bodies fitted with particular equipment. They are most often named with compound nouns whose second component is -vežis: kupevežis, pienovežis, vandenevežis, and others. The Russian language had a major influence on the spread of these nouns; it abounds in compound nouns with the second component -воз: бензовоз, воздушновоз, зерновоз, конновоз, лесовоз, and others. Being rich in international words, Russian is the principal transmitter to Lithuanian of lexical items and morphemes originating in other languages. Russian abounds in compound words with international first components: аэрокзал, автодорога, фотомодель, микростанция. Today, Lithuanian too abounds in formations of this kind, for example: aeroryšys, autorogės, aviabūrys, biodujos, fotomedžiaga, mikrosiūlas. Of course, many such formations should be regarded as derivational calques. It can be argued that the type of word formation involving words with international components entered Lithuanian together with lexical items from Russian and other languages. Russian also influences Lithuanian word formation indirectly. For example, Lithuanian has no equivalents for the Russian prefixes лже- and сверх-; therefore, when translating Russian derivatives such as лженаука, лжепредводитель, лжечувеный, сверхжидкость, сверхзвезд, сверхпроводимость, сверхбюрократичный, сверхэмоциональный into Lithuanian, we usually use the international prefixes pseudo- and super-: pseudomokslas, pseudoteisingumas, pseudomokslinis, superskystis, superžvaigždė, superlaidumas, supergreitas, superemocionalus. Many Lithuanian literary-language compound words, especially those containing international components, have Russian equivalents. However, only some words can be regarded as 183 morphemic calques from Russian. Nevertheless, in many cases there is a difference between Russian and Lithuanian word-formation methods and types, arising from the regularities governing compound formation in each language. For example, the Russian words атомоход, электроход, звездолет, and others, are formed from a noun and a verb, whereas the Lithuanian equivalents atomlaivis, elektrolaivis, žvaigždėlaivis are formed from two nouns. Or, the Russian compounds групповедение, космоведение, металловедение, театроведение are formed from two nouns, whereas their Lithuanian equivalents gruntotyra, kosmotyra, metalotyra, teatrotyra are formed from a noun and a verb. The Russian compounds we mentioned with the second component -воз also generally have the linking vowel -о- or, sometimes, -ё-, whereas the analogous Lithuanian compounds with the second component -vežis are used both with and without a linking vowel: kupetovežis T 1975 179 and kupetvežis ŽUTŽ 107, miltovežis T 1984 285 and miltvežis T 1970 20, pienovežis T 1970 228 and pienvežis DLKŽ₁ 560. The usage norm for these compounds has not yet become established. Compounds with linking vowels are more frequently found in older written texts and in some dialects, for example in eastern Lithuania. In view of the principle of linguistic economy and the working tendencies of standard Lithuanian, these formations are preferable without linking vowels (cf. Klimavičius, 1974, p. 28). This shows that the word formation of each language is autonomous, with all the internal regularities of that language. Among the internal, or linguistic, reasons determining the productivity of compounds with international components, it should first be noted that the same international components are often combined with both nouns and adjectives. This word formation is apparently also encouraged by the internal needs of the language itself (especially its terminology), that is, the necessity of naming complex concepts. In this case, the principle of linguistic economy mentioned above also becomes highly significant: long word combinations are cumbersome, so various compounds are formed. But the principle of linguistic economy is not the only determining factor. As S. Vasilevskaja (1962, p. 40) has noted, a compound is a higher level of abstraction than a word combination. Compounds are needed not only to meet the demand for new words, but also because very often two ideas have to be expressed in a single word. Single-word terms are especially convenient. According to St. Keinys (1983, p. 71), compounding is also convenient for terminologists because it helps create relatively short specific names, avoiding a buildup of modifiers, e.g.: money — atostogpinigi EŽ, butpinigi EŽ, TŽ, dienpinigiai EŽ, TŽ. Other languages can also stimulate the formation of compounds, since this word-formation method is characteristic not only of Lithuanian. In the Lithuanian standard language of the Soviet years, the second component of widespread compounds with initial international components may be either an international or a Lithuanian word. Quite common are compounds of this type whose second components are international words that are not used independently: aerobika VN 1984 191 ‘a synthesis of gymnastics and dance’, aerobusas T 1978 41, autostopas LM 1970 11, autostrada LKŽ I 318, elektrobusas T 1975 47, elektromobilis 184 MT 1975 4 50, hidronautas T 1976 21, kosmodromas T 1978 241, kosmonautika T 1978 11, kosmovizija SatK 9; makrostatika FTŽ 422; motobolas T 1976 118; radiovizorius MG 1976 4 42; velomobilis T 1983 120, velomobilistas, -ė T 1983 120, videoteka T 1984 98. These words are borrowed from other languages. They take a Lithuanian ending according to the same rules as non-compound nouns of other-language origin. What helps us perceive these nouns as compounds is that such a first component is often also added to foreign-origin words, usually international words, that are used independently and inflected in Lithuanian, e.g.: autoremon­tas T 1976 117, autoturizmas T 1978 41, autokosmetika T 1975 6; elektroakustika FTŽ 145; hidroagregatas T 1975 13; kosmospidometras ŽemPP 4; makrofizika FTŽ 422; motokrosas T 1982 44; radioastronomas, -ė MG 1975 5 15; teleekranas MG 1975 1 51; termoelektronas FTŽ 870, velokartingas T 1984 75; videobiblioteka MG 1985 3 40, videomagnetofonas T 1984 98, videoprograma T 1984 98. Formations of this type are most often loans. Their endings are the same as those of their second components when these occur as independent words. Of course, it is not always possible to say whether a compound with an initial international component entered our language directly from other languages or was formed here. When we have a corresponding word without the initial international component, we may suppose that Lithuanian itself could have formed a compound with that component. For example, from the international word kompresorius and the initial international component auto-, it is easy to form the compound noun autokompresorius. In recent decades, a word-formation tendency has begun to take hold and spread in many languages, including Lithuanian: a non-independent Latin or Greek root morpheme is joined as the first part of a word to a native-language stem: aeroryšys T 1976 187, aerostotis KS 106; agromiškas T 1979 298, agrotiltas MNV 15 11; autokelias T 1984 91, autorogės LRKŽ 100; aviabūr ys KV 1979 20, aviataisyklės MieŽIB 399; biodujos MG 1984 4 37, biokuras ŽUTŽ 18; fotomedžiaga T 1984 143, fotoskyrius LM 1978 43; hidrolektyvas T 1979 81, hidros tatyba T 1976 119; makrodalelė FTŽ 174, makrobušena FTŽ 174; mikrosiūlas MG 1983 4 13, mikrosiūstuvas T 1983 151; motodaugia­kovė T 1979 232, motovežimėlis T 1975 111; servodaugintuvas STTŽ 264, servovaldymas STTŽ 264; stereolaida MG 1975 6 58, stereostiprintuvas TM 1984 9 16; telepalydovas MNV 6 18, telev aldymas T 1985 14; termojungiklis MNV 2 4, termomatavimas MG 1975 5 17; turbogrąžtas T 1975 158, turbosiurblys KS 102; vibropurkštuvas T 1984 222, vibrovariklis T 1984 114; videoįrašas T 1983 233, videojuosta T 1984 100. Previously, such hybrids were criticized and regarded as incorrectly formed, but now in many cases they are becoming commonplace. In the Lithuanian standard language of the Soviet period, foreign-origin suffixes are used relatively rarely in hybrid formations. Derivatives formed from a Lithuanian word with an international suffix are uncommon, for example: dviratizmas T 1983 120, mieščionizmas T 1982 10. These derivatives are not formed regularly; they are more occasional in character, not particularly favored by users, and not approved by linguists (for more on this, see Keinys, 1979, pp. 17–18). 185 The words dujofikacija DLKŽ₁ 133 and dujofikatorius T 1974 265 are perhaps somewhat more widely used in Lithuanian literary language. But, according to S. Keinys (1984, p. 96), they are usually calques and constitute an exception in the word formation of contemporary Lithuanian literary language. Apparently, following the example of other languages, words are sometimes formed from proper nouns, especially surnames: čiurlioniana LM 1975 4, donelaitiana VN 1977 40, karteriana LukKR 32, leniniana T 1977 252, rainiana TLR I 503, robinzoniada MG 1976 9 46. The suffix -izmas is also popular in this respect. The word leninizmas LKŽ VII 340 has become very widespread. But many other words are also formed from proper nouns with this suffix: donkichotizmas LM 1978 14, maoizmas T 1977 301, veismanizmas DLKŽ₁ 924. The derivatives we have mentioned with international suffixes are rare. Compound nouns with the first international component aero- (< Gr. aēr ‘air’) are also becoming more common. Compound nouns whose first component aero- indicates their connection with air, gases, or aviation often designate newly emerging branches and fields of science, for example, aerofizika MiežA 105. These compound nouns also designate various devices, instruments, and aircraft. The second component of the compound nouns under discussion may be either an independently used international noun (a) or a Lithuanian noun (b): a) aerofiltras MG 1976 4 26, aerokompresorius MG 1976 4 26, aerokranas T 1975 5, aerolaineris MiežAB 195, aerotankas MG 1976 4 26; b) aerolai(v)ymas T 1976 225, aerostotis KS 106, aerouostas T 1983 24. The second component of an international compound word may not be used independently, for example, aerobusas T 1978 41. Compound nouns with the first international component aero- may designate various concepts: a) aerogrupė T 1982 22; b) aeromuotrauka DLKŽ 5, aeroryšys T 1976 187, aerovaizdas LRKŽ 23. The second component may also be one that is not used independently, for example, aerobika VN 1984 101. Compound nouns with the first international component agro- (< Gr. agros ‘field, soil’) have also increased in number. Compound nouns whose first component agro- indicates their connection with cultivated land, agriculture, and agronomy often designate newly emerging fields of science, scholars, and specialists. The second component of these nouns is usually an independently used international word: agrobiologija TŽŽ 23, agrometeorologija TŽŽ 23, agrobiologas, -ė T 1978 23, agrometeorologas, -ė MNV 13. Compound nouns with the first component agro- can serve as names for various concepts. The second component may be either an independently used international noun (a) or a Lithuanian noun (b): a) agrochemikalas T 1976 219, agromelioracija MTŽ 11, agrotermofikacija MNV 15; b) agromiškas T 1979 298, agropramonė T 1975 172, agrotiltas MNV 15 11. In recent decades, compound nouns with the first international component astro- (< Gr. astron ‘star’) have also become more numerous in Lithuanian literary language. 186 The second constituent of these nouns is also usually an independently used international word. Compound nouns with the first international constituent astro-, indicating a connection with celestial bodies or outer space, often name newly emerging fields of science and the scientists and specialists working in them: astrobiologija T 1979 272, astrobotanika BTŽ 42, astronavigacija KK 34, astrobiologas, -ė T 1979 272, astrobotanikas, -ė T 1976 24, astrogeografas, -ė LeontŽKP 72. Various devices and instruments are also named with these compounds: astrolaboratorija T 1980 237, astroorientatorius MG 1981 6 14, astrotechnika MG 1981 6 14. Compound nouns with the first international constituent auto- (< Greek autos ‘self’) are spreading particularly widely. The second constituent of these compounds is usually an independently used international (a) or Lithuanian (b) noun. Compound nouns with the first constituent auto-, meaning that an object is self-propelled or operates automatically, often name various devices, machines, and instruments: a) autocisterna K 1975 7 62, autogigantas T 1975 205, autofurgonas T 1974 286, autokoduotuvas STŽ 375, autokompresorius T 1974 257, autokranas T 1978 78, autopilotas (electronic) T 1977 301, autoplatforma Sluck UMN 14, autorefrizeratorius T 1983 234, autoskreperis T 1985 21, autovagonas KKult 2 50; b) autoimtuvas VN 1978 119, autokeltuvas DKKŽ 64, autokotelis LKŽ I 517, autokrautuvas T 1976 307, autokraukilis LKŽ I 518, autorogės LRKŽ 100, autosargas K 1980 4 34, autosvarstyklės T 1976 214, autosunkvežimis LRKŽ 100, autotrakinys T 1985 125, autotraukinukas T 1978 183, autovilkiakas T 1975 224, autožadintuvas T 1975 56. The second constituent can also be international, for example autostopas LM 1970 11. Compound nouns with the first international constituent auto-, meaning ‘of automobiles’ or ‘automotive’, are often names of various facilities, production units, enterprises, institutions, and the like: a) autobiblioteka T 1977 274, autocentras MT 1975 4 46, autoklubas MG 1975 10 60, autokolona VN 1974 265, autokombinatas T 1976 145, autolaboratorija T 1974 275, autoparkas LM 1976 36, autopaviljonas T 1978 104, autoservisas VM 1974 285, autotrasą KrasUOŠ 22; b) autoaikštelė T 1985 112, autodirbtuvė LR 104, autogamykla T 1976 26, autojmonė T 1977 163, autokelias T 1980 91, automokykla T 1976 42, automiestelis T 1985 112, autoparduotuvė KKult 25 26, autoplovykla T 1984 80, autoprie kaba KKult 26 20, autoūkis T 1984 120, autovilks tinė T 1976 195, autovirtinė LRKŽ 100. The second constituent of these compound nouns may not be used independently, for example autostrada LKŽ I 518. Various chemical preparations are also named with compound nouns having the first international constituent auto- in the sense mentioned above: a) autobenzinas T 1974 257, autokosmetika T 1977 149; b) autodegalai T 1983 33. These compounds also name various sports and athletes: a) autoestafetė T 1975 43, autoralis T 1984 124, autoturizmas T 1978 41, autorali-ninkas, -ė T 1975 41, autoturistas, -ė T 1975 4; b) autolenktynės TM 1984 5 16, autožygis T 1975 104, autolenktynininkas, -ė T 1975 180. 187 Compound nouns with auto- denote professions, specializations, and occupations: a) autoelektrikas, -ė T 1976 115, autogreiderininkas, -ė T 1975 44, autoinspektorius, -ė RimMN 335, automechanikas, -ė T 1975 38, autoperatorius, -ė LR 66, autotransportininkas, -ė T 1983 191; b) autodarbininkas, -ė K 1978 4 74, autokeliautojas, -a T 1979 134, autokelininkas, -ė T 1975 112, automegėjas, -a T 1979 267, autošaltkalvis, -ė VN 1977 193. In addition, nouns with the first international constituent auto- can have many other meanings: a) autoavarija T 1975 178, autore모ntas K 1975 7 39, autosezonas T 1978 105, autotrauma T 1975 148; b) autoįvykis T 1984 4 119, automokymasis STTŽ 259, autopervežimas T 1977 266, autosvyravimai KKult 15 20, autovirpesys STTŽ 7. Some of these compound nouns may be occasional formations: a) autochuliganas, -ė T 1977 159, autosnобas, -ė T 1978 105, autosnobizmas T 1978 105; b) autoauka T 1977 215, autogražinys T 1978 105, autoklajoklis, -ė T 1983 109, automelагis, -ė Š 1978 17 19. These compound formations also occur in very colloquial language, sometimes with a Lithuanian prefix in addition to the first international constituent auto-. They are not recommended for standard Lithuanian and in most cases should be used without the Lithuanian prefix: auto(iš)py lėjas T 1976 64, auto(pa)krautuvas T 1974 260, auto(pa)krovėjas T 1975 175. These terms are justified with a Lithuanian prefix only if they have a different meaning without the prefix. Nouns formed in the manner described above, with the suffixes -ėjas, -a and -tojas, -a and used as names of instruments, are not recommended in Lithuanian, since these suffixes are generally used to form names of agents (for more detail, see Keinys, 1973, pp. 15–16). Compound nouns whose first international constituent avia- (< Latin avis ‘bird’) indicates their connection with aviation often name various mechanisms, machines, devices, and instruments. The second constituent of these compound nouns may be either an independently used international (a) or Lithuanian (b) noun: a) aviabomba MG 1975 1 62, avialaineris T 1983 236, aviamodelis N 1976 10 38, aviatechnika T 1976 189, aviatransportas VN 1975 170; b) aviasvarstyklės Miež IB 399. These compound nouns also designate people working in newly emerging professions and specializations: a) aviadispėčeris, -ė KT 1985 22, aviakonstruktorius, -ė SluckNA 102, aviamechanikas, -ė T 1978 117, aviatechnikas, -ė T 1985 13; b) aviaugniagesys, -ė T 1985 227. Compound nouns with avia- also denote sports and athletes. The second constituent of these compound nouns is usually international: aviamodelizmas T 1978 68, aviamodelininkas, -ė T 1977 178. These nouns can also have other meanings: a) aviabilietas T 1976 225, aviagrupė T 1975 13, avialinija T 1975 134, aviareisas T 1984 11, aviaturizmas T 1974 254; b) aviabūrys KV 1979 20, aviaparama T 1985 160, aviapervežimas T 1978 26, aviarūšys PR 250, aviataisyklės MiežIB 399. 188 Many new compound nouns are spreading with the first international component bio- (< from Greek bios ‘life, living’). Compound nouns whose first component bio- means “related to life or vital processes” often designate various fields of science, scientists, and specialists. The second component of these compounds is often an international word used independently: bioacoustics MG 1984 8 7, bioelectronics STTŽ 17, bioenergetics T 1985 85, biogeocenology T 1974 28, biocybernetics MG 1978 6 10, bioclimatology T 1984 11, biomathematics STTŽ 17, biomedicine MG 1982 1 36, biometeorology TM 1980 1 5, biotechnology MG 1984 6 6, bioenergeticist, -ist T 1976 200, biomathematician MG 1980 3 40, biomedical specialist Š 1975 15 15. The second component may also be a word not used independently: bionics TŽŽ 109. Compound nouns with the aforementioned meaning of the first international component bio- can name various concepts: a) biocenosis GŽ 38, biocycle T 1985 9, cyclicity of biological cycles T 1985 9, biochemicalism K 1985 2 77, bioevolution SA 12 26, bioimpulse MNV 71 4, biorhythm MG 1984 8 14, biosynthesis MG 3 43, biosystem STTŽ 17, biosociality SA 1974 12 27, biostatistics STTŽ 17; b) bioflow MNV 2 11. Compound nouns whose first international component bio- corresponds in meaning to the words “biological” or “of biology” designate various devices, instruments, and preparations: a) biofactory T 1975 65, biofilter MG 1985 4 26, biocomputer VN 1985 231, biopolymer VN 1984 273, bioprosthesis VN 1985 20, biosystem VN 1985 231, biostimulator VN 1984 216, biotechnics ŽŪTŽ 18, biotransport T 1984 211; b) bioheating ŽŪTŽ 18, biogas MG 1984 7 37, bio sensor ŽemPP 98, biotitrator VN 1985 231, biofuel ŽŪTŽ 18, biomaterial MiežA 147, biosatellite T 1985 160. The second component may also be an international word not used independently, for example, biomepas VN 1984 273. Compound nouns with the first international component bio- are generally various terms, most often from biology. Quite a number of compound nouns also arise with the first international component foto- (< from Greek phōs (phōtos) ‘light’). The second component of these nouns may be an international (a) or Lithuanian (b) independently used noun. Many of those in which the first component foto- means “originating or operating under the influence of light or light rays” name various mechanisms, means, tools, devices, and their parts: a) camera T 1984 97, photorelay STTŽ 358, photosystem T 1976 226, phototelegraph T 1974 272, phototransistor FTŽ 90; b) photomultiplier MNV 60 16, photoenlarger FTŽ 87, photo receiver FTŽ 88, photographic apparatus T 1976 226, photographic device T 1976 224, photographic film T 1978 28, film strip T 1976 70, photoconverter FTŽ 88, camera bag T 1978 57, photographic plate T 1984 185, photosensitive material T 1984 143, photocarrier VN 1985 231, photographic plate MLTE III 14, photographic instrument STTŽ 358, photographic accessories VN 1975 170, photometer STTŽ 359, photo rifle SluckUMN 19, photoresistor MNV 39 17. Compound nouns with the aforementioned meaning of the first international component foto- often denote various phenomena and processes: a) photoactivation FTŽ 86, photopulse STTŽ 358, photoinformation T 1978 10, photoinjection TŽŽ 88, photoionization FTŽ 89, photoreaction FTŽ 90, photosignal FTŽ 90, phototelegram MNV 19 20; b) photo- 189 response FTŽ 87, flash FTŽ 87, photoetching STTŽ 359, photoreception FTŽ 88, photo recording STTŽ 358, photo voltage STTŽ 358, photo input MTŽ 358, photosensitivity MLTE III 409, photoconductivity FTŽ 88, photocollection T 1976 80, photoaging FTŽ 90, photoprinting STTŽ 358, photoexcitation FTŽ 90. Nouns with the first international component foto-, indicating an association with photography, designate various cultural and artistic institutions and their departments: a) photo library MG 1985 3 40, photo club T 1975 60, photography museum N 1976 10 40, photo studio T 1976 81; b) photo department LM 1978 43, photographic service T 1976 2 19. These compound nouns also denote people in newly emerging professions and specialties: a) photo correspondent T 1974 300, photojournalist JG 1974 10 18; b) photography enthusiast T 1974 300, photography master P 1984 3 185, photographic artist P 1984 3 185, photo chronicler T 1975 37. Most compound nouns whose first component foto- corresponds in meaning to “photographic, of photography” are names for cultural works, events, and other aspects of cultural life: a) photo album K 1976 6 51, photographic document T 1975 37, photo exhibition T 1977 271, photo film MNV 6 13, photo finish VN 1975 157, photo illustration T 1976 105, photo frame MT 1975 4 37, photo composition T 1976 81, photo contest T 1976 105, photo chronicle T 1974 269, photo metaphor MiežAB 113, photo montage Š 1976 8 17, photo poster T 1976 197, photo plan MG 1975 4 35, photo portrait T 1876 103, photo report LRKŽ 172, photo novel LM 1975 28, photo stand T 1977 226, photo vignette T 1976 213; b) photographic craft T 1975 10, photo sketch K 1976 6 51, photo work LM 1976 6, photo book VN 1985 145, photographic artwork T 1976 191, photographic art LM 1976 6, photo exhibition P 1984 3 187, photo narrative JG 1975 6 36, photo drawing T 1979 112. Most of the compound nouns examined here are various terms, but quite a number of occasionalisms are also formed: photo eye BulAI 88, photogenic beauty Sluck-UMN 166, photo conversation T 1985 50, photo treasure trove LM 1974 48, photo hunt T 1979 39, photo incentive K 1976 5 52, photo smile LM 1976 14. New compound nouns continue to appear with the first international component hydro- (< from Greek hydōr ‘water’), which indicates a connection with water or hydrogen. The second component of these compound nouns is often an independently used international (a) or Lithuanian (b) noun. Nouns formed in this way designate emerging fields of science and technology and the scientists and specialists working in those fields: a) hydroacoustics FTŽ 106, hydropower engineering MG 1984 4 8, hydrophysics FTŽ 106, hydromechanization MNV 24 7, hydrometallurgy MNV 24 7, hydropower engineer VN 1975 12, hydrophysicist T 1974 20, hydrometallurgist MNV 24 7; b) hydro builder KKult 4 50. In compound nouns with the aforementioned meanings, the second component may also be one that is not used separately: hydronaut T 1976 21. The nouns examined here designate various units, mechanisms, machines, tools, devices, and chemical preparations: a) hydraulic unit T 1975 13, hydraulic automatic device TŽŽ 308, hydraulic elevator TŽŽ 308, hydrogenerator FTŽ 106, hydrocream TM 1975 1 14, diving suit MNV 109 14, hydraulic machine MG 1984 4 8, hydroseparator TŽŽ 310, hydraulic jack T 1976 224, hydrotractor MNV 190 15 6, hydroturbine FTŽ 107; b) hydrobox VN 1984 283, hydraulic jack K 1979 11 44, hydroplane T 1979 81, hydrobuilding T 1975 172, hydraulic pump MNV 15 7, hydropower plant MTŽ 70, hydraulic motor MNV 15 5. Compound nouns with the first international component hydro- can name various objects, phenomena, and concepts: a) hydroaccumulation MG 1984 4 8, hydropower DLKŽ₁ 196; b) hydrofracturing MATŽ 25, hydroconstruction T 1976 119. During the Soviet period, compound nouns with the first international component macro- also became more numerous in the Lithuanian literary language (< Greek makros ‘large, long’). These compound nouns, whose second component is generally an independently used international noun, denote fields of science: macroelectronics FTŽ 174, macrophysics FTŽ 174. Many compound nouns with the component macro-, which indicates largeness, bulk, or an association with bodies of large dimensions and large quantities, are terms in biology, physics, computing, agriculture, astronomy, and other fields. The second component of these nouns is generally either an independently used international word (a) or an independently used Lithuanian word (b): a) macroelement FTŽ 174, macromolecule FTŽ 175, macroorganism MTŽ 268, macroprocess MLFP 125, macroprogramming STTŽ 121, macrorelief TŽŽ 473, macrosystem T 1979 117, macrosclerites MTŽ 268, macrospore MTŽ 268, macrosporangium TŽŽ 473; b) macronucleus ŽOTŽ 132, macrobiocenosis FTŽ 174, macrolanguage STTŽ 121. Sometimes compounds with the first international component macro- become terminologized and even turn into occasionalisms: macroenvironment VN 1973 20, macrovision T 1979 112, macrounevenness VN 1970 11, macro medicine cabinet T 1976 306. Many derivatives of this kind are found in the periodical press, but they are not recommended. There are even more compound nouns with the first international component micro- (< Greek mikros ‘small’) than the compound nouns with the international component macro- examined here. These compound nouns can be considered antonyms of a kind. Compound nouns with the first international component micro- name newly emerging scientific fields, scientists, and specialists. The second component of compound nouns with this meaning is generally an independently used international noun: microsurgery MG 1984 4 14, microelectronics Š 1983 5 12, microsociology FŽ 288, microsurgeon, -ess T 1985 114, microsociologist, -ess T 1984 2. Compound nouns whose first component micro- means ‘very small, minute’, and whose second component is an independently used noun that may be either international (a) or Lithuanian (b), often designate various devices, mechanisms, machines, tools, instruments, and preparations: a) minibus T 1978 104, microcomponent STTŽ 139, microelectrode MNV 14 17, microcapsule MG 1975 10 58, microcomputer MG 1985 4 5, microcapacitor MNV 13 16, micromachine MLTE III 242, microprocessor MG 1981 8 7, microrobot T 1985 36, microtelephone KKult 13 70, microtelevision VN 1985 145, microthermistor MNV 16 10; b) microswitch STTŽ 139, micropipette MNV 14 17, microplate MNV 13 16, microblower T 1983 151, microbalance FTŽ 189, micromotor VN 1975 170. 191 Many compound nouns with the aforementioned meaning of micro- belong to the terminology of physics, mathematics, chemistry, biology, astronomy, philosophy, agriculture, and other fields: a) microelement MNV 13 16, microevolution ŽK 154, microflora ŽUTŽ 139, microinductance MNV 13 16, microcomponent STTŽ 139, micrometeorite T 1977 226: b) microwave MNV 20 11, microparticle MLFP 54, microparticle (diminutive) TFIA 696, microworld MNV 65, microfilament FTŽ 188, microcausality FTŽ 188, microthread MG 1983 4 13, micronutrient traces ŽUTŽ 139, microdictionary STTŽ 139. There are also compound nouns in which the first international component micro- means ‘related to the study or measurement of very small objects or quantities’: microprogramming STTŽ 139, microchip STTŽ 139. Compound nouns in which micro- denotes reduction by a factor of one million are names of units of measurement: a) micromodule MNV 13 6, microsecond STTŽ 130, microvolt TŽŽ 500; b) microquantity MLTE III 776, microtime LM 1975 40. We are now beginning to become accustomed to compound nouns with the first international element micro-, which had not previously been used with these meanings: a) microb s? As it became de-terminologized, the compound-word component micro- acquired the meaning ‘small, minute, insignificant’. The written language of the Soviet years, especially the periodical press, and often colloquial speech as well, abounds in words such as: a) minor accident VN 1979 3, petty hooliganism BulSG 116, minor injury T 1975 195; b) faint reflection T 1979 4, slight obesity KKult 25 26, minor error T 1975 2, small-minded person LM 1975 40, slight rise LM 1976 30, faint trace ST 1983 3 63, petty fascism MiežA 498. Such use of these words is unjustified from the perspective of the development of the Lithuanian literary language (cf. Gaivenis, 1973, pp. 26—27). Sometimes macro- and micro- go beyond the bounds of derivational formatives and are used as independent words: When non-Euclidean spaces and non-Euclidean geometries were being developed, it never occurred to any of their authors that Einstein’s theory of relativity, describing the laws of the micro- and macroworld, would be based on them MG 1979 11 2. Compound nouns with the first international component moto- also became more numerous (< Latin motor ‘mover’). The second component of these compound nouns is often an independently used noun, either international (a) or Lithuanian (b). Nouns formed in this way, in which the first part moto- means ‘motorized, powered by a motor, associated with a motorcycle’, name various mechanisms, machines, tools, and devices: a) motor cultivator VN 1984 10 ‘a two-wheeled, five-horsepower tractor’, motoball T 1984 92, motor railcar TŽŽ 58; b) motorized cart T 1975 111. These compound nouns often name sports, athletes, and sports equipment and gear: a) motorcycle racing T 1982 44, motor sport Š 1975 14, motorcycle acrobat, -ess ŠI 1978 9 4, motorcycle racer, -ess T 1985 18, motorcycle track T 1978 192 96; b) motodaug(i)akovė T 1979 232, motolenktynininkas, -ė LR 50, motošaulys, -ė T 1976 111, motodviratis T 1975 152, motosklandytuvas T 1985 152, motoskraidyklė VN 1985 193, motošalmas T 1975 91. The second international elements of compound nouns with this meaning are also sometimes not used independently: motobolas T 1978 96, motobolininkas, -ė 1976 145. The number of compound nouns with the first international element servo- (< English serve ‘to serve’) is also growing, although they are not found in the “Dictionary of Contemporary Lithuanian” (1972). The second element of these nouns may be an independently used international (a) or Lithuanian (b) noun. Compound nouns whose first element denotes automatic regulation or the facilitation of manual control often name various mechanisms, tools, and devices: a) servokompensatorius TŽŽ 687, servomechanizmas STTŽ 264, servomotoras STTŽ 264, servoregistratorius STTŽ 264; b) servodaugintuvas STTŽ 264, servopavara STTŽ 264, servostiprintuvas STTŽ 264, servovariklis STTŽ 264. Compound nouns with the element servo- can also denote abstract concepts: a) servokompensacija MG 1982 2 10, servoreguliavimas STTŽ 264, servosistema STTŽ 264; b) servovaldymas STTŽ 264. Compound nouns with the first international element stereo- (< Greek stereos ‘spatial, solid’) often name newly emerged equipment, devices, and their parts. The second element of these compound nouns is usually an independently used international (a) or Lithuanian (b) noun: a) stereokamera FTŽ 323, stereokomparatorius FTŽ 323, stereomikroskopas FTŽ 324, stereoprojektorius TŽŽ 717, stereotelevizija MG 1975 6 58; b) stereogarsakalbis N 1981 5 23, stereop lokštelė FTŽ 324, stereostiprintuvas TM 1984 9 16. The second international element may not be used independently, for example, stereoskopas FTŽ 324. Compound nouns with the first international element can have various meanings: a) stereobazė MG 1986 4 5, stereoefektas TŽŽ 717, stereofilmas TŽŽ 717, stereofotografija FTŽ 323; b) stereolaida MG 1975 6 58, stereonuotrauka FTŽ 324, stereovaizdas MG 1975 6 58. Within a relatively short time after television entered people's lives, many new words appeared with the first international element tele- (< Greek tēle ‘at a distance, far away’). The international element tele- became especially widespread around the 1960s. Derivatives with this international element are appearing daily in newspapers and magazines. The second element of these compound words may be an international (a) or Lithuanian (b) noun. Compound nouns, mostly terms, with the first international element can be classified into groups. These are primarily derivatives in which the element tele- means “operating over a certain distance or performed, carried out remotely.” Derivatives with this lexical meaning name various mechanisms, machines, equipment, and devices: a) teleantena RimMN 201, teleaparatūra T 1978 3, teleautomatika STTŽ 312, telecentras MNV 64, teleekranas MG 1975 1 51, telekamera MG 1984 8 37, telekanalas T 1985 80, telerentgenas MG 1978 6 20, teleteksas MG 1986 4 13. 1880 193 32 “television information system,” releterometras FTŽ 349, televideofonas (cf. televidefonas) KKult 13 70; b) telepalydovas MNV 6 18, telestotis T 1980 174. These formations also name various processes carried out remotely: a) teleinformacija T 1977 199, telekontaktavimas IKŠD 101, telekontrolė STTŽ 312, telesignalizavimas MNV 6 7; b) teleapskaita T 1977 278, telematavimas SA 1975 5 19, teleryšiai MG 1984 7, 9, telestebėjimas T 1983 66, televaldymas T 1985 14. An increasing number of such formations are emerging in which the element tele- has the lexical meaning of the words television, televisual: a) teleauditorija LukKR 205, telefilmas BulSG 64, telekinas T 1975 48, teleprograma trš., telereportažas VN 1985 118, telereporteris T 1983 109; b) teleapybraiža KKult 25 26, telegamykla VN 1974 22, telelaida T 1983 42, telemokykla VN 1975 32, telepasakojimas LM 1976 12, teležaidimas T 1985 142, teležiūronas MNV 6 5. These words are not terms; they are rather potentialisms. There is no need to replace established two-word names (television programme, television factory, television broadcast, television school, etc.) with one-word formations containing the element tele-. Some of them, for example, teleapybraiža, telereporteris, teležiūronas (cf. Kalbos praktikos patarimai, 1985, p. 312), and others, are artificial and entirely unnecessary. In many cases, the element tele- makes the lexical meaning of the whole word more specific and terminological. But some of the words we use are neither terms nor otherwise necessary words. They usually arise in a particular context as occasionalisms. K. Gaivenis (1974, p. 12) advises that “one should not abuse the specificity of terms by attaching the little element tele- to ordinary words where it is unnecessary.” Otherwise, we lend the language an overly familiar tone and sometimes even make it harder to understand the thought. New compound nouns with the first international element termo- (<Greek thermos ‘warm, hot’) are also appearing in considerable numbers. The new “Dictionary of International Words” (1985) states that termo- is the first element of compound words, indicating their connection with heat and high temperature. The second element of these compounds may be an international (a) or Lithuanian (b) noun. Compound nouns with termo- as the first element often name various devices, machines, tools, and instruments associated with heat and temperature: a) termoampermetras FTŽ 356, termoanemometras FTŽ 754, termobaterija FTŽ 356, termogeneratorius FTŽ 357, termokamera TŽŽ 755, termokompresorius FTŽ 357, termorelė STTŽ 315, termovoltmetras FTŽ 359; b) termojungiklis MNV 2 4, termokeitiklis STTŽ 315, termokryžius FTŽ 357, termostulpas FTŽ 359, termovarža STTŽ 315. We do not usually use the second element of compound nouns of this meaning independently; for example, termovizorius MG 1985 5 40. Nouns with the element termo- denote fields of science concerned with the study of heat: termoakustika FTŽ 356, termofizika FTŽ 357. There are quite a few compound nouns in which termo- denotes the treatment or processing of something by heat or high temperature: termoefektas FTŽ 357, termoelektronas FTŽ 357, termokarštas MG 1975 6 11, termomagnetizmas FTŽ 359, termorezonansas FTŽ 359. 194 Compound nouns with the first international element termo- also designate various phenomena and methods based on the use of heat, or thermal energy: a) termodifuzija FTŽ 357, termoinercija FTŽ 357, termoizoliacija FTŽ 357, termojonizacija FTŽ 357, termostimuliacija FTŽ 359; b) termomatavimas MG 1975, 5 17. In recent decades, compound nouns with the first international element turbo- (< Latin turbo ‘whirlwind’) have become more numerous. They designate various devices, mechanisms, machines, and appliances powered by a turbine. The second element of these compound nouns is often a Lithuanian word: turbogrežtas T 1975 158, turboorapūtė DLKŽ₁ 868, turbosiurblys KS 102. Compound nouns with the first element turbo- also designate people in newly emerging professions and specialties: turboremontininkas, -ė T 1978 232. Nowadays, a verbal element is sometimes added to this international element, for example, turbovežis VN 1976 12. These too are names for various machines and appliances powered by a turbine. S. Keinys (1979, p. 24) has noted that “words of this kind have likewise emerged under the influence of corresponding Russian terms.” This derivational type is still only in its incipient stages. In the Lithuanian literary language of recent decades, one or another inadmissible formation of the type under discussion, lacking practical significance, is also encountered: turbodujavėžys KKult 26 23, turboelektrovežis KKult 26 24, turbogarvežys KKult 26 23 (for further discussion, see Klimavičius, 1974, pp. 23–24). Compound nouns with the first international element velo- (< Latin velox ‘fast, swift’) are most often names for newly emerging sports, athletes, and sports equipment and gear associated with cycling. The second element of these compound nouns is usually an international (a) or Lithuanian (b) independently used noun: a) velokartas T 1983 120, velokartingas T 1984 75, velotrekas T 1984 8; b) velotreniruoklis T 1985 233. The second element of compound words of the aforementioned meaning may be incapable of independent use: velomobilis T 1983 120, velomobilistas, -ė T 1983 120. In contemporary Lithuanian literary language, compound nouns with the first international element vibro- (< Latin vibrare ‘to tremble, vibrate’) are also emerging. Not a single one of these nouns was recorded in the Dictionary of Contemporary Lithuanian (1972). The second element of nouns formed in this way may be either an international (a) or a Lithuanian (b) independently used noun. Compound nouns with the first international element vibro- often designate newly emerging mechanisms, machines, tools, and appliances for observing and studying mechanical vibrations and oscillations, or otherwise related to oscillations and vibrations: a) vibroaparatas T 1975 170, vibrometras FTŽ 388, vibrotechnika T 1977 282; b) vibrokeitiklis FTŽ 388, vibroįranga T 1977 282, vibropurkštuvas T 1984 222, vibrovariklis T 1984 114. Compound nouns with the aforementioned first international element also designate new treatment methods that use oscillations and vibration. The second element of these nouns is also most often a word of foreign origin: vibromasažas T 1975 150, vibroterapija T 1975 180. The compound nouns under discussion can designate various phenomena associated with oscillations and vibrations. Their second element may also be a Lithuanian noun, for example, vibrosmūgis MK 1976 28. 13* 195 New compound nouns emerging with the first international element video- (< Latin video ‘I see’) indicate a connection with the transmission and recording of images. The second element of these compound nouns is usually an independently used international (a) or Lithuanian (b) noun. Nouns formed in this way often name new devices, appliances, machines, and their parts, e.g.: a) videokasetė [videocassette] T 1984 98, videomagnetofonas [videorecorder] T 1984 98, videotelefonas [videophone] (see Kniūkšta, 1967, pp. 68–70) LM 1974 46, videoteksas [videotex] MG 1986 4 32 “a dialog-based television information system,” videoterminalas [video terminal] MG 1986 4 32; b) videogalvutė [video head] STTŽ 26, videojuosta [video tape] T 1984 100, videoprietaisas [video device] KKult 15 17. Compound nouns with the first international element video- can have various meanings: a) videobiblioteka [video library] MG 1985 3 40, videopulsas [video pulse] FTŽ 388, videoinformacija [video information] MG 1986 4 32, videokontrolė [video control] MG 1986 4 32, videoprograma [video program] T 1984 98, videosignalas [video signal] STTŽ 26, videosistema [video system] STTŽ 26; b) videorašas [video recording] T 1983 233, videovaizdas [video image] STTŽ 77. New linguistic-development trends are most clearly manifested in areas of new vocabulary. This can also be seen in the vocabulary of space, whose spread was aided by the achievements of the Soviet Union in this field of science and practice. During the Soviet years, alongside frequent compound words that were becoming established in Lithuanian and whose first international elements—such as aero-, agro-, astro-, auto-, avia-, bio-, etc.—were not used independently, many words concerning space acquired a new element of international origin, kosmo- (< Greek kosmos ‘universe’). It is not always possible to say whether words with the international element kosmo- entered our language directly from other languages or were formed in Lithuanian according to existing word-formation patterns. Nevertheless, most of them may have entered Lithuanian through Russian, for example, kosmobiologija (cf. Russian космобиология), kosmospidometras (cf. Russian космоспидометр), etc. At present, formations of the type kosmo- + noun are spreading in our language. The noun is most often international. These compound nouns often name new fields of science and technology that study space: kosmobiologija [cosmobiology] T 1975 23, kosmogeologija [cosmogeology] MG 1986 4 7, kosmomedicina [cosmic medicine] VN 1976 12, kosmotechnika [cosmic technology] MarcDD 36, kosmovizija [cosmovision] ŠatK 9 (cf. televizija, Intervizija, Eurovizija). The names of fields of science and technology that study space differ from the corresponding conventional field names precisely by the addition of the element kosmo-. Compound nouns with kosmo- often denote people in a particular profession or specialty: kosmobiologas, -ė [cosmobiologist, male/female] ŽemPP 9, kosmobotanikas, -ė [cosmobotanist, male/female] ŽemPP 7, kosmoinžinierius, -ė [cosmic engineer, male/female] T 1978 24, kosmomedikas, -ė [space physician, male/female] T 1978 22. Words formed in the same way also name space-exploration equipment, devices, and spacecraft: kosmoaparatas [spacecraft] VN 1979 26, kosmolaboratorija [space laboratory] T 1976 32, kosmoraketa [space rocket] T 1976 42, kosmospidometras [space speedometer] ŽemPP 4. Some words of this type are occasionalisms: kosmoprometėjas, -a [cosmic promiser, male/female] MiežA 226, kosmorevizorius, -ė [cosmic reviser, male/female] BulAĮ 90. Occasionalisms also occur in which a Lithuanian noun is added to the first international element kosmo-, for example, kosmodažas MiežA 225. 196 The international element kosmo- is also combined with elements that are not used independently in Lithuanian, the so-called “affixoids,” which are often international as well. The word kosmonautas, -ė has already become familiar and very popular in standard Lithuanian. The word kosmonautas, researchers state (Брагина, 1973, с. 10), was formed in Russian and from there also entered Lithuanian. In English, the word astronautas was coined to designate American cosmonauts (Брагина, 1973, с. 10), and it is also known to Lithuanians (Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas, 1972, p. 43). In the press, the word astronautas is often used to refer to crew members of American spacecraft, while crew members of Soviet spacecraft are called kosmonautais. Frequent use and popularity of the words astronautas, kosmonautas, which appeared in the 1950s, helped give rise to many nouns of this derivational type. Indeed, word formation is also influenced by concrete lexical examples. Thus, vocabulary that is used constantly and frequently can serve as a model for the creation of neologisms. Because of its particular social significance, novelty, and originality, space-related vocabulary is a source of expressive means relevant to the times. Thus, by analogy with the words mentioned above, new words continue to appear: akvanautas, -ė, hidronautas, -ė, okeanautas, -ė, and others. The word alkonautas, -ė has also been coined (LM 1985 28), with the same meaning as the word alkoholikas, -ė. This is a specific case of lexical influence on word formation. A new field of science has also emerged—kosmonautika (plg. astronautika), which studies flights into outer space. The international element kosmo- is also combined with other international word elements that are not used independently, for example, kosmodromas T 1978 10—a facility for launching and landing spacecraft. Words belonging to this derivational type include: aerodromas [DLKŽ₁ 5, autodromas T 1976 146, hipodromas DautPV 51, kartodromas T 1979 150, motodromas TŽŽ 519, tankodromas TŽŽ 745, velodromas DLKŽ₁ 926. A derivational meaning is taking shape for the nouns listed here: a place adapted for operating various machines and devices—specifically for driving, launching, testing, competing, and so on. These formations may name a machine or device, or describe a place or environment. One of the first neologisms of the aforementioned derivational type was probably raketodromas, as Russian-language researchers state (Русский язык и советское общество, 1968, с. 223). It is believed that this word also entered Lithuanian from Russian. Lithuanian acquired a greater number of nouns of this derivational type in the 1950s, as the need for neologisms arose and space-related vocabulary exerted its influence. The international element kosm(o)- is also used with a second, Lithuanian element, often of verbal origin: kosmeivystė MNV 26 20, kosmeivis MNV 26 25, kosmotyra KT 1985 190. The aforementioned element can also be combined with a Lithuanian noun, for example, kosmoskrydis MiežLIB 379. Space-related vocabulary is not yet extensive: it is only beginning to take shape. Trends in the emergence and formation of words in this field have not yet become clear. Words of foreign origin are sometimes used in two ways: as independent words and as word elements, e.g.: elektra and elektro-, kinas and kino-, radijas and radio-, vakumas and vakuum-. In other words, they exist in the language both as international elements within words and as independent terms. Such compounds with the aforementioned international elements are now becoming more widespread. 197 …in endings and as independent terms. Compound words with the international elements mentioned above are now becoming widespread. A considerable number of compound nouns have the first international element electro- (< Greek elektron ‘amber’). The second component is also often international. These compound nouns are generally used to denote scientific concepts. They name newly emerged fields of science: electroacoustics FTŽ 70, electromechanics FTŽ 71, electro-optics FTŽ 73. Many of these compound nouns are scientific terms: electrodiffusion FTŽ 71, electrofilter T 1975 52, electrophotography FTŽ 71, electrocapillarity FTŽ 71, electrocrystallization FTŽ 71. Compound nouns with the first international component electro- also name various devices, mechanisms, appliances, tools, and equipment that indicate an association with electricity. The second component of these compound words may be either an international (a) or a Lithuanian (b) independently used noun: a) electric railcar JG 1975 11 21; b) electrical equipment trš., electric warfare T 1976 115, electric forklift MLTE III 606, electrodeposition MLTE III 324, electrical communications T 1974 270, electric motor T 1974 300, electric cart T 1979 77, electric shears MNV 17 5, electric reconnaissance MLTE III 891. These compound nouns should be replaced by phrases: electric railcar, electrical equipment, electric warfare, electric forklift, electrodeposition, electrical communications, electric motor, electric cart (electro-cart may be used), electric fishing, electric reconnaissance. And the recently emerged electric train should be changed to electric train. Contemporary language with the first international component electro- also has compound nouns of the aforementioned meaning whose second components are international words that are not used independently: electric bus T 1975 45, electric car MT 1975 4 50, electric moped Š 1985 7 31. In this case, they cannot be replaced with phrases. Sudurtiniais daiktavardžiais su minėtu pirmuoju tarptautiniu dėmeniu pavadinami ir šių profesijų, specialybių žmonės: a) elektromonteris, -ė T 1975 73; b) elektrokniedytojas, -a ČesKST 52, elektrosaltkavis, -ė KrivNŽ 8. Bet ir šiuo atveju vietoj minėtų sudurtinių daiktavardžių vartotini žodžių junginiai: elektros monteris (plg. radijo monteris), kniedytojas elektra (arba kniedytojas elektrikas), šaltkalvis elektrikas. Thus, the general rule must be followed: use phrases if their components are non-independent words, and attach components that are not used independently to independent words (cf. Valeckienė, 1968, pp. 22–25). Therefore, many of the nouns listed earlier should be considered incorrect, because they do not meet the requirements for compound formation (cf. Keinys, 1979, p. 23). Accordingly, electrophoresis, electrolyte should be written as single words. Instead of the compound nouns still encountered in written language, electromassage TM 1976 6 6, electrogoods VN 1974 20, electric shock, the phrases electric massage, electrical goods, electric shock. should be used. Accordingly, formations such as elektrolaivis T 1983 245 and elektrovežis DLKŽ₁ 148 (but not elektrovežys) conform to Lithuanian compound-word formation rules (Kalbos praktikos patarimai, 1985, p. 72). 198 A compound noun occasionally occurs in which an independently used, usually international word is added to the international element kino-: kinodokumentalistas, -ė LM 1974 48, kinokamera MiėŽAB 218, kinoprodukcija T 1975 134. Tokių darinių buvo pateikta ir „Rusų—lietuvių kalbų polittechniniame žodyne“ (1959): kinofilmas, kinoteatras ir kt. Šio tipo darinių vartojimas nepateisinamas. Visų šių minėtų sudurtinių žodžių vietoje vartotini žodžių junginiai kino dokumentalistas, -ė, kino filmas, kino kamera, kino produkcija, kino teatras. It is quite another matter when independently unused elements of international words are added to the international element kino-, for example, kinorama T 1977 271. There are also formations in which a Lithuanian element is joined to the international element kino-, for example, kinotyra LM 1976 8. The word kinotyrininkas, -ė, derived from this word, is characteristic of contemporary written and spoken language. Formations of this kind are spreading in the Lithuanian literary language: patentotyra trš., patentotyrininkas, -ė trš. Compound nouns with the international element radio- as their first component also occur (< Latin radiare ‘to radiate, emit rays’; radius ‘ray’). The second component of these compound nouns is often an independently used international word. Most compound nouns with this international element as their first component are names of scientific concepts, scientific terms. They often designate newly emerging fields of science and technology and the scientists and specialists in those fields: radioastronomija MG 1975 5 13, radiobiologija FTŽ 240, radiochemija T 1975 27, radioelektronika MG 1984 6 7, radiofizika MG 1981 8 36, radiomechanika trš., radiometeorologija FTŽ 240; radioastronomas, -ė MG 1975 5 15, radiobiologas, -ė MG 1980 2 13, radiomechanikas, -ė T 1985 228. Compound nouns of this type and meaning that are not scientific terms are also becoming widespread: radioreguliuotojas, -a VN 1984 110, radioreporteris, -ė trš. These compound nouns should be replaced by word combinations: radijo reguliuotojas, radijo reporteris. Compound nouns with the international element radio- as their first component also name various devices, machines, and instruments related in meaning to radio: radiokanalas MG 1986 4 14, radiolokatorius DLKŽ₁ 646, radiometras MG 1986 4 14, radiotelevizija MNV 26 32. Compound nouns with this meaning also occur in which a Lithuanian independently used word is added to the international element radio-: radioimt(u)vas trš., radiostotis trš. Word combinations should be used instead of these nouns: radijo imtuvas, radijo stotis. Compound nouns still occasionally found in written language should likewise be replaced by word combinations: radiopriemonė T 1983 219 (= radijo priemonė), radiosignalas MNV 2 13 (= radijo signalas). Compound nouns with the international element radio- as their first component do not need to be replaced by word combinations if the second component is not used as a separate word in Lithuanian, for example, radiolokacija FTŽ 240. Compound nouns with the international element vakuum- as their first component also occur in our language (< Latin vacuum ‘emptiness’). They often name various devices- 199 devices. The second constituent of these compound nouns is sometimes also a Lithuanian word used independently: vacuum dryer trš., vacuum pump trš. These nouns are incorrect, do not conform to the word-formation tendencies of compound words, and should be replaced by the phrases: vacuum dryer, vacuum pump. Compound nouns with the first international constituent vakuum- are justified when they are terms and usually the second constituent is also international: vakuummetras FTŽ 376. From all the examples presented in this article, the following conclusion can be drawn: elektro-, kino-, radio-, and, less frequently, vakuum- are used as the first constituents of compound words when the whole compound word denotes a scientific concept and serves as a scientific term, and the second constituent is not used as an independent word. Elektra, kinas, radijas, vakuumas do not function as first constituents of compound words when the second constituents are Lithuanian or international words that do not denote separate scientific concepts (cf. Kalbos praktikos patarimai, 1985, pp. 284–285). В. СИМОНАЙТИТЕ-РУДАЙТЕНЕ COMPOUND NOUNS WITH INTERNATIONAL PREPOSITIVE COMPONENTS IN THE LITHUANIAN LITERARY LANGUAGE Summary In the modern Lithuanian literary language, native Lithuanian affixes and word-forming bases are the most productive. The number of word-formation resources is constantly increasing through international words and the borrowing of affixes and word-forming bases from other languages. The popularity of these sources of word-formation resources depends on the need for word-forming elements, usually determined by the intensity of society’s life and its cognitive activity. An analysis of the language of scientific, journalistic, and literary works from the Soviet period established that the formation of compound nouns with a prepositive international component has intensified in the modern Lithuanian literary language. Compound nouns containing the following prepositive international components are spreading particularly rapidly: aero- ‘aero-’, agro- ‘agro-’, astro- ‘astro-’, auto- ‘auto-’, avio- ‘avio-’, bio- ‘bio-’, foto- ‘photo-’, hidro- ‘hydro-’, kosmo- ‘cosmo-’, makro- ‘macro-’, mikro- ‘micro-’, moto- ‘moto-’, servo- ‘servo-’, stereo- ‘stereo-’, tele- ‘tele-’, termo- ‘thermo-’, turbo- ‘turbo-’, velo- ‘velo-’, vibro- ‘vibro-’, video- ‘video-’, and others. These affixes, initially used widely only in term formation, later came to be used in forming general vocabulary as well. The social (extralinguistic) and internal (linguistic) factors that bring about the intensification of compound nouns with the indicated international affixes in the modern Lithuanian literary language are closely interrelated. The most important social factor is the progress of science and technology. The internationalization of all spheres of society’s life, international scientific and cultural cooperation, and intensive international contacts also exert a strong influence on the phenomena under study. Internal (linguistic) factors also influence the processes of forming compound nouns with the aforementioned international affixes, since this type of word formation is stimulated by the needs of the language itself (especially terminology), that is, by the need to name complex concepts. Sometimes it is difficult to establish, 200 whether compound nouns with international affixes came into Lithuanian from other languages or were formed within Lithuanian itself. Some of the prepositive international components mentioned by us have been used in word formation for quite a long time. Others acquired a similar word-forming function only recently. The activation of this word-forming affix was influenced by the processes involved in the formation of space-related vocabulary, prompted by the Soviet Union’s achievements in space exploration and the public’s keen interest in cosmonautics. V. SIMONAGYTĖ-RUDAGIENĖ COMPOUND NOUNS WITH PREPOSITIONAL INTERNATIONAL COMPONENTS IN THE LITHUANIAN LITERARY LANGUAGE Summary A new way of social life and changes in it in the years of Soviet power influence both the vocabulary of the language and its word-building. Some means and types of word-building are becoming unproductive, as words for older notions are no longer much in use. Under favourable conditions the inner processes of language development, which hitherto have not expressed themselves, become obvious. Basing on the analysis of scientific and publicistic literature and fiction of the period the author comes to the conclusion that in the modern Lithuanian literary language the derivation of compound words, especially nouns, the first part of which is international, has become more intensive. Especially abundant are compound nouns with the following international prepositional components: aero-, agro-, astro-, avia-, bio-, foto-, hidro-, kosmo-, makro-, mikro-, moto-, servo-, stereo-, tele-, termo-, turbo-, velo-, vibro-, video-, etc. These components take part not only in building terms, but also in forming compound nouns of the Lithuanian literary language. The article deals with social (extralinguistic) and inner (linguistic) factors contributing to the building of compound nouns with the above-mentioned components in the Lithuanian literary language during the Soviet period. 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