Tauta, visuomenė ir lietuvių kalbos vartojimas

"LIETUVIŲ KALBOTYROS KLAUSIMAI, XXXI.(1994) LANGUAGE NORMALIZATION QUESTIONS SIMAS KARALIŪNAS THE NATION, THE SOCIETY AND THE USE OF THE LITHUANIAN LANGUAGE 1. Lithuanian language and society * Language, like every phenomenon of reality, has characteristics that do not belong to it, that go beyond its boundaries. These features are the relationship between language and what is beyond language. There are two kinds of such relations: the relationship between the language and the society that uses it, and the relationship between two or more languages. There is a close and direct connection between language and society, which is expressed in language use, in other words, language functioning. We say that language is used by people, members of society. We can also say it in a different way: language functions in society. Thus, the relationship between language users, society and the language itself is expressed in its use or functioning. Society, through its daily use of language, exerts a certain influence on it. This is usually unconscious: people do not feel that they have any influence on the language. But the influence of society on language can also be conscious. For example, it can be expressed in efforts to plan the use of the language, take care of its culture, etc. Another obvious feature of the use, or functioning, of languages is their spread. For example, English has spread from the British Isles to several continents — North America, Australia, India. The spread of a language is completely independent of the language itself, of its structure. Its causes go beyond language. The spread of a language is determined by its users. According to the French linguist A. Martinet, the spread of a language "is a by-product of the military, political, religious, cultural, economic, or sharply demographic expansion of the nation whose means of communication it is. Latin, Arabic, Spanish, and English were hardly helped by their nature to spread widely. What in their structure could contribute to this, at least reflected those characteristics of the character and culture of the nation, which in one way or another determined the further course of events”.! As languages spread, they come into contact with each other and begin to influence each other. Thus, the contacts of languages and their interaction are caused by specific historical factors, namely: mixing and living in the same territory of ethnically and linguistically different peoples, their geographical neighborhood, migration, military occupation, colonization, economic, social-political and cultural relations of nations, etc. The use of Lithuanian language and its functioning in our days —as well as in previous periods of its development—is characterized by the conscious influence of Lithuanian society on it and its interaction with other languages. Its use in public life in our 1 Mapruzme A. Pacnpocrpanenne 3bIKA H CTpyKTYpHAS JMHrBHCTake it. M., 1972. T. 6. C. 81-82. 26 THKA //HoBoe B IHHIBHCdays was decisively influenced by the fact that Lithuanian was granted the status of a state language. On November 18, 1988, the Supreme Council of the Lithuanian SSR added a new article to the Constitution of the Republic, by which Lithuanian was legalized as the state language. This is the article: “The state language of the Lithuanian SSR is Lithuanian. The Lithuanian SSR ensures the use of the Lithuanian language in the activities of state and public bodies, in educational, cultural, scientific, production and other institutions, enterprises and organizations, and the state takes care of the comprehensive education and teaching of the Lithuanian language. Conditions are created for the development of other languages spoken in the Lithuanian SSR, for the study and use of the Russian language as a means of communication between the peoples of the USSR.”* The whole set of measures for the development of the Lithuanian language and its use in state and public life was provided for in two other documents — the Order of the Presidium of the Supreme Council of the Lithuanian SSR “On the Use of the State Language of the Lithuanian SSR” and the Decision of the Council of Ministers of the Lithuanian SSR “On Measures to Ensure the Use of the State Language of the Lithuanian SSR”. There is no doubt that granting the Lithuanian language the status of a state language and the set of measures provided for the implementation of the Law on the declaration of the Lithuanian language as a state language created conditions for the normal functioning of the Lithuanian language in public life, allowed for a substantial improvement in its teaching and culture, and helped raise the prestige of the Lithuanian language in the eyes of the public. Together, all this contributed to the further development of national culture and science, the revitalization of the nation’s self-consciousness and spiritual rebirth. Politically and culturally important is also the fact that the aforementioned law guarantees the right of other national communities living in Lithuania to use and develop their own languages. On the other hand, the declaration of Lithuanian as a state language also imposes many obligations and makes us responsible. This was best expressed by the famous Russian scholar V. Toporov: “Language statehood reflects the historical reality of language and cultural development, the level of national self-consciousness, the readiness to take responsibility for the solution of those historical, social, economic, cultural and other tasks that arise for a nation having statehood.” Language, as an integrating factor that accompanies society into a unified ethnos and as the main means of communication in society, is related to the solution of these tasks, since the solution of the above-mentioned tasks depends on the communication powers of language. Whether we, as subjects, as members of society, are capable of this will be revealed in the near future, and there is no doubt about the potential of our language. Here are again the words of V. Toporov: “But is the Lithuanian language itself ready to take on another function — to be the state language of Lithuania? Of course. In the difficult conditions of the last century, in the absence of statehood, the Lithuanian language, although not without losses, survived and even created a special highest cultural social language form — literary language, which became a powerful unifying force of national development, an effective and diverse instrument of culture, its spirit. Lietuvių liaudis ne tik apgynė ir išsaugojo savo kalba, bet išpuoselėjo ir praturtino ją iki tokio laipsnio, kad lietuvių kalbos pripažinimas valstybine šiandien jau nepareikalautų jokių * Lietuvos TSR valstybinė kalba (svarbiausi dokumentai). V., 1989. P. 11. 27 "scratches", "strains", the introduction of language surrogates. The Lithuanian language has indeed confirmed, even in almost extreme conditions, its remarkable ability to adequately feel and process the content of modern life in its most complex and subtle manifestations. Both the internal potential of the Lithuanian language and its specific achievements allow to consider it one of the active and “strong” elements of the mosaic of languages of the modern world and to attach many hopes to it. I will not be surprised if at the beginning of the next century artistic creation in Lithuanian will reach unprecedented heights”? The concept of a state language means that the language is used in the state-administrative system and, of course, in other spheres, such as education, culture, production, etc. The legal measures to legalize the use of the language in public life show that an extreme situation has arisen in the functioning of the language. A language is declared a state language either because for one reason or another it cannot function in public life, primarily in the state-administrative system, and therefore legal measures are needed to guarantee its use, or because the state-administrative unit is multi-ethnic and multilingual. Therefore, in order to facilitate the communication of society and the functioning of state-social structures, one of the languages used in society is elevated to the rank of official, state language. When a society is monolingual and its language is sufficiently functional, it is not necessary to declare it a state language or to take legal measures to guarantee its use. It is in the context of these considerations that the most significant event in the present life of our nation — the act of restoration of the independent Lithuanian state on March 11, 1990 — should be assessed. The restoration of the Lithuanian statehood and the Lithuanian language and its use — two fundamentally different phenomena — are directly related to each other. The existence of an independent state ipso facto gives the language the status of an official means of communication. Secondly, a characteristic feature of the national language is its literary, general standard form. The existence of a literary language, a common standard written language and a common standard spoken language indicates that a nation has reached the highest degree of social organization, has a real possibility of forming an independent national state and is equal to other peoples of the world in its universally valuable cultural creation. Thirdly, the independent state of Lithuania brought the Lithuanian language out of the extreme situation it had been thrown into during the years of stagnation and separated our language from the global unifying and eliminating processes that were characteristic of the linguistic life of the Soviet Union. 2. The role of language in society What role does the language play in the life of society, the nation? In his book “Seven hundred years of German—- Lithuanian relations” Vydūnas paints the following picture: “For a few days the young man visited his mother’s hometown near Minija. Aunt was working in the next room when someone came to her. The voice of a young girl was heard, which sounded uplifting, joyful, but slow. How to sound- * Toporov V. Not a gift, but a right! //A Study of the English Language, V., 1989. P. 29. 28 the rushing drops dropped words—full of love, joy, goodness and beauty. The bridegroom never thought that the native Lithuanian language was so pleasant and harmonious! You could perceive that it is the song of Man's heart, the voice of his soul. He was talking about very simple things. The bridegroom did not see her, and he wondered if she was as beautiful as he. The speech stopped, and he saw a lean [...] stuomenj creeping through the garden. This simple image has a profound meaning. Without seeing a person, we can describe his physical “4, condition (whether the speaker is a man or a woman, young or old) from the way he speaks and the language he uses. Based on the speech, we can perceive his state of mind: well he is in a bad mood, gloomy, tired cheerful, bright mood. Not enough of that. From the characteristics of speech —consonants, words used, sentence structure —we can ar tell more —what education the — ar interlocutors have, what they do, etc. The Lithuanian language on the lips of the young girl seemed to the author “pleasant and harmonious”, so he asked himself whether the girl was beautiful and herself. So language is very informative—it tells a lot about a person. And it does this not only with meaningful words, but also with its very sound. On the other hand, language depends on the person who uses it (as can be easily understood from Vydūno’s imagery); its meaning, content and beauty come from the spirit of the person. “When people speak,” Vydūnas continues, “the world of their spirit opens up, and the more vibrant, the more conscious it is, the more beautiful is its sounding.” He adds: “Spiritual life and language sprout from the same root. When a man speaks from an abundant and vibrant soul and knowing more, ir jo The sound of words is noble and beautiful”, ir as if philosophically reflecting on the image mentioned, Vydūnas ir sums up his thoughts: “But each language means somethiko ng that is not in another. The purpose of every language is to express humanity. And each language does this only in part—representing only a small fraction of humanity. When speech is silent, the harp string of humanity is cut off.”* Iš these lines see deep Vydūno love for his mother tongue, pride in it, philosophical o statements reveal Vydūn’s concept of language, that language represents the spirit of people, humanity, o and at the ir same time describes man; every language is unique, special; every language has something that is not in another, in ko other words, every language is national. — Why could such wonderful ir meaningful words about the language — first of all about the native Lithuanian — Vydūnas? Probably because he grew up, lived and worked in ir a language contact, bilingual (Lithuanian-German) — environment. . Where two more languages meet each other ar every day, similarities and differences come jų to light; a ir person begins to pay more attention to the native į language. Living alone in the language of our nation, we no longer notice ir it. The first contact su with a foreign language makes us feel its language, į ją When iš comparing the language used by others during daily communicir ation, we start to notice only the specificity ne of our language, but the fact that the first ir thing that distinguishes us from foreigners is our language, Vydūnas. * Sieben Hundert Years German-Lithuanian Relationships. Tilsit, 1932, P. 45. 5 Idem. ¢ Idem. 29 In daily communication with our compatriots, we do not notice that language is closely linked to nationality. The active and constant interaction of nationality and language immediately emerges as soon as we find ourselves in a foreign environment, even more so in a foreign language environment. After a long time among strangers, what a pleasant feeling it is to suddenly hear words in the native language! Thus, the feeling of love and pride for the mother tongue, which turns into a kind of patriotism, is primarily connected with the language- ’s ability to describe a person not only as a person, but also, according to Vydūnas, to express humanity, to reveal the spirit of a person and at the same time of a nation, to distinguish one’s own nation from others. This language ability is determined by the fact that each language has what is not in another language, in other words, determined by the national and cultural specificity of the language. | The ability of language to describe a person is also noted by linguists from other countries. For example, the American linguist and ethnologist E. Sapir writes: "The distinctiveness of the voice, the phonetic expression of speech, the speed and fluency of pronunciation, the length and structure of sentences, the nature and volume of the lexicon, its enrichment with scientific elements, the ability of words to respond to the needs of the social environment, and partly the orientation of speech to the interlocutor's linguistic skills, - all these are only a small part of the complex characteristics of a person"." The experience of humanity, accumulated and nurtured over many generations, in addition to the common elements that all people possess, also includes peculiar, specific elements that are characteristic of only one national culture. The realities, characteristics of the nation’s work, social life, culture and psychology and the concepts and images that reflect them are recorded in words, phrases, sentences. The national-cultural specificity of the language, the uniqueness of the language is clearly seen in the various idioms — they are extremely difficult to translate into another language, often impossible at all. Specific, special, national meaning of society and human life in language is mainly expressed by the specificity of names, semantic, partly phonetic changes, the nature of linguistic division of reality. For example, the sunflower is named after the fact that this plant drills its leaves and flower into the sun. Latvians call it sunflower — sunflower, and Russians perceive it as growing under the sun —nodcd/neunux. Polish słonecznik would be,saulétinis® (sloneczny "sunny"). The concept of “80” is perceived by us as a combination of eight tens, and by the French as 4 x 20 (guatre-vingt). Similarly, we divide “90” (nine tens), and the French — 4 x 20+ 10 (ninety). How differently languages divide reality can be seen from the following example. In English, the term "hand" is used to refer to the end of the hand from the wrist to the shoulder. And in Lithuanian language, although it has plastakq “the end of the hand from the wrist”, now the word hand means both “one of the two upper limbs of a person to the shoulder” and “the part of that limb to the wrist”. But earlier the parts of the hand in Lithuanian were distinguished similarly as in English. This is clearly seen from the commonly used pažastis "place under the arm at the chest", which indicates a word used to denote the upper part of the arm. This is confirmed by the dialectal Zdstas "part of the hand from the elbow to the shoulder". As opposed to the word hand at the beginning will have marked the end of the hand 7? Cenup B. S13s1x //3Berunues B. A. Hieropua s3bIKO3HaHHA XIX u XX BeKOB B O4ep=- KaX H H3BJIe4cHHSAX. M., 1960. T. 2. C. 192. c 30 from the elbow; this fits well with its origin —from the verb to collect (refika). So the hand is the organ of collection. Phonetics, grammar, syntax and vocabulary are also specific. They are different for each language and unique to it. A human thought, even the most international one, is expressed differently in different languages. Therefore, the way of expressing thoughts is also specific, national. The national-cultural specificity of the language forms the basis for the expression of the ethnic function of the language. 3. The factors that shape a nation and affect its existence are the common origin of the ethnic group, language, lifestyle, common destiny, culture and psychology. Culture does not create the content of the nation separately, but is a form of expression of nationality, merging the material elements of the nation into one whole and thus forming the national individuality. Culture creates a nation as an object, a real reality. On its subjective side, a nation is consciousness and will—a collective fused of conscious will. National consciousness distinguishes a nation from an ethnic group. “A nation is both an object and a subject, a fact and an idea, a reality and a task,” says J. Girnius®. The psychology of the nation includes the following features: national character, temperament, national feelings, moods; superstitions. The national character, in addition to the regularities of the interpsychic organization of the members of the ethnocultural community, is made up of cultural attributes or institutional structures, which in their totality and arrangement are so pronounced that they distinguish one society from another, although these phenomena may not be unique to that society. Peculiarities of psychology of members of ethnocultural community, regularities of interpsychic organization; as you can see, is only one of the elements of national character. ir iš It is now generally accepted that the members of each social-cultural community differ in a certain, distinctive, psychic commonality. Within an ethnosocial community, of course, there can be no question of the mental identity of all its members. nė People differ from each other in sex, temperament, features of constitutive nature and, of course, in characteristics that depend on genetic factors. It is not these traits and characteristics that form the national character. The character of ethno-social communities is apparently determined by culture rather than by people, peoples or races. A certain, peculiar, separate mental community of members of ethnosocial communities is determined by certain aspects of the culture of these communities. Members of the community are characterized by historically formed, learned common ir behaviour of mutual communication. Some systematic aspects of that behavior constitute the ir culture of society and ir determine certain regularities of the interpsychic organization of the members of the ethnosocial community, these regularities are created by culture?. The psychic organization of a nation is not its culture, but culture, through the behaviour of specific individuals, expresses the psychic specificity of the nation. Collectives of ethnosocial communities 8 Cit. from: Ideological currents in Lithuanian diaspora.. V., 1978. P. 293 * Bednarek S. National character in w the concepts i of contemporary humanities research. 1980. S. 16 tt. 31 Wroclaw, wines, cognitive structures in the subconscious are externally manifested in language and culture. The experience of the individual and the nation, as already mentioned, is recorded in language. Language experience and cultural values are passed on from generation to generation. Continuity of culture, inheritance would be impossible without language. This applies both to peoples of high culture and to forms of primitive culture. Much of the culture of a primitive people exists in the form of language. Proverbs and proverbs, healing incantations, prayers, proverbs and legends, songs, genealogical stories are more or less constant forms in which language expresses itself as the guardian of culture. Without language, even the present civilization with its schools and libraries, its vast stock of knowledge and diversity of opinions, its mass media and verbally fixed feelings is not possible. By capturing the experience of the individual and the nation and with it passing cultural values from generation to generation, language unites past, present and future generations into one living historical whole. Thus, the internal unity of the nation is based on its linguistic unity. Thus, the historically formed system of communication between individuals or between individuals and the environment can be considered as culture. Language is the expression of culture, so it is understood that the most prominent feature of national individuality and at the same time the most important factor for a social community to merge into a nation is language. In its national-- cultural specificity, language performs the function of national belonging, or ethnicity, which, firstly, is a factor of the formation and existence of the nation and, afitra, of national separation. Language, as a factor in the formation and existence of a nation, manifests itself in the linguistic identity of people who use a single linguistic system. First of all, the person who speaks a déka language feels a connection with the community, with the nation, identifies with it. The great researcher of our language, K. Būga, has beautifully expressed this: “All Lithuanians, despite the fact that they like to laugh at each other’s language, to insult each other with the names leišio, gudo, guogo, kapso, dartininko, ciekso and other names, feel themselves to be children of one nation. Every Lithuanian, who has to deal with his brothers who live in other countries, hears them speaking more or less the same language as his own. All Lithuanians, both the Upsilon and the Zeta, are one nation and one language!” Thus, the language brings together and unites representatives of different dialects and social groups, facilitates mutual communication and migration of people within the framework of the ethnolingual community. In this sense, language is an important factor in the formation and existence of a nation, through which a social community is merged into a nation and creates a national individuality. This identification-unifying function of the language is expressed in the commonality of the language, which provides for one, common language for all inhabitants of a particular nation. The common language guarantees the internal connection of the ethnic community and the concentration that creates the ethnic identity of its members. The importance of language as a factor in the formation and existence of a nation increases with the emergence and strengthening of national consciousness, which in turn strengthens the linguistic unity of the nation?! ?, 10 Būga K. Selected Writings, V., 1958. T. 1. P. 403. 11 Araes A. I'. ®yukuus s35Ika Kak STHHYECKOro Nnpu3HaKa //S3sik u o6mectso. M., 1968. C. 128; Druviete I. Language and ethnos. Riga, 1990. 3. ipp. t.t. 32 Another function of language is the function of national distinction. Throughout history, Lithuanians were separated jų from their — neighbours, Latvians, Russians, Belarusians ir and Polish — Germans, by the fact that they did not understand Lithuanian. The languages of the neighboring countries, which were incomprehensible to Lithuanians, prevented iš them from leaving the ethnographic territory, concentrating them, and thus, the function of language as national individuality has an ir internal external side. Internally it is expressed ji as an identification-unifying force, externally as a distinguishing feature. — The function of the national individuality of the language is closely su related to the function of the ethnic characteristic of the language, the su ja does not match. The ethnic or national function, as mentioned, is expressed by the national-cultural specificity of the language, performed by the commonality of the language, but by the language ir ją itself. ne The common language of a nation can expand or narrow over the years. There are many cases when the range of one language expands, while the — other shrinks. A nation is usually the product of the ar integration of several or even entire groups of neighboring tribes. For example, the Lithuanian nation was formed by iš the Lithuanian, Curonian, Ziemgalian, Seelian, ir Jotvingian Skalvian tribes. In the process of integration, the large, culturally strong, — unifying language of one tribe usually differs and, spreading — along with political cultural influence, su assimilates ir people of another origin. In the process of forming the Lithuanian nation such a role played Lituania propria ir its language. The languages of the integrated tribes become jų indigenous, their ranges si ir expand and eventually they disappear altogether. Thus, the commonality of the language is variable, jo the function is purely o sociological, the function of the ethnicity of the language is constant. That the common language of the nation ir speaks as a representative of ethnicity are different things, see ir iš tų cases, albeit quite rare, where the spoken language does not coincide with ir the — ethnicity indicator. For example, ir the Scottish, almost all of the Irish nation, use English, which is their native language, but they do not consider to themselves English, and for example, a Scottish is offended by being called English. Their ethnicity, their nationality, Scots ir Irish see in the Gaelic language, although ji ir dead. Thus, the function of the ethnic feature, the main characteristic of nationality is performed by the language — itself, created by the nation, su received with mother's milk, being the flesh and ir blood of the nation, expressing its spirit. Language is the most prominent difference between people according iš to ethnicity, of all the characteristics of the su concept of nation, it is most su closely related to ethnicity, even merged with it. The language community unites all the ir members of the community who use one language, determines ethnic identity, the language itself individualizes its ethnic o group, forms the national personality, creates emotional connections between all members of ir society. That the common language of a nation should su not be identified with nationality, ir iš that there are peoples who do not have one language, for example, the Swiss or the Bashkirs. On the other hand, there are languages that serve several nations, for example German Austrians, ir English, Americans, Canadian Australians. ir The language of the majority of the population is the national be language of the country, and the o majority of the population speaks the national language of the country. ir su 3. Issues of Lithuanian Linguistics, XXXI 33 4. The ir language of the nation As a nation is formed, the importance of language as an ethnic characteristic increases. This is related to su the specificity of the nation and its role. The ir difference between a nation and a nation is, ne apparently, only the degree of culture: a nation is a nation that has become a member of the world's nations family through its universally valuable cultural creation. In general, the ability to create a state, to ją develop and ir strengthen it, the ability to contribute to the į culture of all mankind is the most important characteristic of the separation of a nation or at least to the formation of the basis for separation. ir In the scientific literature, the term "nation" is used in two meanings. Western In the literature of European countries, especially Anglo-Saxon, the prevailing view is that the nation is — the whole of the citizens of a state, i.e., a nation that has reached a particularly high degree of cultural political organization, having a ir common language and culture, but united by state organization. ir Central ir Eastern In the literature of European countries prevails the opinion that a nation is a community — of people, formed by a common culture, higher than the popular culture (folklore), creating its literature art ir (symbolic culture), be this, linked to history traditioir ns common origin. Most often a nation is distinguished based on language, common territory, agricultural cover, national character (psychological blanket), separate culture, religion created by political institutions'*. A ir nation is the most stable form of human community, often lasting for thousands of a) years. produces — a lasting cultural heritage; creates a strong sense of identification with the community; b) ji belonging to a nation, which gives the individual a c) language, a native land, a place in history ir in the chain of generations, is the basis of the individual’s self-determination; creates a very strong sense of solidarity among the members of the community antagonism towards strangers. ir d) ir Because of these characteristics, the nation is the source of pa powerful social movements ir of extreme ideologies, One of the most important factors determining the specificity ir of the nation and its significance is the language, which becomes national. As mentioned, as a nation is formed, the role of language as an ethnic feature increases, the language becomes literary, standardized, standard for the — whole nation, which are already the characteristics of the national ir language. The emergence of a literary language o shows that the language has reached a “special highest cultural-social form”**, a national language of literary form is inconceivable. Alongside the written language, a standardized spoken language is being formed, which, with the spread of education, Be encompasses increasingly larger populations — people from all regions and social groups of the country. A standardized written (literary) and a standardized spoken language become the property of the su whole nation ─ common in the true sense of the word. A normalized, regular, beautiful common language provides a standard of correctness, language culture, which allows to evaluate the language variant used by oneself and others accordingly, in other words, to perceive and become aware of the existence of a norm. The language norm is part of everyday language usage. In a society divided by dialects ben12 |llenansckKni SI. DreMeKTrapHbie noHATHA CONnnojiornH. M., 1969. C. 176-179. 18 Toporov V. Not a gift, but a right! //Thoughts about mother tongue. V., 1989. P. 29. 34 contact occurs and is realized in the speech of bilingual and multilingual persons, but the results of this contact are recorded in the linguistic system, because historically the fact of speech always precedes the fact of language. Languages influence each other in any form of contact, including biglotism and diglossia. In society and culture, new realities and ideas are constantly emerging, and with them comes the need to have words to describe them. It may not be very difficult to create a new word in the soil of one’s language, but it is much more difficult for the new word to be accepted by the speaking society, to be established in it. It is much easier to borrow a ready-made word along with a new object or concept, even if it is foreign. With the objects obtained through exchange very often come the foreign Words that denote them. This applies in particular to so-called cultural words, i.e. words denoting cultural objects. These are nomadic words that go from language to language along with cultural objects and concepts. In this case, there may not be any direct language contact. There has never been any contact between Lithuanian and Arabic, for example, but we use their words perfectly — kava, cūkrus, etc. Contact between distant peoples and languages takes place through intermediate peoples and languages. The oldest cultural words (e.g. glass, silk, pepper, baptism, etc.) from the Germanic and other culture languages of the Mediterranean basin we received through Slavic mediation, which is obviously thanks to persons who knew and used Lithuanian and Slavic languages. ; Thus, although the inter-influence of languages (mainly manifested by borrowed words) is possible even without direct contact between languages, this fact does not undermine the most important statement of the contact theory of languages, that the conductors of the influence of languages on each other are bilingual people. The interaction between languages is significantly greater when they are in direct contact, for example, in the case of biglotism and diglossia. The greatest influence, covering even more organized areas of language structure, is in the conditions of bilingualism. The diglossic situation prevailed in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, where the Slavic language was the official language of the old Lithuanian acts, alongside Lithuanian, which was used for everyday communication. It was a purely written language, not spoken by anyone, and lacking many of the words of everyday use. Therefore, under the conditions of diglossia, a flood of Lithuanian words flooded into it to denote the specific realities of Lithuanian life, such as: diaklo, mezleva, doilida, dyrvan, degesy, apidemia, darZyna, nom, spominin, biciul, bitnik and many others. In the Old Slavic language of the Acts of the Principality of Lithuania, K. Jablonskis found 218 basic Lithuanian words, and with derivatives — about 32025. This shows that, on the one hand, the Slavic language was dead; used solely for writing purposes; secondly, the culture of the Lithuanian nation was high, equal to other ethnocultures that existed in the old Lithuanian state and had a considerable influence on them. ; The interaction of languages, apart from borrowing, is expressed by interference. The phenomenon of interference is characteristic of mixed, or subordinated, bilingualism. The term interference was coined by Prague linguists and is now widely accepted. The term is derived from other sciences, particularly exact sciences. The concept of interference ** Jablonskis K. Lithuanian words in the ancient Lithuanian written language. K., 1941. 41 in physics and psychology means the interaction of two processes, movements, two forms of energy. The term is also used in linguistics to describe the interaction between two languages. In physics and psychology, as well as in linguistics, interference has a dual meaning: it is understood as both the process of mutual influence and the result of that process. Interference—the process may be the act of speech, speaking, language production, and interference—the result manifests itself in the text, spoken or written, i.e. in the language production itself, in the language. Having called language learning Aufbau — “building”, its degradation in aphasia — Abbau — “demolition”, bilingual interference could be called Umbau — “rebuilding”**. Are deviations from the language norms that appear in bilingual speech due to the knowledge of more than one language considered as a phenomenon of interference? ". jų Unlike borrowed words, interference affects more structurally organized parts of the language – phonology, morphology, individual areas of the vocabulary (relative terms, colours, weather names systems, etc.). ir In such cases, it is not enough to talk about borrowing or simply contributing to the system. After all, the enrichment or impoverishment of the linguistic system is essentially a reorganization of the old system of oppositions. And this is already a phenomenon of language as a system. ! For the convenience of teaching, it is appropriate to distinguish between speech interference (peus, speech) and language system interference, or shorter — language — interference. Interference in speech, as it is figuratively expressed U. Weinreich® is like sand carried by the current. and interference in speech is like sand on the bottom of a lake. In conversation, it appears regularly in bilingual sentences as a result of the second language skills. The languages in oral contact jo with a bilingual suffer unequally from interaction, interference, and mixing—the one that suffers the most. Which one — is determined by the law formulated in the last century (1897) by the German linguist E. Windisch: the most affected, mixed is not the second, newly learned language, but the mother tongue??. Why this is the case depends on various reasons — psychological, communication, social, etc. To the psychological attitude of the language user, when speaking another, foreign language, not to insert into it words and forms of his native language, and thus to speak as correctly as possible, contributes the need not to disturb communication: inserted words, forms and phrases my interlocutor does not understand simply because he does not know my language. The second, learned language often performs more social functions, in other words, is more functional than the native language of the users of the language, and often has more prestige, or at least the users perceive it as such. When we talk about the prestige of a language, we should not forget that it is not measured in square kilometres and millions of speakers. The prestige of the language reflects the high level of culture and spiritual powers of the nation, the morality of behaviour, high tolerance towards other people and cultures, respect for them. ? ** Haugen E. The Ecology of Language. Stanford, Ca., 1972. P. 304. #7 Weinreich U. Languages in Contact. P. 1. 28 Idem. P. 11. * Windisch E. Theory of Mixed Languages and Lehnwörter //Reports iiber the negotiations of the sdchsische Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig (philological-historical Class). Leipzig, 1897. Bd. 49. S. 101 and so on. 42 The native language of a bilingual affects ir the second language, of course, but to a much lesser — extent than the second native language. This is primarily because the main mass of second-language speakers are monolingual and do not tolerate ir any deviations from their language norms. When leaving the second iš language is affected, some researchers (for example, V. Rosenzweig*?) tend to distinguish two-way interference — direct indirect. ir When using a second language, a person relies primarily on the rules of the native language. This is direct interference. Indirect interference occurs when speech is removed from those rules of the second iš language that have no analogues in the native language. It should be said that such a double interference is characteristic only of ne bilingualism, but biglotism, ir say, in language learning at school. The difference ir between direct and indirect interference in terms of normative grammar can be characterized by the fact that in the first case errors occur, in the second deviations from the norms of stylistics. — For example, a statement may be correctly pronounced morphologically, but still incorrect: because it is stylistically poor, it has no synonyms, because of the several possible ways of expression, the one that has an equivalent in the native language is chosen. The consequences iš of mass mixed, or subordinated, bilingualism are internal and external. A bilingual person who uses two languages — ir (less often several) languages, jų the difference is not felt in the long ir ši run, the circumstance first directly affects the mother tongue. The second, the rules of pronunciation, word management, sentence ir construction of the learned language, the bilingual person begins to apply instinctively when speaking in his native language. As a consequence, on the one hand, the knowledge of the mother tongue, the ability to formulate and express thoughts, to use correctly, in other ja words, the ir competence of the mother tongue, is ją weakened. Secondly, deviations from the norms of the mother tongue become commonplace, acquired, and inherited, when they occur frequently in bilingual speech. jų ma jų not be noticed. Iš bilingual speech interference facts gradually enter the speech of monolingual į native speakers, monolingual societies are accepted. In this way, interferential, new phenomena are established in the language. The language becomes irregular, mixed, distorted, its culture declines. Furthermore, the weakening of the competence of the mother tongue is accompanied by the weakening of national self-consciousness. A person finds himself – especially in a mixed-ethnic family (each sixth family in the former Soviet Union is mixed) – between two languages, two cultures and two ethnicities. And it takes only a small push to the side for such a person to begin to identify himself with another, dominant culture ethnic group. People and language are degrading. The weakening of mother tongue competence and the decline of language culture in society are the internal consequences of bilingualism. One external consequence of bilingualism is that the second language – often the dominant one – takes the place of the mother tongue in communication. The sphere of use of the mother tongue is shrinking, diminishing, and the language is being pushed out of public life — at first from some areas, and later completely. This also affects the ir language itself—new means of expression are no longer found, terminology is no longer created, and the language is impoverished. To speak 40 Posenuseiir B5B.O. S3siK0B5Ie koHTakThl. Jlenunrpan, 1972. C. 25-26. 43 pure-blooded, capable and rich, it must have normal conditions of functioning, since one of the main characteristics of language is its constant regeneration in the process of communication. If this is not the case, the language degrades. The shrinking, decreasing spheres of language use, the weakening of the competence of the mother tongue and the fading of national consciousness that accompanies it are the primary conditions for language change. That one language can displace another, take its place, has been observed for a long time. The German linguist H. Pauli, one of the most famous linguist theorists, wrote at the beginning of our century: “Where two peoples mix and join, bilingualism is a common phenomenon, and with it the interaction of languages begins. If, moreover, one nation surpasses another in any respect—- in population, in political or economic power, or in spirituality—its language becomes more and more widely used at the expense of the other; bilingualism is eventually replaced by the use of one language. Depending on the resistance shown by the defeated language, this process takes place faster or slower, and the traces left in the defeated language may be more or less pronounced.”31, In discussing the difference between direct and indirect interference, the influence of the mother tongue pushed out of use on the second language has already been discussed. In linguistics, the winning footprint left by a dying language in the language itself has a name — it is the substrate. Second; the new language pushes the native language out of use not immediately, but gradually. This process must not interfere with public communication. The new language takes the place of the old language primarily in individual spheres of use, such as administration, the army or school. The mother tongue is still used in the family and in informal communication. Such occupation of some spheres of use is also considered by researchers as a change of one language to another and is called jj partial®. The gradual transition of society to another language in families is reflected in the fact that grandparents speak one language and the younger generation, usually grandchildren, use another language. Thus, the native language group coincides with the age group, and this is the synchronous manifestation of one language change in another. The middle generation — parents — are usually bilingual or polylingual; they speak two or more languages simultaneously at homeš*. It is not necessary to assume that the second, new language, as a system of means of expression and a means of communication, is superior and that it therefore overcomes the other language. There are no prophetic or backward languages, large or small—all languages are equal in terms of communication, each language serving its community, its nation, of which it is the native language. “A language overcomes its rivals not because of any of its inner characteristics, but because its users are more militant, more fanatical, more cultured, more energetic,” the French linguist A. Martinet- ** remarks. *1 Paul H. Principles of Language History. 7, Aufl. Tiibingen, 1966. 391 (the first edition of 1880 did not have the section "Sprachmischung" yet). #2 Weinreich U. Op. cit. P. 107. 3 Plačiau —Karaliūnas S. Bilingual situations and their social dynamics //Lithuanian language and bilingualism: issues of Lithuanian linguistics. V., 1988. T. 28. P. 8-18. ** Mapruzne A. Pacūpocrpanenue s3bika M CTpyKTypHas JiMHTBHCTHKA, C. 82. 44 7. Ethnic-demographic processes. The nature of language ir jo use in our day Bilingualism is therefore a disaster for the nation, a heavy, unnecessary burden on its shoulders, impoverishing and deteriorating its ją culture**. Bilingualism, as we have said, arises from the iš fact that the dominant nation imposes its language and ir culture on the subjugated nation through political and economic pressure. ir A nation speaks one language ir su perfectly, two languages are unnecessary. Such is the nations of the world — su one another- 's excepti- — on everyday lifestyle. When the society is overwhelmed by mass bilingualism, when the main nationality population is only one third du (In Estonia, Estonians are 61,5 %, Russian — 30,3 94) ar just half (Latvia 1989 m. according to the census Latvians are 52 9%, Russian 34,0 94) of the total population of the republic, when mixed families are constantly increasing, where the sense of national belonging of children is faded, the nation is on the brink of changing its language. — We cannot allow this existence-threatening situation to continue. ir The adoption of laws on the nationalization of their own villages is desperate The efforts of the parliaments of the Baltic States to preserve their ir language and culture, to preserve national individuality, which, as mentioned, cannot be be lost, in other words, the efforts to defend the existence of the nation. It's ne self-isolation, it's self-affirmation, Russian language It was used in Lithuania and is still used in — iš some countries ir — ne only Lithuanians to communicate with people of su other nations, to correspond with central institutions and su organizations, as well as with other republics. ir su Russian language alongside Lithuanian was used to serve many Lithuanian agricultural, social, public and political cultural activities. ir Iš some Lithuanian language had already been displaced — by the Russian language. This applies, for example, to the system of transport communications, state-administrative bodies, clerical technical ir documentation, official correspondence, etc. ir ir Due to the increased functional load of the Russian language, ir the aggression of its users (for example, į a government In su Lithuania, a citizen who came for business was told "Speak po Russian" — “Speak Russian!”), as well as due to the spread of mixed, or subordinated, bilingualism, the interaction of Lithuanian-Russian languages intensified, the ir use of Lithuanian ir language decreased, the negative influence of Russian language on Lithuanian language increased, because the phenomena of interference that arose in the lips of bilinguals pushed only the oral, but not the written language. ne į ir į written Lithuanian language. In such an important field of culture as science, Lithuanian language functioned only partially. Works of iš natural sciences were — published in ir articles, monographs were written in Russian. ir The scientific style of Lithuanian language is no longer developed, and scientific terminology is no longer created. Because of to the Lithuanian language, the culture o declined, and at the ir same time the culture of the whole society, especially the youth, declined. Concern has already been raised about ne both Lithuanian language and cultural affairs 3% More about negative social, psychological, etc. ir so-called national—rusy bilingual mo influence Zr. XuHr M. It's a long story: Biri Ge3 pO3OBBIX OYKOB || Panyra. Tannau, the situation of the 1987. Ne 6. C. 72-78; Ne 7. C. 46-51. 45 Lithuanian ar language in society in schools, which, of course, is — also important, as much as the fact that the competence of many individuals * — in the mother tongue, the ability to use the Lithuanian language, to express their thoughts®®, has been violated. The solution to the catastrophic situation is to go through disastrous bilingualism, development strengthening, but the ja preservation of the mother tongue, the iš care of the society ne į jo ir ja ir State protection by means provided for by law. All this does not deny the Russian language, its great cultural communicational significance. Not at all. It has ir been noted that since the adoption of the law on the declaration of po Lithuanian as the state language, Lithuanians prefer to speak Russian more often. Thus, the inter-ethnic darkness subsides, the communication ir between the two ethnic communities improves. pa Therefore, the task is to develop ne bilingualism, but to develop good Russian language skills, to take care of Culture of the Russian language in Lithuania. A good command of Russian language, a nice pronunciation high ir Russian language culture for Lithuanians is necessary both to communicate Russian su other ir People of Russian nations, so get to know the su rich culture of the Russian people. For example, a much greater aesthetic pleasure to feel Dostoevsky ar Pasternak reading in the original language. Only the teaching of the Russian language should not be forced, a person should have — the right to decide for himself which foreign language to choose to learn. ir Different is the Russian schools, whose In Lithuania, no one is going to close, Russian is only instructione nal, but teaching. ir Ir in general how much ir Russian language to learn, how many Russian ir schools to maintain, how much Russian language ir to use in public life, There are the same It is a matter of the Lithuanian Russian community, no į one has the right to interfere in its cultural ir affairs. On the other hand, if Russians people of other nationalities want to live ir work ir In Lithuania, want to participate in Lithuanian ir social and economic be life, the minimum knowledge of Lithuanian language is difficult for them to understand. j It should be said that a considerable part of Russian people of other ir nationalities, permanently living in Lithuania, can use the Lithuanian language, and ir the proportion of ir those who can use it, in general, is ir gradually ta increasing. ir This is clearly evident when comparing the results of the last census with those of previous censuses. iš ir jų su 1989 m. during the union census spoke fluently in Lithuanian %. . 33,4 Russian (1979 m. voted in 35,2 %), % 15,5 Polish (1979 m. — 11,1 %, % 17,0 Belarusian (1979 m. — 12,7 %), % 16,8 Ukrainian (1979 m. — 15,2 %), % 38,0 Hebrew (1979 m. — 31,1 %, % 14,2 Tatars (1979 m. — 13,5 %.), %. 43,7 Latvian (1979 m. — 48,3 %, % 45,2 Gypsy (1979 m. — 41,8 %, % 35,7 German (1979 m. — 23,2 %), % 31,8 Estonian (1979 m. — 22,2 %) ir 50,9 % Karaite (1979 m. — 31,8 % )*". Ir that's understandable. The needs ir of everyday communication at work encourage working people of other ir nationalities living permanently in Lithuania to learn Lithuanian. It is a spontaneous process arising from iš the work ir communication needs. To make noise because, hear, Russians In Lithuania, they are forced to learn Lithuanian, they are persecuted, 36 See. "Lietuvos S. valstybė, tauta kalba" (in Lithuaniair n). Plg. Karaliūnas S. Bilingualism in ir Lithuanian || Evening News. 1988. July 21. 37 1989 results of the 2002 national census // That's right. 1990, March 10. 46 Russian language is discriminated against, there is no basis. by a resolution of the Government of the Republic of Lithuania within the specified time (about 1995 m.) only foreigners working in supervised jobs are required to learn Lithuanian. The fact that a significant proportion of people of other nationalities use Lithuanian shows that the Lithuanian language In Lithuania, there is a means of ir communication and communication of multi-ethnic multilingual ji people, which plays the role of regional language. This is a separate function of the Lithuanian language next to its state language, the ethnic function of mutual communication among members of the ir Lithuanian nation. The use of Lithuanian as a means of regional communication presupposes that people of dą other nationalities use their native language here, and Lithuanian here. Since there are situations where the native Lithuanian language of people of other ir nationalities is used interchangeably, we can talk about, say, Russian Lithuanian, Polish Lithuanian, Belarusian—Lithuanian bilingualism, in individual cases perhaps about polylingualism, for example, ir Jewish—Russian Lithuanian*?, Typical bilinguals are Russians, Old Lithuanians, and other Lithuanians. Lithuanians®- ?, Considering the fundamentally different iš ways of using the two languages (diglosia, biglotism, bilingualism), it is necessary to ir į alternate use of Lithuanian and Russian languages. It is clear that there are also elements of diglossia biglotism, pure ir bilingualism. ne When 1989 m. at the time of the 37,4 census The fact that only 10% of Lithuanians wrote their speech fluently in Russian does not in any way indicate that such a percentage of Lithuanians are bilingual in the true sense of the word. Ta occasion interesting to note that 1979 m. Lithuanians fluent in Russian accounted for per cent. 52,2 Such a quite significant decline in the bą number of Russians fluent in a relatively short period of time (ten years), apparently, explained by the fact that the residents noticed the manipulation of statistical data for not su very clean purposes, began to look more critically at their Russian ir language proficiency. į Comparison of census results and ir socio-linguistic data allows to confuse the trends of ethnic-demographic processes of language use in Lithuania in the recent period. Social Linguistics Group of the Institute of Lithuanian Language and Literature ir 1987 m. under a certain questionnaire intervie2071 wed a iš person of various Social groups in Lithuania. Iš These data show that the national linguistic relations in ir Lithuania are relatively stable, there is no greater shift in any one direction, į which could cause concern. In the period between 1979 m. ir 1989 m. population censuses — so over ten years a little bit changed tų National composition of the population of Lithuania. 212 Lithuanians increased by jų thousands of people, but the number of Lithuanians among the population as a whole decreased somewhat. This is related to su interrepublican migration ir of other Natural increase of people of nationalities living in Lithuania. The population of Russian ethnicity 41 increased by a thousand, Polish — 11 thousands, Belarusian — 5,6 thousands. ** Karaliūnas S., Vidugiris A. Types of bilingualism Lietuvos On the TSR question || Our name culture. V., Sas. 1970. 19; Bunyrupuc A., Kapanionac C. K Bonpocy 0 THmax ABYS3bIYms B Jiutosckoit CCP // I'm sorry, I'm sorry. ABYS3BIYHA H MHOTOS35MNHS, M., 1972. C. 156-160. *More — Karaliūnas S. Characteristics of the language-social situation of the Republic // Language contacts Lietuvos TSR: Lithuanian Linguistics. V., 1984. T. 23. P. 22—24. 47 The main ethnic group of — the — population are Lithuanians 2 924 251, or % of 79,6 total The Lithuanian (1979 m. jų population 80 was %. ). The importance of this fact can be seen by su comparing the population of the main nationality of neighboring states. In Latvia, Latvians make up 52% of the total Latvian population (in 1979 — 53.7%), Estonians — 10%. je 61,5 (1979 m. — 64,7 %), in Belarus Belarusians — 77,9 % (1979: 79.4 per cent)** As you can see, the population of the main nationality is slowly decreasing. 1989 m. according to the federal census, now Lives in Lithuania: rusy — 344 455, or % 9,4 (1979 m. was %, 8,9 1970 m. — 8,6 %, m. — 8,5 1959 %) Polish — 257 994, or 7.0% (1979 — 7.3%, 1970 — 7.0%, 7,7 1959 m. — 8,5 100 per cent) — 63 169, Belarusian 1,7 or % (1979 m. — 1.7%, 1970 — 1.5%, 1959 — 1.1%) Ukrainians — 44 789, or 1.2% (1979 — 1.0%, 1970 — 0.8%, 1959 — 0.7%). The data collected by sociolinguistic questionnaires differ somewhat. According to them, in 1987 Lithuanians made up 10%. 82,29 of total Lithuanian population, Russians — 9,14 % ir Poles — 6,24 (question no. 6 of the questionnaire “Language Use in Lithuania”). Data from sociolinguistic questionnaires also reveal the relationship between nationality and mother tongue. It is well known that mother ir tongue and nationality do not always coincide, since the mother tongue can also be considered to be the language of another nationality. During the survey, 82.25% of respondents indicated that their mother tongue was Lithuanian (as mentioned, Lithuanian is now 79.6%), 11.08% of respondents — Russian (9.4% of them live in Lithuania), 5.89% of respondents — Polish (now 7.0%) and 0.78% of respondents — some other language (question 124 of the questionnaire “Language Use in Lithuania”). The difference in the nationality of the mother tongue, it seems, occurs primarily in ethnically mixed families. In the Soviet Union, every sixth family was mixed ir ir jų steadily increased. For example, from 1970 m. league 1978 m. the number of mixed families in Lithuania increased by 3%. The children born in them account for 13.9% of all newborns*'. It has been observed that the choice of language and thus of nationality in mixed families depends primarily on the mother tongue — the mother tongue of the children. It also determines nationality. The choice of language also depends on the environment: the language used for family communication is chosen by the people around, at school, etc.®2, The process of determining mother tongue and nationality in mixed families is ta actually much more complex and difficult to predict. In 1987, a survey of the population based on a sociolinguistic questionnaire showed that 7.0% of the 2071 persons in the population were mixed families. In answering the questionnaire question “What is the nationality of your spouse and your children?”, 3.5% of respondents said that they were Lithuanians and indicated that their nationality was —0 Results of the 1989 Union Census of the Population // Truth. 1990. March 10. 41 Gaučas P. Current ethnic processes in Lithuania //Science and Life. 1981. No. 3. P. 27—28; 12 Tpudonorac SI. S3bIKOBLIE NMPOLECCHI B ITHHYECKM CMEDIAHHbIX cembsx //Language Relations and Interactions: Issues of Lithuanian Linguistics. V., 1989. P. 149-152. 48 «the spouses are Russians, Poles, people of other ar nationalities. Jų 95,8 % mother tongue is Lithuanian — 34,7 % male ir 59,7 % women (only po 1,4 % indicated that the mother tongue is Russian or Polish). 75 % jų children — 40,3 % girls ir 31,9 % boys are — Lithuanians. But the 6,9 %. children are of Russian nationality, po 1,4 % Polish of ar other nationalities. Iš of those where the spouses are Russians, Polish people of ar other nationality, % 2,6 respondents said they were Russians. Jų 92,5 % — 52,8 % women ir 39,6 % men's — native language is Russian, only 1,9 — Lithuanian (residual 5,7 % mother tongue not indicated). Although these respondents ir consider themselves Russians, mother tongue — Russian, but only per cent. 30,2 jų of children are (24,5 Russians %. boys ir 5,7 % girls), % 3,8 — other nationality. The 43,4 remaining % jų of children are (34,0 Lithuanians %. girls ir 9,4 % boys). As can be seen, the process of ethnic identification in mixed families is ir quite complicated. . Determination of ir mother tongue and nationality among The number of Lithuanians living abroad has remained — relatively constant over the past ten years. Majority (96,1 %) People of Lithuania 1989 m. in the census, as their mother tongue indicated the language of their nationality. For example, the native ko language of the nationali99,6 ty of 1%. Lithuanian (1979 m. held %.), 99,7 %. 95,6 Russian (1979 m. — 97,7 %, % 85,0 Polish (1979 m. — 88,3 %, % 68,6 Latvian (1979 m. — 77,7 %, % 72,7 Karaim (1979 m. — 73,3 % )®. 1979 m. according to the Union Census, % 96,9 Only 1% of the Lithuanian population considered their national language ir as their 3,1 mother tongue. — other Soviets Languages of the Union**?, * k ok In summary, it can be said that a language is declared a state language either because it does not have the normal ji conditions for functioning in public life, that legal measures are needed to ir guarantee its use, or because the employees of the state administration are multi-ethnic and multilingual. ir Therefore, in order to facilitate the functioning of the state-social structures, one of ir the languages used in society is elevated to the status of official, state language. į The existence of an independent nation-state ipso facto gives the language the status of an official means of communication. The collective, subconscious cognitive structures of ethnosocial communities are externally expressed in language in culture. ir Be Language is characterized by the ability to express the spirit of the nation, mental specificity. Thus, national-cultural language specificity forms the basis of the function of ethnic language. Because of its identification-unifying functions of national separation, language is an ir important factor in the formation of a nation. ir As a nation forms, the importance of language as an ethnic feature increases; language becomes national, Literary general-standard written spoken results of the union census. ir — ir 4% 1989 m. P. 57— 358, *4 Lietuvos Residents of the TSR. V., 1980. P. 16. 4. The issues of Lithuanian linguistics, 49 — the existence of the XXXI language show that the nation has reached the highest degree of social organization, has a real possibility of forming a national state and is equal to other ir nations of the world in its universally valuable cultural creation. The main forms of language contact are biglotism, diglossia and bilingualism. ir Iš Of the two main forms of bilingualism, pure, or — coordinating, mixed, or subordinating, ir the latter has the greatest influence on the development of — language functioning, especially if mixed ir bilingualism is massive. Bilingual people are the conductors of the influence of one language on another. Windisch- 's law states that two iš In the conditions of bilingualism of (less often several) contact languages, the most affected, mixed becomes the mother tongue. 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