Ištiktukų ir būdinių vieta žodžių klasių sistemoje

LITHUANIAN KALBOTYROS QUESTIONS XXXIII (1995) ) GRAMMATICS IR LEXICOLOGY Adele VALECKIENĖ EXCEPTIONS IR TYPES PLACE OF WORDS IN THE CLASS SYSTEM 1.1. For a long time in Lithuanian grammar the particle and the singular were not distinguished as separate classes of words. Particles, previously discussed with adverbs, as a separate class of words were first presented in the third volume of "Lietuviy kalbos gramatikos" (aut. V.Labutis, LKG 1971: 543—576). This new class of words was reasonably distinguished and described in detail by B. Labutis in his doctoral dissertation "The particles of contemporary Lithuanian language" (1965). The term was invented by J. Jablonski. However, a separate class of words, J. Jablonski did not distinguish between the singulars. They are discussed at the emoticons (Jablonskis 1918; 1922). In J. Jablonski's 1901 Grammar, outliers are called sound words (Jablonski 1957: 158). In the first Lithuanian grammars, words of this kind were also usually mentioned next to emoticons (Schleicher 1856: 338; Miežinis 1886: 51). A separate class of words was distinguished in J.Žiugžda's school grammar (1961: 221). This grammar is a reworking of Jablonski's grammar and apparently was carelessly based on Jablonski's separate term for outliers. For the first time, it was described extensively in the third volume of "Lithuanian grammar" (author I.Jašinskaitė, LKG 1971: 734—746). It is also used as a separate class of words here. In addition, I. Jašinskaitė has published a separate booklet on outliers, where she discusses the formal, semantic and syntactic characteristics of outliers, emphasizing that this class of words is a specificity of the Lithuanian language and that "outliers are distinguished as a separate part of the language only in the Lithuanian language among all Indo-European languages" (see Jašinskaitė 1975: 12). Later Lithuanian grammars, which are based on the third edition of "Lietuvių kalbos gramatika- ", also present the singular as a separate class of words (see Jakaitienė, Laigonaitė, Paulauskienė 1976: 247—251; [JIS 1985: 73—76, 406—414]). 1.2. words that represent or imitate the sounds and images of actions, e.g.: būbt, dst, trašt. They usually go before the verbs and give the speech vividness, visuality. In particular, the term is often used in the context of the human language. There is no doubt that outliers form a specific group of Lithuanian words due to their figurative meaning, but is it therefore distinguishable as a separate class of words in grammar? (part of the speech), it is very doubtful. Classes of words (parts of speech) in grammar are usually distinguished based on three criteria: syntactic, morphological and semantic. ir A lot has been written that the 43 grammatical classification of word classes is not unified logical: some word classes are ir distinguished according to one criterion, others according to another o — (Fries 1951 : 65—69; Lyons 1968 : 317 t.t. ; Cre6xur-KamMencrutt 1954 : 147—1571; Kysxenos 1961 : 56). However, the be modern grammar of various ir languages does not avoid the classes of words, because such groups of words exist in the language and ir are characterized by peculiar characteristics of the , selection of various morphological forms and the realization of the semantic function of word connection. Recently, the aim is to support the allocation of word classes with more uniform criteria (see section 4.4). more Valeckienė 1984 : 188 2.2. In Lithuanian there is a clear boundary between the classes of variable and fixed words. Variable words have certain morphological categories and various forms for their realization. Relative forms of the same words form separate subsystems of morphological categories. (In the English language, the term is used to refer to a variety of different types of grades.) Invariant words have no morphological categories and therefore function in a language only in one form (not counting variants). The classes of invariant words (conjunction, preposition, particle, emoticon) include the participle. Invariant words do not form part of a sentence. Therefore, they approach the status of morphemes in this respect and are not considered by some authors as separate classes of words (Myxun 1968: 176; CaBuenxo 1968: 187) or, unlike the real classes of words (noun, verb, adverb, adverb), are described as certain functional groups of words (Fries 1951: 72—109). Often, classes of invariant words are called independent, incomplete, servile, in opposition to independent, complete meanings, and at the same time supposing their seemingly lesser importance and role in the language. In fact, the classes of invariant words, due to their special differential function in the sentence, are no less important than the so-called classes of independent (full-meaning) words. Without a prefix, often and without a conjunction, it is completely impossible to translate in speech. Particles and emoticons also play an important role in sentences. 2.3 The criterion for distinguishing the classes of invariant words is their specific, differential function in the sentence, i.e., in what way and without being sentence constituent elements, words of this type help to perform the communicative role of the sentence. Conjunctions connect words, groups of words and elements of sentences and represent their relationships (simultaneity, opposition, exclusion, condition, etc.). The preposition one does not form part of the sentence, but joins the vowels and forms prepositional constructions with them, which are part of the sentence and usually have circumstantial meanings (in these constructions the preposition plays the main —organizing role and determines the form of the vowel). Particles also do not form part of the sentence, but modify, correct words and emphasize their meanings. According to the differential function performed in the sentence, having a communicative meaning, the classes of invariable words do not differ fundamentally from the classes of variable (full-meaning) words; invariable words also perform a differential function in the sentence, but of a different nature. In a word, the syntactic criterion includes all the usual classes of words. 44 ( 2.4. In Lithuanian grammar, the singular is distinguished according to semantic or more precisely lexical — criteria. It is defined as a class of words that depict and imitate sound images of action!. ar Be doubt, such a criterion is not sufficient to distinguish a new class of words. The search for to formal, "morphological" measures that would strengthen the distinction of the singular in a separate class of words (see section 4.4). Jašinskaitė, LKG 1971 : 734; Oginskienė T'JISI 1985 : 406). As such means are usually indicated the final formants characteristic of the singulars: a)-' (most commonly): kdpt, krėst, krust, šūst, šliūkšt; b) -s, -š: back, up, up, up; c) -i, -y; -u, -ū: brazki, brazdy,; sludge, sludge; d) -(i)ai: klebetdi, lapatdi, makaldi. Many istiktuky have the prefix pa-, especially when used with the same prefix, e.g. pabarkšt, su patdukst; blinkt pablinkt, be strik pastrik, šmakšt pasmakst. Such formants are clearly analogous, having arisen by doing more likeby a certain example. The imitation meaning of the kų out-of-orders is that pamaas which here presupposes an analogous work. These formants are in no way morphological features of the stick: they are not related to each other, do not form a system, do not mean any morphological r categories. They have no ir practical meaning, neither are they a means of action. Adding a new format will result in the same value. In many cases, the phrases are not su intended to be used in the ir be ų, ir jų same sense as the verbs, e.g., "I'm sorry, I'm sorry". ir ir | What else, when the differences between the long and short vowels of the Lithuanian ir language, the quality of the vowels, the phonetic characteristics of certain consonants are used in making the outliers, e.g., outliers with su short vowels sometimes denote sounds of short, non-intense action, outliers with o long vowels su sounds of long, intense — action (gripping) ir outliers with su upper-tone vowels of the front — row weaker sounds, with lower-tone o su vowels of the back row lower — sounds (your ir day). Imitation origins are also outlandish certain su Consonants with hphonetic characteristics, e.g. cvinkt, janggt (see section 4.4). Synonyms ( ! It is often suggested that the numeral is also distinguished semantically. It is a class of Words that denote the number of objects and other quantitative properties. However, the countThe names of iš other nouns also differ in syntactic (distributive) characteristics. For example, noun numerals do not join adjectives (indicative) and are ruled by the 0 noun pronoun (a thousand years, three horses). This is only typical of a as small number of nouns (group of children). Adjective numeralsAdjectives go with accents, but do not join, as adjectives do, adverbs (plg. : very good kids, but can't *very du young children). They also have different morphological (paradigmatic) characteristics from other nouns. Antra Vertus, based on the common su properties of nouns and adjectives, numbered the following subclasses of nouns and ir adjectives (Lllep6a 1974 : 83, 85; IleurkosBerxunit 1956 : 154—155; Ilaos 1960 : 14; CaBuenxo 1968 : 187; Ky6paxosa 1978 : 45; Harris 1964 : 174 t.t. ; Helbig 1977 : 107; Flamig 1977 : 47, 50). 45 1975 : 44—54). This is quite understandable, because outliers are usually hunting words. Be therefore, the ir relationship of the phonetic characteristics of meaning sounds is not constant. There are no formal classification characteristics of the outliers, they are iš distinguished from other groups of words only by their figurative and imitative meaning. 2.5. They are not ir compatible with the su emojis they were previously connected with. Emoticons in all Indo-European languages differ from words of other classes in that they represent subjective human feelings, will statements, and unnamed functions. ar ir ri They are close to signals, shouts, signifying the multi-sensory emotional state of the speaker. Su sentence constituents the emoticon has no connections. These are kinds of insertions and prepositions that emotional color the sentence. In contrast, the verbs are usually significantly associated with the verbs in the sentence and indicate certain objective shades of action. According to the differential function performed by the singulars in the sentence, which is the main criterion for distinguishing the classes of invariant words, in our understanding, singulars are best suited to particles. The purpose of this article is to try to prove this. 3.1 Particles have different meanings, but they have in common that they do not form part of a sentence, but denote the semantic, modal and expressive shades of other sentence words, groups of words, sentence elements or whole sentences. The particles do not have their own lexical load, but transfer it to other words, their groups, individual sentences, refining them, modifying them in various ways, emphasizing them, even forming and describing a certain type of sentences or emotionally colouring them. This is the differential function of the particles in the sentence, by which they are distinguished as a separate class of words. 3.2 When performing the general differential function in a sentence, particles acquire different specific meanings in separate contexts. Therefore, particles are very difficult to classify. Detailed semantic classification of particles is presented in the three-volume "Grammar of the Lithuanian language" (1971), slightly different in the one-volume grammar of the Russian language (I'PSI 1985). This article also presents a slightly different classification of particles, particularly with regard to the relationship of their coefficient values with the general differential function. In addition to the general differential function, there are also the modifiable, descriptive and expressive particles. 1. Modified particles 3.3. These particles refine and modify the meanings of words, groups of words or sentences in various ways. They can be divided into several groups. a) Tikslinamosios: bemaž, beveik, dar, jau, ko(tik), kone, kuo(tik), kuone, mažne, pat, per, tik, vėl, vis(dar), vos ne, vos tik, pvz. I didn't get off the carriage. Waited, waited, and the father still does not return BsRP; Salty, in December v 0 8 not bass I drove off to chase mules... Krev; Old Gugis has been in Merkinė Krėv since the morning. b) Distinctives: at least, especially, and, that and, neither, unless, even, although, only, only, e.g. : I r blind chicken grain occurs in PP; Put a stick on his head PP; Especially well I remember Shmukshtar Vien; Of all my treasure I have left only my glasses 46 Gb ph Yes ms EE — TT Sruog. c) Indicative: ana, antai, aure, šitas, čia, tai, va. They are all of noun origin. For example: : A n a there, on the hill, our cottage Al; Look at that! This Vilnius palace dunks among the mountains wide Mair; "Take it, Augustine, you'll eat Vien." d) Meanings of uncertainty and comparatives: may, as (that, as, and) as and kažin, kažin ar, allegedly, rasi, tarytum, tarsi, tartum. Many of them formally coincide with comparative conjunctions (like, as and as if, as if), but they differ from the latter in the shade of meaning they give: they always denote falsehood, doubting what is being compared. For example: : He seems to be unwilling; I wonder if he knows Kp; Maybe he doesn't know Skp; Place as i r known See; I want to sleep Plk; R asi and 4 our window will warn the sun PP. In sentences with interrogative intonation, some of these particles acquire interrogative meaning (kažin (ar), morda, boš, kot da, glej §12 b). 2. Determinative particles 3.4 These particles indicate the type of sentences in relation to the speaker (observed, questioning, encouraged sentences) or mark the boundaries of sentences, their beginning in the text. In this case, the specific 4 values of the fractions are given. (a) Affirmative nouns with which the statements are formed: positive or negative. In positive sentences, positive particles are used, and in negative ones, negative particles. Positive: yes, so. They affirm what is stated in the sentence, e.g. : Tamsia are you a Pole? —T a i p, the Polish Vien. These particles often replace the sentences themselves and act as their equivalents. This happens because the real constituents of the sentence, clear from the context, are no longer said, omitted, and positive particles; affirming the meaning of these constituents, take over their function —they have to represent the whole sentence, e.g.: —Does the tree get what it wants? —T a i p! (received) Balč; "What do you mean?" —So (speaks) Marc. Neigiamosios ne, nė, nebe, nei. Their use is broader than that of positive particles. The particle ne affirms the negation of the sentence and, like the particle to, often replaces the sentence and goes as its equivalent (when the actual constituent of the sentence, perceived from the context, is omitted), e.g.: —Nepažė? "What?" the mother asked. —N e (did not), — replied Marytė LzP. In addition, the particle ne, as well as other negative particles, are used against individual words and their groups to deny the meaning of those words as modifiable particles. They then go in both negative and positive sentences, because they are often not related to the negation of the sentence, e.g. : You don't have ten sons, but only one... Krév; Not today, not yesterday, but in old times there was a king BsRR; It's not the first time Brisiy's feelings deceive Bill; In the sky n é the smallest white cloud Bil. Negative particles do not, no longer as often have word-forming function —go as prepositions and replace the positive meaning of the word with the negative, for example: dirba —nedirba, nebedirba, laimė —nelaimė, didelis —mažas, jaunas —nejaunas, nebejaunas, daug —nedaug, nebedaug. 47 b) Klausiamosios: ar, argi, ne, taip, be, bene, ar gal(gi), gal ne, ar ką, kažin, kažin ar, ko, negi, nejau(gi), rasi, tarsi. These particles help to form the question, i.e. su they form questioning sentences. Question forming particles usually go at the beginning of the sentence element, ar which is pronounced in questioning intonation, e.g. : ; Ar He's telling the truth? Myk-Put; Ben the father už ką A foot? Žem; Go inside, let's eat. Crew. Particles may, may not, may not, will, will not, will not, will not, will not, will not, will not, will not, will not, ir will not, will not, will not, will not, will not, will not, will not, will not, will not, will not, will not, will not, will not, will not, will not, will not, will not, will not, will not, will not, will not, will not, will not, will not, will not, will not, will not, will not, will not, will not, will not, will not, will not, will not, will not, will not, will not, will not, will not, will not, will not, will not, will not, will not. : So you're expecting guests? Paukst; K a Zin or the cow wants to drink? Grz; Like I won't get a younger one? Wife. Cf. corresponding particles, having only the meaning of uncertainty and pronounced in be questioning intonation, $3.3 d. Particles (or)no, (or)yes, (or)what, maybe not, pronounced in interrogative intonation at the end of the sentence, reinforce the question to which an affirmative answer is expected, e.g. : The evening was nothing to it, a r n e? Yeah; Are you going home, huh? Ra. The interrogative particles argi, negi, nejaugi, gal, kažin (the latter two also denoting uncertainty), as well as the affirmative ones, perform the function of sentence equivalents when the actual sentence constituents are clear from the context, e.g.: —Sako, he išvažiavo. "Are you?" (Is it? Is it not? Maybe?) Particles or, perhaps, perhaps, used in sentences without the questioning intonation, give the opposite meaning to the sentence: the affirmation of the denial and vice versa — the denial of the affirmation, e.g. : Is one dog with a tail! Jabl (not one); Well, he understands! rs (does not understand). c) Incentives, which give the sentence (together with other forms) an incentive meaning. According to the different shades of meaning, these particles can be divided into two groups: desired ones: da, te, tegu(l), and instigated ones: še, te, tekit, nagi, e.g. : Don't let them hurt you! Sruog; T e g ul Mr. pays us for the work Myk-Put; Here, take your Lnkv; Tinginy, here's the egg! PP; Come on, tell me how it was there. The incitement particles tegu(l), nagi can also be used as sentence and subject equivalents, e.g. : That he likes it — let saū (do, take, go) Simon. d) Initial: well, well, that. These particles mark the beginning of a sentence and of a larger text section, united by thought. They are usually used in colloquial language and in fiction. ją Be of the indicated starting particles, frequent jų complexes of iš two and more particle particles with adverbs close ar to them: na(nu) su and, already, this, here, already and, this and, this now, this na already, na na na na na na na ar it already, na here it already, already na now this, this now, this and, this already, this this(here), this only, this here, this still, this here and, this already here, this here and, here it already, so that, already, already and, this already. va va va These particles have not yet been included in the į classification of particles. But the function is also descriptive. jų Initial particles and complexes help to divide — the text into parts, separate sentences and jų 48 at the same time connect the exto units (sentences) into a whole. They seem to be more convenient to start a new thought, sentence, speech in dialogues, addressing what or answering questions non-categorically. For example: : N a, mother, again lived years LzP; "I'll ride first!" —the wolf said. “Well, you! —met fox Piet; T a i hello, brother-- in-law (filled glasses)! Sruog; "You're not going to walk today?" "I said so. - I'm a man of Birds. He didn't ask. N a and Simon became ill; Well, here it is au you overdo Myk-Put; Well now that the gentleman no longer knows what do ytSlan; It's a good thing that I didn't go to Piet's house. "But the ones smell that way. —It already smells like Paukst; So that's what I'm talking about Earth. As with other sentence-concluding particles, the opening particles are used as sentence equivalents when the statement is clear from the context and one no longer wants to repeat it. VZ. : "Oh, yeah! I would have fallen in love myself... (would have fallen in love). hey you're capable of more than kg SRag; —Somebody comes home after eating, probably Jurgela. —Tai j a uw! —surprisedly agreed Elsa (really urgéla returns) Piet. Initial particles are also used with affirmative and questioning particles that are sentence equivalents. For example: —So, next spring the high school is finished. —It's already a ip Bird; "Do you want to go back?" "I asked. "You and I! —opened "brother Piet; “Do you want to lie?” "It may not be Bird;" So, uh? I heard that your father's going to take you to the seminary. Ra. 3. Expression particles 3.5 Some of these particles emphasize the meaning and intensity of words, their groups and sentences, while others color them emotionally. a) Emphasis: yes, and, after all, that, as, that, only, here, here, here, e.g. : And it was a terrible long illness Vaizg; Nothing bad happened to you, Bill. I can't understand why the bees don't like me. Here and yesterday that crossed one! Myk-Put; V a fairy va tales, iš tribulations where arise Slan; I' a i the horse has improved (become better) See; He curses you, he curses the forest!.. a d už Žem; One k a i p grabbed on the fork, aip started su ta Shake! BsRP; The children only danced, only ran Balch. These particles also have different meanings in different contexts (this, that, indicative, this, starting, only va — distinguishing, that, — encouraging, and — uncertainty comparative). — — b) Emotiona0, l: oi, oi, vei, ėgi, ogi, ugi, e.g. : And their dolls... shout dirty Don; Who taught you, kid, to weave a beautiful tapestry? — O gi aš same Slan. These particles are close to emoticons. 4. This group of particles would be made up of extraterrestri3.6. als. According to the differential function, the words represented and imitated in the eye do not differ from other particles: They do not go into the sentence constituents ir in their own way modify and emphasize the action Words, which usually go before the sentence, express the actions, highlight the images and sounds caused. 49 jų So these words, like other particles, ir transfer their semantic load to other words (verbs) to color the meanings. The only difference between the represented and imitated words and other particles is that they usually go to verbs, i.e. — have a defined tą role. On the other hand, this usage can explain the ir specific representatijų on and imitation meaning, i.e. they emphasize and highlight the nature of the action expressed by the verbs. The words under consideration usually go to such verbs that mean dynamic (walking, throwing, crossing) and sudden actions, as well as actions related to sounds caused by su animals, natural phenomena, various devices. The prepositions that precede these verbs emphasize and clarify the images and sounds caused by the actions. For example: : Virrr ka move mouse į cave Vvr; D Z Zz water started to flow Ram; Well, virgins, now v e v e Sing! Val; Jinn. dz z... d zin nn — be pauses the phone rang Come on. Often, these words are used three times to reinforce and highlight the du impression of the images of the sounds represented and imitated, e.g. : ar Kurni kurni runs puppy St; The heart still beats Rd; Dan dan dan skamba varpas Kp; Father su kin brinkt brinkt threw money into the plate Val; We had a good meal Val. Other particles (usually modifiable ones) are also repeated because of the intensity of the meaning: jeszcze jeszcze, już już, tylko tylko, tylko tylko, e.g. : Just just crouched on the bed and long does not sleep Bil; It's not like you're in the 08 Primate Simon. Sometimes the repeated words differ in individual sounds for the same purpose—- to express the sounds and images that are being imitated more clearly, e.g. : Dziun dzavp! —the bullet of Vien; The engine only crashes when the Mlt; Jingt brinkt and we dealt with Mr. LzP. Quite often there are other particles in addition to these kinds of words: и, что, и т.д. —to emphasize the suddenness and intensity of the action, e.g. : Frogs blurred blurred and jumped into the water Skr; Tarrr thunder that polluted Ds; People are shrinking from the cold, they're running away from Kair. Figurative and imitative words sometimes coincide or are similar in their acoustic expression to the verbs that they modify and emphasize. In such cases, they almost replace the verbs. For example: : The children curny curny and nukurnėjo Uzp; Brazdu br az du someone on the wall nubrazdéjo Rm; Ci uz 7 kad éiauzia Griz; Ku ku ku kukena hedgehog Ds. | In order to represent and imitate the actions represented by the verb, these kinds of words often replace the verbs themselves, acting as their equivalents. The verb in such cases is perceived by the context, the subject-verb takes the position of the iš predicate o po (plg. the corresponding function of the descriptive particles §3.4). For example: : 50 Only bab apt (bumped) at once two apples on the ground Grz; S lkine du k st (made) į side Gs; Diedas dr a k (sweet) bobs finally er head Prog; "Kažin kas uz gryčios brazdwu br azdu (brazda)" (in Lithuanian). Sometimes, stickers, like emoticons some particles, are used in the ardazodZziy position as their substitutes. In such cases, Sie ir words have a ar prepositional stylistic connotation, e.g.: | It seems to me k wešt Skr; Now thou shalt have a house with pastures; Worked worked and worked to spy on An; There's a girl out there. 1977: The Man Who Knew Too Much: The Man Who Knew Too Much: The Man Who Knew Too Much: The Man Who Knew Too Much: The Man Who Knew Too Much: The Man Who Knew Too Much: The Man Who Knew Too Much: The Man Who Knew Too Much: The Man Who Knew Too Much: The Man Who Knew Too Much: The Man Who Knew Too Much: The Man Who Knew Too Much: The Man Who Knew Too Much: The Man Who Knew Too Much: The Man Who Knew Too Much: The Man Who Knew Too Much: The Man Who Knew Too Much: The Man Who Knew Too Much: The Man Who Knew Too Much: The Man Who Knew Too Much: The Man Who Knew Too Much: The Man Who Knew Too Much. cząsteczkę: Those at —but (bad) speak. 3.7. As the examined material shows, in terms of their differential unction in the sentence —directing their lexical charge to color the verb’s expressed course — the particulates are not fundamentally different from other particles and should be considered as a group of them, rather than a separate specific class of Lithuanian words. In terms of semantics, these words have both the characteristics of modifiable and expressive particles: in their own way they modify and at the same time outline the nature of the course expressed by certain verbs by imitating and depicting e the image and sound of the ir corresponding p. action. — Thus, in grammar, these words would be best discussed as a separate subset of rie particles. 4. Similarly to the singulars to the particles could be distinguished the ir so-called characteristic su formant -e. These forms are used only with verbs of the same root: bėgte bėgo, mest etė, klykte klykė, plg. represented and simulated particles: bumt bumsėjo mt (see section 4.4). §3.6). As represented ir and imitated particles, these words also do not form a es separate element of the sentence, usually a circumstance of the action, only strengthen and in a certain way color the nature of the action do ne expressed by the verb, show o the intensity. jo Grandmother was delighted that her son had forgotten his jokes Krev; aralia farm pr a § y t e asks more noticeable others už Simon; arei as if promised ir the priest, but neither m an yt e Didn't want to go to the doctor. Sometimes the context seems to imply the circumstantial ir meaning of these words, e.g. : I won't threaten d e holes, I'll te start them Kp; Oh, ne there's a lot of arsenic in there. Earth. Thus, according to their differential function in the sentence, these words also belong to the class of rie particles (could be assigned to expressive accentuating particles, see §3.5 (a). They are not very productive, because of their constant use of the verbs at that ačia root they tend to linger. Words su with suffix -tinai, used with verbs of su different roots having circumstance function, are considered adverbs, e.g. : He bought a board to talk. However, the words of the latter action, going on verbs of the same root, have circumstances ne (adverb), but the drawing (particle) function, e.g.: tėvą tuo metu lstin išmeltė Jo vykti drauge me ai Simon; He is now lying li (not moving) Pc. 51