Instrumento raiška dabartinėje lietuvių kalboje

LIETUVIŲ LEKSIKOS IR TERMINOLOGIJOS PROBLEMOS LIETUVIŲ KALBOTYROS KLAUSIMAI, XXIX (1991) ELENA VALIULYTĖ INSTRUMENT EXPRESSION IN CONTEMPORARY LITHUANIAN 0.1. The instrument is the role played by one of the participants in a situation described by a verbal sentence (or, correspondingly, by a verb)1. As a unit of the semantic structure of a sentence (verb), the instrument is on the same level as the agent, patient, and others (Sližienė, 1986, 51—54). On the other hand, the sentence is divided into larger semantic units according to the subject–object–adverbial member model (for definitions of these concepts, see Ambrazas, 1986, 24). It is important that there is a certain correspondence between units at these levels of semantic analysis (e.g., the subject encompasses the agent, patient, percipient, and beneficiary). V. Ambrazas has persuasively analyzed this question and indicated when it is more convenient to use concepts from one level and when from another (Ambrazas, 1982; 1986, 23 ff.). 0.2. The instrument falls within the scope of the concept of object (alongside patient, result, beneficiary, and content)2. Thus, instrument and object are units of different semantic levels. The term instrument is also used in works of traditional linguistics describing the meanings of cases and prepositions—specifically, the instrumental case and the preposition su. 0.3. From the referential perspective, an instrument is an object which an agent uses to perform an active action directed at another object (writes a letter with a pencil), at oneself (washes oneself with water), or an undirected action (nods one’s head). 0.4. The principal means of expressing the instrument is the instrumental case—alone or with the preposition su. The instrumental case of the instrument is described in detail in a specialized study (Rasimavičius, 1963, 239 ff.). The instrumental case is examined at the level of word combinations. Their lexical-semantic composition is discussed: verbs are characterized according to their transitivity/intransitivity, and nouns according to their membership in particular semantic classes (distinguishing nouns denoting concrete objects, nouns denoting a body part or organ of an agent, and nouns denoting means of transport). In view of the more specific meanings of the verb and noun, the instrumental case expressing an instrument is divided into the following semantic groups: 1) instrumental of tool (splits firewood with an axe), 2) instrumental of material (sprinkles with sand 1 According to valency theory, units in the semantic structure of the verb are variously called semantic roles, semantic functions, deep (semantic) cases, or actants (Sližienė, 1986, 44 ff.). 2 Kai kurie tyrinėtojai instrumentą siūlo išskirti iš objekto (plg. Drukteinis, 1982, 17). 148 floor); 3) instrumental of means (travels by train). In addition, two subtypes of the instrumental of tool are distinguished: a) the instrumental of a true tool (splits firewood with an axe) and b) the instrumental of tool-object (nods his head, rattles pots). The latter instrumental should be regarded as a separate semantic unit. The instrumental of a true tool is closer to the instrumental of material (rather than to that of object-tool), cf.: 1) the father chops firewood with an axe, the sister waters flowers with water and 2) the grandfather nods his head, the hostess rattles pots. The first case (1) reflects a three-part situation, in which the instrument mediates between the agent (the performer of the action) and the patient (the object acted upon), whereas the second (2) is a two-part situation, in which one member is the agent and the second, expressed in the instrumental case, corresponds to the object acted upon (cf. Slizienė, 1986, 59). This is shown by the possibility of replacing such an instrumental (with some verbs) with the accusative, e.g.: nods his head, shrugs his shoulders, rattles pots/pots, jingles keys/keys (for more on this, see Valiulytė, 1987, 31–41; Rasimavičius, 1963, 247–248). The compared word combinations differ in certain nuances: the accusative emphasizes the object acted upon more than the instrumental does, because the former case (the accusative) is communicatively “weightier”: it occupies second place (after the nominative) in the syntactic hierarchy of forms. Word combinations with the so-called instrumental of means have a different lexical composition and semantic structure. They consist of verbs of motion with nouns denoting a means of transport (a) or draft animals (b), e.g.: the teacher sailed by boat (a), the neighbor arrived by horse (b). There is a difference in meaning between these combinations. The instrumental in the first group (a) has the meaning of instrument with a locative nuance. This can be seen from transformations of these combinations, cf.: The teacher sailed by boat ← The teacher was in the boat. The boat sailed, or: The teacher sailed while aboard the boat. Thus, in the deep structure of combinations with the instrumental, which directly corresponds to the described real-world situation, there is also a locative relation between referents, although it is not formally expressed. Therefore, the same real-world situation can sometimes also be described using word forms with locative meaning, e.g.: You sing the song of whoever’s wagon you ride in, even when weeping (on the locative with instrumental meaning, see 5.). In combinations of verbs of motion with an instrumental noun denoting draft animals, the real-world situation is described in reduced form, with one of its referents—the means of travel—omitted, e.g.: The neighbor (a) arrived by horse (b). We know from experience that the real-world situation associated with this sentence has three participants: its referents are a person (a), an animal (b), and a means of travel (c). Two referents of this situation (b and c) can fulfill the role of instrument, but ordinarily only one of them is represented overtly by the same morphological form—the instrumental case—e.g.: The neighbor arrived by horse/sleigh. The simultaneous occurrence of two instrumental forms with the same meaning is atypical, though possible, cf.: The neighbor arrived by horse and sleigh. However, the syntactic relations of these instrumentals to the verb are not the same. The instrumental of the noun denoting the means of travel (sleigh) is more closely connected to the verb, whereas the instrumental of the noun denoting the animal (horse) is less closely connected—it is a reduced sentence. This can be confirmed by transforming the aforementioned word combination, cf. The neighbor arrived by horse and sleigh ← The neighbor arrived by horse harnessed to the sleigh. 149 0.5. As already mentioned, the principal means of expressing the instrument in standard Lithuanian is the instrumental case (without a preposition). In addition, the construction with the preposition su and the instrumental is also used as this variant, e.g.: You can’t kill a child with a straw. SLT 239. She sewed with a needle. JablRR I 664. [Jonelis] went close to the sand with his little plough. ŠRagSD 44. The little fishermen will catch you with a silken net. JV 27. However, there are constructions that cannot be replaced by the instrumental alone, e.g.: drove the dog away with a stick, I read with glasses, walks with crutches, etc. The prepositional construction with su in the instrumental sense is widespread in dialects. As the material of the Atlas of the Lithuanian Language shows, this construction predominates in the area of northern and western Lithuania (while in eastern and southern Lithuania, especially at its margins, the instrumental is more characteristic), e.g.: In olden times, Šimoniai hillfort was piled up with hats. Ps (LKŽ XIV 14). He went farther from his uncle into the forest, took off his fur coat, and beat it with a stick. Pšl. The quern is turned with a millstone. Mšk (LKŽ XIV 14). Give that snake a blow across the neck with a pole! Mžk. Sail by boat to Tilsit. Rsn (LKŽ XIV 14). Wrap yourself in a white sheet. Pln (LKŽ XIV 14). Don’t lean against the wheel—you’ll get tar on yourself. Skr (LKŽ XIV 14). Plant the potatoes with horses. Rm (LKŽ, I 306). He will arrive with four horses. Lkš. They crossed the river by boat. Šlu. I’ll get there faster by bicycle than by horse. Brt. In written language, the prepositional construction with su is used less frequently than the instrumental. 0.6. An examination of verb valency showed that referents performing an instrumental function can also be marked by other means of expression, usually prepositional constructions (Sližienė, 1986, 54), e.g.: sieves grain through a sieve, fires from cannons, scratches his hands on gooseberries, rides on a horse, travels by carriage. These constructions differ from the instrumental in having more specific meanings, which also reflect the manner of using the instrument and how it functions. It is important to note that some of these constructions can be replaced by the instrumental case—the typical means of expressing the instrument. This is also confirmed by their having the same meaning. The aim of this article is to describe atypical means of expressing the instrument and to indicate their relationship to the instrumental. 1. Constructions with the prepositions per and/or pro and the accusative 1.1.0. There are verbs that require constructions with the prepositions per and/or pro and the accusative to mark the instrument, e.g.: sifts flour through a sieve, strained the milk through a strainer, squeezed grated potatoes through cheesecloth, combs flax with a bristle brush, sucks a drink through a straw, looks at the stars through a telescope. On the other hand, the aforementioned prepositional constructions are very restricted in their lexical composition. 1.1.1. The verbs sijoti, siausti (and their prefixed derivatives) form combinations with the preposition per and the nouns rėtis, sietas, sytelis, kretilas. I sifted the flour through a sieve. Btrm. Whoever wants to eat good bread must sift the flour through a sieve. Kv (LKŽ XI 492). Sift the ashes through a sieve, put the clothes in and boil them for a couple of hours. Lk (LKŽ XI 492). Ashes were sifted through a sieve. Mrc (LKŽ XII 150 540). The sieve is shaken over the basket first, so that the larger pieces are removed; then the grain is winnowed. Vrd (LKŽ XII 539). I sifted the flour through a fine sieve, and the bread came out like cake. Krp (LKŽ XI 491). I sifted the flour through a small sieve so there would be no husks. Šmk (LKŽ XII 488). When she takes it to the mill, the women sift it through a sieve. Gd (LKŽ XII 487). 1.1.2. In written language, the preposition sijoti is also found with the verb pro, for example: The dust is fine, like rain sifted through a sieve (trš). Not quite so heavily, but all day long in the sieve as through a strainer (rš). The dialect facts available to us do not confirm this usage. 1.1.3. The instrumental case is also used with the verbs sijoti, siausti—but much less frequently—with the preposition su, for example: I sifted the flour with a fine [sieve], and the groats with a sieve. Ign (LKŽ XI 492). You sift the oats with a fine sieve, then sift them in a winnowing basket. Vdš (LKŽ XII 531). I sifted it through several sieves; where did that little bug come from? Mžš (LKŽ XII 531). We’ll sift the grain with a sieve. Rod (LKŽ XII 540). In the old days, we sifted all the grain with winnowing baskets. Švnč. Sift the flour with a sieve, and winnow the grain with a riddle. J. There’s sand in the grain; sift it with a riddle. J. Cf. also: The rain sifts like a riddle. Pn (LKŽ XII 539). The instrumental case in the sentences cited is synonymous with constructions using the preposition per. This also shows that these constructions have an instrumental meaning. However, they differ slightly in meaning from the instrumental case. The instrumental case denotes the instrument in a generalized way, whereas constructions with the preposition per also convey how it is used or functions: they indicate that the patient passes through the tool. This follows from the semantic relation of these constructions to their concrete spatial meaning; cf.: Good grain also falls through the sieve. Ktk. They’ll spray those ducklings through the sieve—they’ll get cold. Jrb (LKŽ XI 531). 1.2.1. The verb košti (and its prefixed derivatives) forms constructions with the preposition per and the nouns koštuvas/koštuvis, as well as sietelis, sietas, audeklas, and so on. Strain the milk through the strainer. J. I’ll strain the water through a strainer: water from our well gets gritty. Sdk (LKŽ VI 382). The oats need to be strained through a sieve. Pb (LKŽ XII 531). Strain the milk through a piece of cloth. Krsn (LKŽ VI 381). She strained the milk through a linen cloth. Ktk. 1.2.2. In written language, a construction with the preposition pro is also found in this position, for example: The paste is then strained through a sieve or cheesecloth and cooled. NŪE 12. The mixture is strained through a sieve. NŪE 26. Although the dictionary definition of the verb košti—“to clean a liquid of unwanted impurities by passing it through material or a strainer” (DŽ₁ 329)—points to the preposition pro, the dialect facts available to us show that the preposition per is used in this position. It is also implied by the corresponding prefix per-, for example: The settled liquid is strained through filter paper (trš). 1.3. The verb to strain (and its prefixed derivatives), like to filter, is used with a construction containing the preposition through, whose nouns include cheesecloth, canvas or the like, as well as a sieve, a strainer (cf. 1.2.), e.g.: 151 I strained (grated) potatoes through a linen cloth. Ktk. You mashed the berries with the bottom of a cup, then strained them through a strainer. Vb (LKŽ XII 582). The extracted honey was strained through a cheesecloth bag. VdS (LKŽ XIV 163). The verb pertrinti is used similarly in the sense ‘to strain by rubbing’, e.g.: Rub the onions through a sieve. DŽ₁ 556. Rub the tomatoes through a colander into the sauce (trš). 1.4. The verb šukuoti ‘to comb’ (of flax), and its prefixed derivatives, are used with a construction involving the preposition per, whose noun is a brush, e.g.: When flax is combed through sparse brushes, tow is obtained. Krkn (LKŽ IX 211). I combed the flax through a bristle brush—it shines like silk. Ktk. The instrumental case of the aforementioned noun is also used in this position, e.g.: They comb flax with wooden and iron brushes. DŽ₁ 808. This is determined by the syntactic valency of the main lexeme (meaning) of this verb, cf.: They comb their hair with a comb, a brush. 1.5. With the verbs gerti, siurbti ‘to drink, to suck’, a construction with the preposition pro has instrumental meaning; it is formed with a noun denoting a hollow object—a straw, e.g.: She (Marta) sipped the drink through a thin straw. VencIGD 146. A construction with the preposition per is also used alongside it, e.g.: Ice is placed in small glasses, punch is poured over it, and it is drunk through a straw. ŠPG 166. It is drunk through a straw from tall mugs. ŠPG 169. All cocktails—sweet or strong—are drunk from tall mugs through a straw. ŠPG 170. From the standpoint of the norm, the relationship between the constructions pro šiaudelį and per šiaudelį is the same as that between the spatial constructions eiti pro duris ‘to go through the doorway’ and eiti per duris ‘to go through the door’ (the latter is a variant of the former) (see 1.6.1.). 1.6. Constructions with the preposition pro, whose nouns are glasses, binoculars, microscope, telescope, when combined with verbs of seeing žiūrėti, žvelgti, matyti, stebėti, atrodyti ‘to be visible’, also have instrumental meaning, e.g.: The ship’s captain looked through the binoculars. DŽ₁ 968. Through binoculars or a telescope, one can see hundreds and thousands of times more stars. LA 137. Less than a month had passed before the stars could already be viewed through the new telescope. LA 113. An old man had binoculars through which he could see whether the object being viewed had luck or not. MPs IV 5. His wife smashed all the smoked shards through which the deceased used to observe the sun. VienIMA 189. Through a small telescope they look like round, whitish spots. LA 204. 1.6.1. In dialects, and sometimes also in written language, a construction with the preposition per is also used with the same verbs, e.g.: I caught such a withered fly, and through the binoculars it looked so big, speckled, with a long beak. Jrb. You can see a very long way through binoculars. Alv. I can see clearly through my glasses. Mšk. Lying behind a haystack, I could see the whole enemy fleet clearly through my binoculars. Balč. From the standpoint of the norm, these constructions should be assessed in the same way as analogous constructions with a spatial meaning, cf.: looks through the window, went out through the door. It should be said, 152 that to this day there is no firm and unanimous opinion about whether such constructions are acceptable in the literary language. As is known, J. Jablonskis approved such constructions with for plus the accusative (Jablonskis, 1957, 670–672). However, constructions with through continue to be used in written language alongside constructions with the preposition through, e.g.: turned through the gate CvR I 90, (the wind) rushed through the cracks ŽemR III 415, hurried out through the door KrėvRg 33, looked through the window VaižgRR I 413, snorted through the nostrils VienR V 114. Dialects support this use of the preposition through. Therefore, in “The Grammar of the Lithuanian Language” (1971, 630), it was proposed that these constructions with the preposition through³ be regarded as standard. However, some question this recommendation (Pupkis, 1980, 153). In the most recent work devoted to language norms (Paulauskienė, Tarvydaitė, 1986, 108–109), such constructions are recommended for literary language as synonyms of constructions with the preposition for. 1.6.2. The noun akiniai ‘glasses’ is also used with the verb matyti ‘see’ together with the preposition su ‘with’, e.g.: I can see well with glasses. Ktk (but the instrumental alone is not used, cf. *Akiniais gerai matau). With the more general verb stebėti ‘observe’, the instrumental case of the nouns mentioned is used, and this is synonymous with a construction using the preposition pro, cf.: They had already begun observing the stars with their small telescopes. LA 109 — They are difficult, and sometimes altogether impossible, to observe even through the largest telescopes on Earth’s surface. LA 205. 2. The construction with the preposition iš and the genitive case 2.1. The construction with the preposition iš expresses the instrument required by verbs of shooting. On the other hand, constructions with the preposition iš in the instrumental sense have a very restricted lexical composition: they are formed with nouns denoting means of shooting—firearms, e.g.: rifle, automatic rifle, pistol, machine gun, cannon, artillery piece, as well as bow. They shoot cannons. DŽ₁ 532. They said that after getting drunk at Jarmalas’s and eating two calves, he had fired a Browning at a hen. CvR V 125. And he shot our dear little brother with his first bullet, from his colorful little guns. JD 1119. I also tried shooting a bow while herding. MašAMB 63. They (the birds) looked with contempt at those two-legged creatures, although at times the latter would fire a few shots at them with rifles. Balt. These constructions are semantically related to constructions expressing spatial meaning. They imply a referent moving from the inside of an instrument (being inside the former). This is also reflected in the semantic structure of the verb šauti ‘shoot’, cf. its definition: “to fire a bullet from a firearm” (DŽ, 807). On the other hand, in situations described by the verbs šauti, šaudyti ‘shoot, fire’, two referents may be understood as instruments and both are externally represented 3 It should be said that what is meant here are constructions formed with nouns denoting perforated or composite objects (fence, grating, net). In the grammar, they are presented together with constructions in which the noun denotes a solid object, e.g.: He shot through three walls. Rs. J. Kilius has drawn attention to this (Kilius, 1973, 27–30). There is no question about the normativity of these constructions. However, there are cases when the preposition pro is used in the position of the preposition per, e.g.: His broad shoulders rise, sharp shoulder blades jutting out through his jacket. BubnDŽ 52. 153 in different word forms, e.g.: The hunter shot with buckshot from a shotgun. Here we have a split expression—a composite instrument: the construction with the preposition *iš* ‘from’ has an instrument meaning, while the instrumental case denotes the material; cf. 0.4. 2). However, the instrument too can be expressed by the instrumental case (with the preposition su ‘with’), which is synonymous with the construction using the preposition *iš*, e.g.: They were fired upon with machine guns and pelted with grenades (tsp). He shoots with a rifle. Figurative. 2.2. The prepositional construction *iš* with the specified lexical composition is also used with word combinations denoting shooting, to open fire, e.g.: At night they opened fire with a Browning ans. Dr (LKŽ VII 282). They opened fire with artillery. 2.3. The noun svaid yklė ‘device for hurling stones’, and its synonyms laid yklė (laidynė), mėtyklė, svilksnė (svilksna) are used with the preposition *iš* and verbs of throwing and hurling (to throw/to cast, to hurl/to fling, to launch/to send), e.g.: The children throw stones from a sling. Mšk (LKŽ XIV 256). One, the more emaciated one, threw a stone at him from a sling. LKŽ VII 16. He throws a long way from a sling. DŽ₁ 397. This year he threw a stone from a sling. Stan. The construction *iš rankos* ‘by hand’ is also used with the same verbs, e.g.: I can throw farther by hand than Jonas can from a sling. I’ll throw twice as far from a sling as by hand. Jz (LKŽ VII 16). On (LKŽ XIV 256). 2.4. Constructions with the preposition *iš* and nouns denoting vessels, attached to the verb to drink (cf. 1.5), can also be considered to have an instrument meaning, e.g.: He drinks from a cup. Dauk (LKŽ IV 156). He drank some lemonade from a bottle. These constructions denote the object used in performing the action. However, constructions formed with nouns denoting places and used with the same verb *to drink* have a purely spatial meaning, e.g.: Two pigeons drank, the little pigeons drank from the deepest little lake. LB 26. 2.5. In dialects, especially Samogitian, there are also constructions with the preposition *iš* expressing an instrumental meaning and having a different lexical composition, e.g.: The Cossacks lashed them with whips. Grd. You’ll get it with a stick! Trš. Give the pig a prod with a stake, and you’ll drive it into the pen. Ty (LKŽ IV 158). If I hit you with a knife, you’ll know it! Krp (LKŽ IV 158). The young man strikes the old man on the heels with a scythe (while mowing hay). Vg (LKŽ IV 158). The shepherd boys (running loose) greet the man by throwing stones at him. Lk (LKŽ IV 158). He knows how to chop it out with an axe (make it using an axe). Kp (LKŽ IV 158). Hit it hard by hand, then it’ll go in (strike forcefully; the hammer’s own fall is not enough). Kp (LKŽ IV 158). (For more examples, see DūnŽ 108.) As we can see, these constructions are used to describe striking (or analogous) situations. 3. The prepositional į construction with the accusative 3.1. In combinations with certain verbs, the prepositional į construction can also have an instrumental meaning (cf. Slizienė, 1986, 54, 83). This is confirmed by the fact that it can be replaced by the typical means of expressing instrumentality—the instrumental case, e.g.: The old woman wiped her hands on an apron/with an apron; The pupil wiped his shoes on the grass/with the grass; 154 The child injured a finger on glass/with glass. There is a semantic difference between the compared combinations, reflecting somewhat different relations among the referents in the actual situation. In the construction with the preposition į, the noun denotes an object whose position does not change during the action, whereas the instrumental case indicates an object that can be freely manipulated (cf. Russian Апресян, 1974, 140). This is clearer from paraphrases of these combinations, cf. 1) wiped her hands on an apron ← dried her hands by rubbing them against an apron and 2) wiped her hands with an apron ← dried her hands after taking the apron in her hands. Thus, the prepositional į construction and the instrumental case indicate an instrument used in different ways. Combinations in the instrumental case emphasize the instrument's orientation toward the patient (wipes her hands with an apron: apron → hands), while combinations with the prepositional į construction show the reverse: the patient's orientation toward the instrument (wipes her hands on an apron: hands → apron). In the latter case, what is expressed is a kind of reciprocal effect between the referents: the patient (the hands) acts on the instrument (the apron) and at the same time is itself affected (the hands are rubbed against the apron and consequently become dry; cf. the definition of the verb šluostyti: “to remove moisture by rubbing, to dry”). 3.2. There are more constructions with the preposition į that cannot be replaced by the instrumental case, e.g.: He bumped his head against the doorframe Ktk. I brushed my sleeve against the wall—it was freshly painted. Ktk. I smashed the lamp against the hard rock. Myk-Put. A mosquito fell out of a little oak tree and bumped its little head against an oak twig. Krč (LKŽ VIII 472). I scraped my hands on the brambles. J. He struck the scythe against a stone. Ktk. As we can see, the nouns in the cited constructions with the preposition į usually denote immobile objects (doorframe, wall, rock, slope), which cannot be manipulated. The verbs denote resultative actions. These actions are usually the result of other actions, cf. brushed against it by touching the wall, smashed it by striking it against a rock, bumped its little head as it fell from the oak. 3.3. The prepositional į construction in the sentence In the forest clearing he blew into the horn and with its sound demanded that the bridges be lowered. VienR IV 163 is also considered to have an instrumental meaning. 4. The prepositional ant construction with the genitive 4.1.0. Two types of construction with the preposition ant have an instrumental meaning, cf.: rides on a horse, sails on a chip of wood, carried on his back, and leaned on his elbows, knelt on his knees. One type denotes a means of transportation or movement through space, the other a means (or manner) of changing the subject's position (posture). These constructions (i.e. those with an instrumental meaning) are semantically related to the primary spatial meaning of constructions with the preposition ant—“to be on top of something, to touch its surface,” cf.: rides on a horse and sits on a horse (the meaning of the latter combination is included in the former; conversely, the former can be considered reduced). 4.1.1. Constructions with the preposition ant denoting a means of transportation are not uniform. Constructions with the preposition ant used with the verb joti (and its contextual synonyms) have a clear instrumental meaning; in these constructions, the noun denotes an animal (usually a horse), e.g.: 155 You can ride this horse—it has already been broken in. Ig (LKŽ IV 351). And the young man rode up on a black-bay steed. KlvD 24. A rider galloped past on horseback, and the scythe rang out in the twilight. Myk-PutR X 213. He came flying in on a gray horse, like a whirlwind. Ktk. This construction can be replaced by the instrumental case, e.g.: He rode on a horse (by horse, Pnd), he was looking for a horse. Rs. You were not riding your own horse to my place. JV 10. However, when the means of riding is an inanimate object, it is expressed only by the prepositional ant construction, which cannot be replaced by the instrumental case. Even a drunkard rides on a stick. Mlt (LKŽ IV 360). We see—the witch is flying on a broom. SNėrR I 210. He rode away astride a branch. Šim (LKŽ IV 359). I saw him arrive on a broom. Kv. There are phraseologized combinations of the verbs joti, taip pat jodyti, jodinėti ‘to ride’, also ‘to make ride, to ride repeatedly’, with the prepositional ant construction (and the instrumental case), e.g.: ant sprando (sprandu) joti, jodyti, jodinėti ‘to exploit, mistreat, torment’ (LKŽ IV 348, 350, 359), ant kaklo joti, jodyti, jodinėti ‘same’. 4.1.2. Certain prepositional ant constructions in combinations with verbs of motion have a syncretic locative–instrumental meaning, e.g.: flies on a magic carpet, transports cars on platforms, sails on a board. These combinations are formed by syntactic reduction, with the verb of being omitted; cf.: flies on a carpet ← flies while being on a carpet. The prepositional ant construction retains its locative meaning (being on the surface of an object), while the verb of motion gives it another function—that of an instrument. The formation of such combinations is more strongly constrained by the lexical meaning of the noun, e.g.: Others, having lost their horses, propelled themselves downstream on makeshift rafts. VienR IV 192. He sailed on a chip of wood. KatMAR 332. What good was it to wait on the ice! Vilkš (LKŽ X 103). After the war, people used to travel in wagons. Ktk. Televisions traveled on the roofs of cars, on carts, sleds, and even on shoulders. KT 1989 Nr. 30. In some cases the instrumental case may be synonymous with these combinations, e.g.: Once the merry brothers sailed to their beloved in rafts. CvR₁ I 44. In describing a crossing situation (across a river, lake, or the like), the nouns keltas, plaustas ‘ferry, raft’ are also used in the instrumental case (with the preposition su ‘with’), e.g.: We used to cross the Neris by ferry near Žirmūnai. The village of Lankupiai has no ferry crossing; they cross the river by raft. Rg. 4.1.3. Prepositional ant constructions of similar meaning occur in combinations whose noun denotes a body part and whose verb expresses a change in an object’s location, e.g.: The day after tomorrow the thaw will set in, the roads will turn to slush, so perhaps I’ll carry the brushwood on my back? BaltPV I 44. The man carried the shot roe deer on his shoulders. VienR IV 92. I bring you a little piece of amber in my palm. SNėr. [The little birds] bring back all sorts of flower seeds from there on their wings. KrėvAP 52. Tauras lowered his head and charged, intending to lift her up with the horse onto his horns. VienR IV 61. The mother took the baby in her arms (lk). These constructions also have a locative nuance: they indicate the patient’s contact with the instrument; cf. carries the brushwood on his back ← carries the brushwood with it placed on his back. 156 4.2. Constructions with the preposition ant are farther removed from the spatial meaning when their noun denotes a body part and they occur with verbs meaning a change in the subject’s position or location. Such constructions are also considered to have an instrumental meaning. Some of them can be replaced by the instrumental case, e.g.: The girl leaned on her elbow (/with her elbow) and began to examine Viktor’s face. RimkKK 62. It was dark, but he slipped, leaned on his hand (/with his hand). BsP IV 33. I have legs, but I walk on my head (/with my head). Ms 12. The girl tiptoed on the very tips of her toes. RimkKK 63. She braced herself with her hands against her sides and turned on her heel. VencIGD 21. The horse fell to its knees... KrėvP 58. The gentleman fell to his knees before the shepherd boy, begging him not to tear him apart. ŠŽ 241. It seemed that the cow was calmly kneeling on its front legs to lie down. RinkKK 133. Cf.: People crawl out on tiptoe (/on the tips of their toes). SNėrR I 203. However, analogous constructions with stative verbs are not classified as having an instrumental meaning, e.g.: leaning on one’s arms, standing on one leg, kneeling, lying on one’s side. These express a contensive meaning. 5. Locative 5.1. Nouns denoting means of transport are occasionally used in the locative with verbs of motion, in addition to the usual instrumental4; in this case the locative has a syncretic spatial–instrumental meaning, e.g.: Several students travelled on the bus/by bus. About a hundred passengers flew on the plane/by plane. We are all travelling in the same cart (we are all in the same position). Trgn. A gentleman rides by along the road in a large carriage, harnessed to six horses. BsP II 205. They brought the fir trees in a truck. Locative constructions place greater emphasis on the subject’s (or object’s) location during motion, whereas instrumental constructions emphasize the motion itself. 5.2. The locative of nouns denoting containers has the same meaning in constructions with verbs of movement through space (usually vežti, nešti ‘transport, carry’), e.g.: They brought sand in a box. During the expedition, they transport water in barrels. He walks slowly, as if carrying water in a sieve. KrėvP (Skdt). They brought berries in a basket. Here, too, the locative is used in an atypical environment and therefore acquires an additional meaning (instrumental alongside spatial). Analogous real-life situations are also described with a construction using the preposition su, e.g.: You can’t bring water with a sieve. PPr 232. They used to carry water for the cows in a bucket. Ktk. He brings groats in a pot, warm. B. The hostess carried flour from the granary in a trough. SV 14. They brought water in a barrel. Concluding remarks 1. The typical means of expressing the instrument is the instrumental case (with the preposition su ‘with’ – less often). 4 The typical usage context of the locative is verbs of non-motion—of a state, a specific action, or the like (see ГЛЯ 463). 157 2. However, depending on the lexical meaning of individual verbs and on the nature of the referent performing the instrument’s function, other word forms are also used for the same purpose. 3. With certain verbs, the instrumental meaning is expressed by: a) constructions with the prepositions per and/or pro (sifts through a sieve, strained through a strainer, squeezed through gauze, combed the flax through fine-toothed hackles, drinks water through a straw, looks through a telescope); b) a construction with the preposition iš (fired from a rifle, shot an arrow from a bow, fires away with machine guns); c) a construction with the preposition į (wiped his shoes on the grass, rubbed his sleeve against the wall, scratched his hands on gooseberries); d) constructions with the preposition ant (rides on a horse, sails on a plank, brought it on his back, leaned on his elbows, knelt on his knees); e) the locative (travels in a carriage, brought in a truck, brought berries in a basket). 4. Some of the constructions or forms mentioned can be replaced by the instrumental, cf.: sifts through a sieve|with a sieve, combs the flax through hackles|with hackles, observes the sky through telescopes|with telescopes, shoots from machine guns|with machine guns, wipes his hands on a towel|with a towel, rides on a horse|on horseback, lifted the hedgehog on a pitchfork|with a pitchfork, travels in a carriage|by carriage. The possibility of replacing the aforementioned constructions with the typical form for expressing the instrument also shows that they have an instrumental meaning. 5. Atypical forms of expressing the instrument differ from the instrumental in having a more specific meaning—this is determined by their semantic connection with spatial meaning. ADDITIONAL ABBREVIATIONS BubnŽDŽ – Bubnys V. Alkana žemė. Po vasaros dangum. Nėsėtų rugių žydėjimas. V., 1977. LA – Lietuvos astronomija / Sudarytoja Z. Sviderskienė. V., 1984. DūnŽ – V. Vitkauskas. Šiaurės rytų dzūnininkų šnektų žodynas. V., 1976. KT – Komjaunimo tiesa (newspaper). NŪE – Namų ūkio enciklopedija. V., 1987. SV – Sužeistas vėjas: Lithuanian Folk Mythological Legends / Compiled by N. Vėlius. V., 1987. ŠŽ – Stebuklingas žodis: Lietuvių liaudies pasakos. K., 1985. ŠPG – B. Purvinienė. Šalti patiekalai ir gėrimai. V., 1966. Other abbreviations are as in the academic “Grammar of the Lithuanian Language.” LITERATŪRA Ambrazas V. Dėl sintaksinių ir semantinių terminų santykio // Sintaksės ir semantikos klausimai. Šiauliai, 1982. P. 6–7. Ambrazas V. Lietuvių kalbos sakinio sintaksinės ir semantinės struktūros vienetai // Lietuvių kalbos sintaksės tyrinėjimai. V., 1986. P. 4–44. Drukteinis A. Objekto sąvoka ir kai kurie požymiai // Kalbotyra. 1982. T. 33(1). P. 15–20. Jablonskis J. Rinktiniai raštai / Redagavo J. Palionis. V., 1957. T. 1. Kilius J. Dėl prielinksnių pro ir per // Mūsų kalba. 1973. Nr. 4. P. 27–31. Kilius J. Dėl vietos reikšmių sistemingumo // Mūsų kalba. 1973. Nr. 5. P. 35–40. Lietuvių kalbos gramatika. V., 1971. T. 2. Paulauskienė A., Tarvydaitė D. Gramatikos normos ir dabartinė vartosena. K., 1986. Pupkis A. Kalbos kultūros pagrindai. V., 1980. 158 Rasimavičius A. Dėl instrumentinio įnagininko vartojimo // Lietuvos TSR Mokslų Akademijos darbai. A serija. 1963. T. 1(14). P. 239–256. Sližienė N. Lietuvių kalbos veiksmažodžių valentingumas ir sintaksinė klasifikacija // Lietuvių kalbos sintaksės tyrinėjimai. V., 1986. P. 45–96. Valiulytė E. Iš galininko ir įnagininko sinonimikos (linguoti galvą / galva) // Kalbos kultūra. 1987. Sąs. 52. P. 31–41. Апресян Ю. Д. Лексическая семантика. М., 1974. ГЛЯ – Грамматика литовского языка. Вильнюс, 1985. Э. ВАЛЮЛИТЕ СПОСОБЫ ВЫРАЖЕНИЯ ИНСТРУМЕНТА В СОВРЕМЕННОМ ЛИТОВСКОМ ЯЗЫКЕ Резюме В литовском языке для выражения инструмента действия, кроме обычной формы — творительного падежа (с предлогом su „с“ — реже), употребляются и иные словоформы. В зависимости от лексической семантики определенных глаголов инструментальное значение имеют некоторые предложные конструкции, а именно: 1) per „через“ + вин. п.: gerti skystį pro|per šiaudelį „пить жидкость через соломку“, košti pieną per koštuvą „цедить молоко через цедилку“; pro|per „сквозь“ + вин. п. sjoti grūdus per sietą „просеивать зерно сквозь сито“, žiūrėti pro|per žiūronus „смотреть в (букв. сквозь) бинокль“; 2) iš „из“ + род. п.: šaudyti iš šautuvo „стрелять из ружья“, gerti iš butelio „пить из бутылки“; 3) į „в“ + вин. п. šluostyti rankas į prijuostę „вытирать руки о передник“, susiseisti pirštą į stiklą „поранить палец о стекло“, išbalinti rankovę į sieną „выпачкать рукав о белую стену“; 4) ant „на“ + род. п.: joti ant arklio „ехать верхом на коне“, plaukti ant lentos „плыть на доске“, nešti ant nugaros „нести на спине“, atsiremti ant rankų „облокотиться на руки“; 5) местный п.: važiuoti traukiniu „ехать в поезде“, atnešti pintinėje uogų „принести в корзинке ягод“. Некоторые из упомянутых конструкций чередуются с творительным падежом, напр.: sjoti grūdus per sietą | sietu, stebėti žvaigždes pro teleskopą | teleskopu, šaudyti iš šautuvo | šautuvu, nusišluostyti rankas į prijuostę | prijuoste, joti ant arklio | arkliu, atsiremti ant rankų | rankomis, važiuoti traukiniu | traukiniu (чаще). Нетипичные формы выражения инструмента отличаются от творительного падежа большей конкретностью своего значения, что обусловлено семантической их связью с конкретным — пространственным значением.