Priešybė kaip semantinis ir loginis antonimijos pagrindas

Irena ERMANYTĖ ADVANTAGE AS A SEMANTIC AND LOGIC BASIS OF ANTONYMY Semantic antonymy is based on words having opposite meanings, denoting opposite characteristics and attributes, describing opposite phenomena and processes, e.g.: good — bad, happy — sad, happiness — misfortune (characteristic); begin —end, spring —autumn, start —finish, always —never (time and its duration); top —bottom, outside —inside, on —under (place); pull —to push, enter —to leave, east —west, Sen —there (direction); fast — slow, in haste — slowly (tempo); strong — weak, strong — slow, strengthen — weaken, excitement — suppression (intensity). Usually, semantic opposites are quite diverse, and the types of their relationships are different. For example, one can analyze the properties of adjectives or the movement described by verbs in one way and qualitative opposites in another. Logical opposites are semantic relations between two incompatible concepts, between which there can be either one intermediate concept (see white — black; intermediate concept gray), or even several intermediate concepts: white — light, gray, dark — black. Thus, the logical basis of the antonym is not the contradictory (white — non-white), but the opposite (white — black) concepts. However, in language it is slightly different, because antagonism is not only possible between qualitative adjectives. Theoretical studies of the semantic and logical system of antonyms show that antonyms are words that meet any of the following requirements: a) the words X and Y, corresponding to opposite concepts and being extreme members of the harmonic set, relate in a contradictory way X —(not X/not Y) —Y: good —(bad/good) —bad. b) the words X and Y denote the vectoring opposite of various directions, actions, characteristics, etc.: elevate —degrade, enter —exit, bring in —bring out, democratic —anti-democratic, left —right, here —there, etc. This class of antonyms | consists mainly of verbs, adjectives, adverbs, etc. c) the words X and Y, formally corresponding to contradictory concepts, X — not X, in language can also signify contradictory opposition. This class of antonyms consists mostly of qualitative adjectives or participants performing the functions of adjectives, nouns and adverbs, e.g.: alive — dead, true — false, truth — lie, open — closed, together — separately, single — married, etc. There is no intermediate member between these antonyms, and the opposition itself is not gradual, but characterized by complementarity. Negating one of these opposites, we obtain another —definite and extreme opposite, e.g.: single —no + single = married, alive —no + alive = dead. d) words — conversively indicate the opposite relationships of the antonym pair, i.e. when the same situation (action, relationship) is represented from the point of view of its various participants as reversible. The presence of a convertible is conditioned by a logical interjection, |, which distinguishes the most important participant in the situation, e.g. : The neighbor sold his father a horse = The father bought a horse from the neighbor. Conversives consist of verbs of opposite meanings (win — lose and lose — win) and adjectives or adverbs of a higher degree, e.g. : Brother older than sister —Sister younger than brother, etc. There is a certain connection between all these words of opposite meanings and their types of semantic relations: the very nature of words (their categorical meaning and semantic-grammatical typification) in many cases determines one or another type of antonyms. One of the opposing members usually denies the other member. This member is semantically complex (e.g., noble "disrespecting the norms of morality" — vile "disrespecting the norms of morality"). The internal semantic sign of antonymism is not any, but the greatest negation. The fact that one of the pair members is a delta negation does not mean that one of the opposite meanings (concepts) is actually negative. This denial becomes apparent only during semantic analysis, when the antonym is examined as a semantic invariant phenomenon. For example, the second members of the antonym pairs heat — cold, truth — lie are negative. And logic is the opposite. The concepts of cold, lie are affirmative, because there are neither positive nor negative concepts here. Thus, such concepts as warm — not warm, short — not short, etc. are equivalent from the point of view of logic. The most important elements for the analysis of contradictions, as for semantic analysis in general, are the text, the researcher, and the language system. Some objects are selected from the text for analysis – the opposite meanings of words and the relationships of those language elements expressed by these words. The researcher is necessary because he analyzes the research text. According to the Russian scientist A. Zinovyev, many scientific problems would be "solved more easily if researchers were thought of, without whom certain problems are not completely solved" (3nHosBsesB This researcher must necessarily understand the system of language, semantically analyze the contradictions of the text and well master the analyzed language. There are at least several stages of semantic analysis of oppositions. The researcher, having a good knowledge of the language, based on intuition and the linguistic experience of the speakers, pre-selects the necessary material. Even the most general and not yet completed stage of the analysis shows that some semantic relationships of words are random and isolated, while others, on the contrary, regularly repeat, are regular and cover a significant part of the lexical system. Such typical sentences that meet these requirements show the most essential characteristics of antonyms, their syntactic and paradigmatic relationships in language. The semantic contradictions of the Lithuanian language are usually reflected in syntagmatic, paradigmatic and pragmatic aspects. 1971 : 10). r 10 When analyzing antonyms from a syntactic point of view, the main conditions of their use in the language were taken into account: a) regular context: both antonyms are usually used in the same sentence. Then they complement each other more and together highlight their opposites. E.g.: long —short (Working and the longest day is short Upp.* When the snow will cover the field and the ice will fill the waters, you will be a lonely stranger of a short day, a long night V.Myk-Put); strong — weak (You are so strong that you can be a man, you are so weak that you can be a baby, J. Marcin. The weak wait for the opportunity, and the strong find it for themselves PPr102); north — south (South is warmer, north is colder J. Birds living in the north withdraw to the south when winter begins T.Ivan); I look through the window — the sun is rising, I look through the other window — the sun is setting M.Mart. b) constant lexical relationships: both antonyms are used with the same words. For example, good — bad (Good deeds far heard, bad — even further fik. For a good plower a bad plough plows well, for a bad one a good one does not Ds); own — strange (Who seeks foreign lands; always loses his own V.Krēv. Own bread is tastier than foreign cakes Al.). The illustrative sentences were chosen so that the semantic relationships between words of opposite meanings that regularly recur in them are regular, have constant lexical connections and cover a significant part of the Lithuanian lexical system. In the syntactic aspect, the analysis of antonyms revealed that they can be real and contextual. True antonyms, used in any context, have opposite meanings. E.g.: didelis, didis —mažas (Little kerus translates big carriage B. Small was born, big grew up J.Jabl. In Prussia not only in cities, but also in smaller and larger castles and border barriers everyone was preparing for war A.Vien); rytas — vakaras (Oh, tomorrow, tomorrow, soon there will be a party, atjos bernelis from the morning (d.) J.Balč. The morning is smarter than the evening Srd. Owls mainly hunt in the evening and morning dusk or moonlight night T.Ivan). There are also many contextual antonyms, but they will be discussed in more detail as stylistic language tools in the section on pragmatic analysis. It has been observed that the concepts of opposites of word meanings are very important not only from the point of view of their paradigmatic identity and difference, but also in cases of their syntagmatic use in the text. Syntactic analysis of opposites shows their regular use in language. Already F. de Sosiūras distinguishes opposites that are "always obvious (in praesentia)" (Coccrop 1933: 121) along with paradigmatic relations that connect "non-existent elements (in absentia) to a potential mnemonic (= remembered) sequence- ". This leads to the discussion of syntagmatic and paradigmatic contradictions. * Illustrative examples taken from kn. : Dictionary of Lithuanian Language 3—16, Vilnius, 1956—1995; 2nd edition 1—2, 1968—1969 and from the catalog of this dictionary. 11 Syntactic opposition (a synonym of semantic opposition) is used in antonymic contexts, where regularly repeated oppositions seem to bring together antonyms, e.g. : He works day and night (all the time) for J.Jabl. Good bad (any) — mother still child Trgn. From the same mouth both hot and cold (and evil and good) S.Dauk. Whether it's winter or summer, he's always barefoot and barefoot Tvr. February neither caught nor released (feeling uncomfortable, disturbed) stood in front of V.Myk-Put. By analyzing such constructions of opposites, we see not only semantically harmonized antonyms, but also the diversity of opposites that testifies to the pragmatic convergence of words. Although the constructions and contexts of these opposites are typical not only for words of opposite meanings, but also for other categories, their analysis helps us to understand the laws of the use of antonyms in language and to find their most common classes. In particular, the fact that antonyms, when they relate as certain syntactic opposites, form the most diverse contrasts. In addition, compounds of this type are most often phraseologisms. For this type of analysis, the texts with the corresponding contradictions are first intuitively selected. These contradictions are analyzed first from the point of view of form, i.e. structurally, and then from the point of view of meaning, i.e. semantically. The results obtained are then synthesized and conclusions drawn. The most common type of these opposites is formed with the conjunctions and (or). For example: Homemade bread for big and small seemed nine honeys J.Mik. Grumias two colors. The two main ones are white and black. J.Marcin. Between hell and heaven, between good and evil, between white and black stands a man J. Marcin. There is a national majority and national minorities in the state. Happiness and misfortune pass by M.Valanč in the long run. Love and hatred, forgiveness and stubbornness. one moment one, another moment another feeling took over K.Bor. A lively life, full of worries, tragic and comical things... began to explode from within J.Mik. Essential as a spring, from which always flows good and can never run out K.Sirv. A slightly different type of syntactic opposites, representing a vector opposite, are the antonyms, expressed by verbs and adverbs. For example, the Dutch put a lot of care and effort into raising and lowering embankments. Each mechanic must dismantle and reassemble the machine. I'm the authority... I can exalt and I can degrade Mr. Marcin. I'm lying and rising, thinking about how to save him on Earth. And the crowds that went before and followed after, shouted M.Daukš. The skin of old boars is crosswise and longitudinally marked with scars of sp. The most commonly used conjunction and conjugate in text and antonyms for conversion, e.g. : Our team won, and the guests lost again (= The guests lost, and our team won again); Agricultural products are purchased cheaply or sold expensively (= Agricultural products are sold expensively and purchased cheaply) etc. ir Similarly, another type of syntactic opposites is connected by the repetitive conjunction and (both X and Y). For example: Lithuanian language is characterized by both open and closed syllables rš, Man has enough of both devil and divine nature J.Marcin. You can't tie people's 12 mouths. Will spread evil rumor tr enemies, and friends J.Gruš. The wolves roared thinly and thickly—it was scary to go out. He began to attack Sen, and there seeking help V.Kudir. ; > Prepositions with these repetitive conjunctions and gives expressiveness to the prepositional meanings, reinforces them. Here the abundance of features, phenomena, objects, etc. is emphasized. In Lithuanian there are such opposites, where opposite characteristics, actions, phenomena, etc. are presented in parallel. In this case, the repetitive conjunctions čza, if, when are used. For example: Senis čia artino, čia tolino tabokine rs. A.Baran. The little bird sings and laughs, here it cries while it cucks, here it laughs and laughs. The voice sounded louder here, weaker there, like organs, when the air flows unevenly rs. Jet innocent — close the door, jet guilty — fix the leg. Jet roots strong, leave longer shoots, je: weak —shorter rs. When death is far away, it is called, when it is near — it is chased Skr. When forgotten, bedainosi, kat atminsi, berauosi J. With these conjunctions, sentences are formed where parallel vector opposites are expressed. For example: The little animal moved very slowly, wagging its mustache here to the left, here to the right all the time. The birds rose up here, and then descended again. When you come, it's fun, when you leave, neither this nor that Erž. Analogiškos priešybės sudaromos ir su jungtukais juo, kur (juo, kur X, juo, kur Y). For example:: He did not understand where the physical pain, where the spiritual rs. You feel your own price, you see where you are right and where you are wrong. The more joyful the days of youth, the more sad must be the time of old age V.Krev. Opposites with repeating negative conjunctions even (not) X, neither (not) Y) —as if transformed antonym of both X and Y, only presented in a negative form and signifying indifference, neutrality; sometimes these opposing members, negating each other, seem to merge into one whole. For example: But from heaven neither sooner nor later did not return to the earth grey jackals V.MykPut. Pinchuk was such an unfit devil and so lazy that he did no good or bad to anyone K.Bor. I'm neither smart nor clever, Mr. President. Twisted lines even thick than thin LTR. I am not the first, not the last, there are more daughters J. The wind blows not from the east, even from parties, only from the country where the parents lie (d.) J.Balč. With neither X nor Y there is one other vector opposition. For example: The door has slammed: I can neither open nor close the door. I do not want to exalt or degrade it (my generation), because I know it too well rs. It should be noted that there are also phraseologisms of this type of antonym contexts. For example: Neither add nor subtract (just, exactly) DZ'. That he worked — neither candles for God, nor forks for the devil (not fit, poor)! Kp. That there are parallels here with the antonymal context and X, tr Y, is shown by the corresponding phraseologisms, e.g. : And on the horse planted, and under the horse was (all 13 in life experienced) Trgn. Iš the same mouth warm, ir cold ir (and evil, good) ir S.Dauk. Syntactic opposites are connected here by means of conjunction. Depending on the lexical and syntactic context, they have certain semantic functions (comparison, contrast, etc.). In the language there are quite common opposites and with the conjunction or (or). In these contexts, there is a disjunctive relationship. For example, there are covered or open parking spaces for passengers on platforms. Eric decided to bring him (the dog) alive or dead, whatever he finds. Consonants in our language can be hard or soft J.Jabl. Old or young—he sighed, left alone as a finger A.Vien. The disjunction of these examples does not mean removal (or this, or that), but a certain connection, being together. There are also some other disjunctive relationships where the elimination becomes apparent. For example: Will we not turn the earth into ashes? Are we serving life or death? J.Grus. A rule is a norm that allows or prohibits certain actions LTEXI73. In the presence of repetitive conjunctions or (or), or (or), they seem to reinforce the characteristics, actions, etc. expressed by antonyms. In this case, these oppositions coincide with both X and Y. There are also elements of a certain mutual elimination. For example: The father did not know whether to rejoice or sadden K.Bor. All wealth is health—whether large or small Skdt. The two of them did not know whether they were alive or dead. Whether I'm happy or sad, I'm still going, I'm going, I'm going V. MykPut. Either work, or be lazy—it’s the same for him! Ms. There was always water—whether it was a dry or wet summer. These types of opposites are joined by semantically related antonyms, connecting this (yes), that (yes). For example: We are like two pure sands swirling in the raging wind and in the boundless wilderness we are now far away, now near V.Myk-Put. The surface of the earth is bald, it is a strip of sp. You can't please her — this sooner, this later, give her a carriage Krkn. The well-being of the atherosclerotic patient improves, it deteriorates. So rarely I sowed, so densely sprouted (d.) Grz. His voice went up and down to $nabzdesio rs. In these examples, a kind of sequence of actions, phenomena, etc., their alternation, becomes apparent. In some contexts, antonyms are compared by contrast using certain conjunctions. Such junctions are o (but); the whole construction of antonyms comparison —not (not only) X, but (but also) Y. For example: Not the worker gets the crack, but the lazy one gets the crack. He is not wise, but foolish J.Jabl. The book is interesting not only for young people, but also for the elderly. First glance reveals not similarities, but fundamental differences rs. It is not necessary for healthy people to have a healer, but for sick people to have M.Daukš. 14 Often in speech (especially in poetry) the construction of comparison of antonyms varies, one or another of its members is omitted, and the members of the construction themselves are replaced. For example: Work ennobles a person, not degrades V.Krev. They (the brothers) protect me day and night not only from the enemy — but also from my friend V.Myk-Put. You will come out of life as if from an open courtroom, not condemned, but also not acquitted. The main trend of all human society is not regress, but progress. Gardening is the only passion that does not weaken in old age, but strengthens T.Ivan. In Lithuanian, the comparison of the members of an antonym pair is common, and is constructed as follows: adjective adverb of the higher degree (more, better, more...) + X (not) as (than) Y or adjective of the higher degree mis + Y (not) as (than) X. For example: Better lose with the wise than find Als with the foolish. It's better to be silent than to talk to nobody LTR. Old heat is better than Sallis Nmn. It is easier to destroy than to build. It is better to die free than to live in bondage. Fights are more beneficial than harmful sp. My worldview is more tragic than comical or logical J.Mik. This type of antonym pairs are subject to conversion relations, only then the adjectives of higher degree from positive become negative — less, worse, harder, etc. It is worse to find a fool than to lose a wise man. Building is harder than destroying And so on. Sometimes antonym constructions are connected by prepositions from... ki (to, from) (from X to (to, from) Y). These prepositions usually indicate the outer limits of time (or its duration). For example: Work from sunrise to sunset or even after sunset. The boy barely gets over his head — he is already a shepherd from the first grass in spring to the autumn grasses. From eight in the morning to ten in the evening, he was like a widow. From sunrise to sunset we worked in Bsg. It is often the case that the order of the members of the antonym pair is unconventional (from Y to X), e.g. : We could sleep from sunset to sunrise Jrb. This sentence structure is determined by the situation being described. Adjective constructions with these prepositions are quite rare. For example: When he died, the people of the whole country, from the youngest child to the oldest man, mourned the death of a great man and benefactor V.Krev. There are also more complex constructions in the language, consisting of verbs meaning transformation, becoming or being something, and members of the antonym pair. Graphically it would look like this: a) X + verb (to become, to turn into something) + Y. For example: Being happy you will have many friends, becoming unhappy — none. Not bad, you will not become good S.Dauk. In the second sentence, the members of the antonym pair have exchanged places — Y + X + verb. In poetic language, these elements of the antonym context are grouped in a different way (Spring turned into autumn for me, and the leaves withered and fell on the path S.Nėr). 15 b) X + identify verb ("to be" and its forms) + Y. For example: Don't despair about failure, because one loss often leads to ten victories S.No. In this sentence we see the conversion relationships, in addition, the members of the antonym pair are swapped places — Y + esti + X. In the sentences of this construction, the opposites coincide, one becomes another, one becomes another, and the contrast is no longer present. In addition to syntactic means, there are often syntactic opposites in language, where semantic relationships of antonyms are expressed by intonation. There are two types of intonation: the ascending i and the descending r. ir (X||Y). For example: The squirrel spends the day and the night in a warm twisted nest rs. On autumn fields black I have no white horses M.Mart. With the crying cry, with the singing sing, so everywhere you go Gs. It is a very small bird, with a short and slender body. From happiness to disaster is one step, and 18 disasters to happiness is a long way in LTR. In the darkness, love wanders along the path, hatred sweeps, sacrifice walks J.Marcin. Harder than wood, harder than brick, softer than mud (water) Ds. As in the aforementioned antonymic contexts, the members of the antonym pair often swap places (especially in poetry or folklore). Antonyms of these sentences are like; deducted, combined with each other. However, there are contradictions or conversions in such sentences. For example: Who does not rise up, he falls down V. Krėv (= He falls down, who does not rise up); Victories should be enjoyed moderately, and defeats should be lifted manly sp (= Losses should be lifted manly, and victories should be enjoyed moderately). The ascending- -descending intonation is characterized by a pause (or pauses) showing the semantic contrast of opposites (X|[Y]). For example: Small children — joy for parents, big children — heartache flk. The horses are driven by a horse-drawn horse (or horse-drawn horse-drawn horse). Don't be hot, the eye will burn, don't be cold, the part will be lost. Joy — briefly, sadness — longgaz Tr. As in other sentences of syntactic oppositions, there is a conversion relationship here. For example: There were contradictory trumpet signals — some ordered to defend, others — to attack (= There were contradictory trumpet signals — some ordered to attack, others — to defend); When you add — less, when you subtract — more (pit) Jnš (= When you subtract —more, when you add —less); Injustice rides in a carriage, truth walks on foot. (= Truth walks on foot, iniquity rides in a chariot). The main feature of antonymal contexts is their regularity. This feature is found in many sentences with antonyms, which are connected by pairs of conjunctions when... then, adverbs when... then, as... so, as much... as (here these adverbs are inverted- ), so... otherwise, pronouns who... that, what... 16 This, one... another. For example: When he flew yesterday, he only returned tonight DZ!. When you were young, you'll be old once again. When money speaks, the truth is silent Trg. How hedgehogs came (he had nothing), so he will leave (he will lose everything) Mrj. As the old whistled, so the young danced LTs. His plans to marry A.Vien rose as quickly as they fell. A calm old age full of wisdom can be as beautiful as a youth full of strength. Theoretically it may look one way, practically it can come out differently J.Gruš. He that soweth shall reap; and he that scattereth shall gather. Who first gets into the bag, gets out of the bag flk. If you're sad, you cry, if you're happy, you laugh Trgn. What is thrown, is found, Vrn. What life is, such is death, Er. Whatever the question, such is the answer Ds. One hand gives, the other takes Jns. PPr409 goes in one ear and out the other. And the ministers, like those musicians, one on the boat, the other on the stage, and the third in the middle would agreedly hit K.Saj. There are cases where the regularity of antonymal contexts is not so obvious. For example: Not as much repairs as it spoils. True art is primarily a responsibility not so much for abstract humanity as for a very concrete person, J.Mik. He drank that cup not so much for my health as for his ill health, J. Jabl. Even defeated objects do not serve as much as they control man J.Marcin. Graphically, this relationship of opposites would look like two things: a) not as much X as Yir b) not as much Y as X. The analysis of antonymal contexts usually starts from the form (structure) and goes towards semantics. Contexts occur most often in polysemantic contexts, where several semantic relationships of words of opposite meanings are intertwined. An example of this is the relationship between the opposites X and Y, where in one case conjunction is expressed and in the other disjunction. These statements are illustrated by examples already given earlier, but in this case particularly characteristic: Grumias two colors. Two main —white and black J.Marcin. Love and hate, forgiveness and stubbornness... one moment one, another moment —another feeling took over K.Bor. In this case, the opposites X and Y are both combined and opposed. Therefore, it is necessary not only to analyze the contradictions identified, but also to synthesize the results obtained. Analysis and synthesis are necessary in examining all other cases of syntagmatic contradictions mentioned here. In the other case of disjunction (X or Y), the primary function is division (usually the brain must be alternably excited or suppressed). When the disjunction is not so strong (or (or)X, or (or)Y), the secondary semantic functions are connective-differential, and the opposites here neutralize each other (All wealth is health —whether large or small Skdt). When the antonymal context is X, then Y, the opposite meanings alternate (The well-being of the patient with atherosclerosis improves, it deteriorates, etc.) and so on. 17 lizować and pragmatism. Since ancient times, the tendency to use the corresponding words in a certain way has led to the fact that they, becoming antonyms, stylistically diversify the language. Numerous sociological, psychological, cultural and historical studies clearly show the relationship of man with the corresponding signs, expressed by words of opposite meanings. For example, summer is usually compared not only with heat, light, but also with goodness, beauty, coziness, and winter embodies cold, evil, harshness. The antonyms day—night also symbolize good and evil (not only the light and dark hours of the day). In Lithuanian there are quite a lot of examples of small folklore and phraseological combinations with these words. For example: Night work — day jokes Grz. Day laughs for night B; golden days Rdm "good life"; black night Dv "bad life"; winter summer Ob "all the time". Most often in speech such phraseologisms mean a generalized action or duration of a phenomenon from the beginning to the end and expressively describe quality, time, space, emotions, etc. For example: He works day and night (all the time) for J.Jabl. That stream never freezes: in winter in summer (always) alma Zp. Good bad (any) — mother still child Trgn. These pragmatic, syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations of opposites are illustrated in an unusually vivid way by the following scheme, based on the antonyms summer — winter: av of A WE le dP * 0 < i Ww VAS, rd it shui, WINTER Y r mark mark V Ww DN m KJ 3 2 = 5 3 | 2 item ! item "Here is clearly shown the relationship between the ir meaning of the sign, ir 24 + that imagery (i.e. concepts). The concept, in turn, links the sign and the object as an intermediate link. This graphic illustration highlights all the diverse characteristics of antonyms and the complex internal relations of this phenomenon (HoBuxros 1973: 65). Other stylistic means—antithesis, paradox, oxymoron, irony, etc.—also pragmatically diversify the language. Antithesis (Greek: antithesis — contradiction) — the rapprochement of opposing but semantically related images, strengthening the logical and emotional impression. Antithesis, usually created from antonyms or just opposite concepts, clarifies the characters of the actors, defines the most important features of actions and phenomena. The antitheses are simple extended. ir The simple antitheses are illustrated by the following examples: In black soil white bread grows J.Jabl. Buying cheaply costs expensive. More intelligence, less excellence Vlkv. Happiness sings, misery wails LTs. Spacious gates to enter, but narrow to exit B. For good all good, for bad all bad LTs. J. Jabl was born small — he grew up big. Extended antitheses are illustrated by sentences with a much more complex syntactic structure. There is a certain difference between these types of antitheses. For example: You started from far away, although you came from close by (about diplomatic behaviour) J.Marcin. You won't go beyond the rivers when you want to - let Sdk. When the sun does not rise up, it sets down. What the sober thinks, the drunk says Pnd. Work brings bread, laziness brings hardship. We often learn to teach others, but we are rarely able to teach ourselves. The cowardly leaf is frightened, courageous and does not run from the wolf Vlkj. With malice, you won't win anything, with kindness, you'll do everything. Without a mask to be born is easy and to die is easy, only to live is difficult J.Gruš. Mother punish with one hand, the other holds Brž. He was a fool when he was tied (poor), a cunning man when he became chebat (enriched) fik. Do not speak long — a short word is more important than a long speech Nm. Paradox (Greek: παράδοξος, paradoxos, "unexpected") is a pragmatic opposition. It is usually used to express an unexpected opinion, contrary to prevailing beliefs, as if contrary to logical thinking. This stylistic figure belongs to the sphere of aphorisms, often based on irony and usually used in satire and rhetoric. It is not for nothing that J. Pikčilingis claimed that "stylistical strength" is gained from the antonymic comparison of phenomena (Pikčilingis 1975: 230). This stylistic figure is particularly abundant in small folklore (as well as antithesis), living language and fiction (mainly poetry). For example: When death is far away, it is called, when it is near — it is hunted Skr. It's better to die decently than to live undecently. Twelve dormant virtues do not control one awakened weakness V.Kar. [bitter fear tells more truth than frightened courage V.Kar. It's a good thing that a man gets sick, Sim. Whoever blasphemes—is given to himself, whoever is drunk—is given to another. To speak foolishly, better to keep silent wisely An. My child, you don't know yet, I'm deadly wounded in life, Mr. Mart. What will you sweeten the water with—with the bitterness of ash? Mr. Mart. Better a bitter truth than a sweet lie J.Mik. The word oxymoron is derived from the Greek oxys (selfish) and morphe (word). The comparis25 on of seemingly logically different words in a coherent context creates a new, usually semantically unusual combination, giving the impression of surprise. By combining such seemingly incompatible words, objects, phenomena, characteristics and properties acquire additional features that enliven the language. An oxymoron is usually composed of an adjective (the participant or the noun performing its functions) + a noun. For example: a cruel mercy (In the guests’ salelé[je] angry people, the cruel’s mercy JD183). great unknown (In fact, we buried the great worker K.Bugas as a great unknown... A.Sal). tear of joy (You are, fire, you golden bell of wheat, hope —in distress, pain, as a tear of joy bright B.Braz). Living dead (In the dark shadows of the night walking dead J.Gruš. No, the living dead could not be a popular audience in the eyes of the authorities B.Sruog). a young old man; an elderly young man (The current generation is young, long ago... You are an elderly young man J. Grush). royal poverty (I fell on the fallen leaves of an oak tree. What a royal poverty! : foolish mind (Foolish mind makes everyone laugh TZIII380). leesas peniukšlis (Leesą peniukšlį pjaustėm, brinda —vienos plėvės LI). unrepeated hanger (justice was thus victimized: B.Sruog no longer caught the unrepeated hanger). never-ending beginning (Blind as a creator of love, powerful, uncontrollable as God, coming through heart visions, you —the never-ending beginning J.Grus). sausos ašaros (She wept with dry tears, buried her mother-in-law KrvP(Drsk)). sounding silence (in autumn we feel the beauty of nature like never before, we listen to the sounding silence rs). midwinter heat (And on the heart it still snows — flowers, snow — snows... What an unearthly midwinter heat! B.Braz). public secret (It is a public secret that some teachers of other subjects [not Lithuanian language] have a rather poor knowledge of the language, make many elementary language mistakes, etc.). The most important feature of an oxymoron is that the object, phenomenon or characteristic, expressed by one word, is additionally described by the second, which is semantically completely opposite to the first. This makes the essence of the characterized object more evident against the background of contrast. Sometimes the usual structure of oxymorons is altered (especially in poetic language- ), i.e. the members of this stylistic figure are replaced. For example: There is only this instant — the all-encompassing and eternal J.Marcin. I'm a dreamer flying love joy sophisticated B.Sruog. Next to "traditional" oxymorons, new, intellectual ones are now being created. For example: Oh, the earth! She doesn't like fairy tales in her fairy-tale everyday life. And the freaks still do not turn her face to the most fantastic reality J.Marcin. Sutverk mane —ugninį aisbergą, tamsos gelmėj pažinęs aistrą rš. 26 This stylistic figure can be extended to three (or even more) members. For example: I felt a growing burden—like a stone, a bundle of words, and sometimes a sweet apple, K. Brad. Glory to the sun that rises in the morning, and to the greatness of our little hearts B.Braz. Sometimes oxymorons are made not only from a subjunctive + noun, but also from other parts of speech (verbs and their forms, adverbs), which perform the same functions semantically and stylistically. For example, the phrase "Not to the ground" is not to the ground. Let us show Links: ma veida, Sypsokimes apstašarodomi, juk dar ne viskas prapuldyta Kel1866, In the latest linguistic literature oxymorons are still 127%. : called ” paradoxinémis antitezémis” (JIuTepaTypHbIft BHILHKJIONeJH4uecKHiH cioBapb 1987: 258), because | the semantic structure of this figure includes both paradox and antithesis elements. Irony (Greek: eironeia — fake ignorance) is also expressed in the form of an antonym, although the usual pair of antonyms is not present. Irony is usually illustrated by logically incompatible concepts, which imply the hidden superiority of the evaluator of the situation, ridicule, even pity, repulsive laugh. It is only the apparent seriousness with which an opinion is expressed that distinguishes irony from humor and satire. This stylistic means in speech is expressed by comparisons, tropes and other figurative expressions, which in the context acquire meanings opposite to the direct. For example: White it shoe heel PPr315. White as soot KrvP(Vrn- ). You're as beautiful as a puppy. Clever as a ram, courageous as a hare PPr345. I love you like a dog loves a cat, Al. He talks like a goose to a pig B. Beautiful as a fairy child PPr284. He lives as a goat with a ram Sb. Fat as an axe, round as a taur Krd. And this is fat — one bone! LTR (Grk). He was happy as a child, having tasted the whip KrvP(Mrk). Terribly strong —between the fingers like an egg released KrvP(Ps). It's hard as chicken feathers to carry LTR. Don't be afraid, you're behind me like a straw LT R(Užg). Lives as a couple with cat LTR(Km). Pity as a wolf goat Pmp. Clever as a hen, strong as a sheep KrvP(Ut). Sick whistles, from the mouth of the cat does not replace LTR(Erz). With words he breaks down walls, and with work he breaks not down the walls. Such a courageous man will be frightened by Zgsina and others. You can't mix up with beauty, Er. He rides on a mare, and you look for a mare B. Brave goat near a dead wolf Vdk. Drunk and in the mud dry TZI11378(- Vrn). What kind of gentleman wouldn't have a debt? Skd. And the cat is strong to the dead dog LTR(Vdk). Šleivas —eiklus, šveplas —šnekus Brb. You can't buy LTR(Jz) from a goose's oats. From a pragmatic point of view, contextual antonyms, which give the language a lot of visuality and meaningfulness, should also be analyzed. In fact, there are quite a few such antonyms in Lithuanian. The common component Jy is secondary in comparison with the real antonyms (e.g., young — old, top — bottom), and the relationship of opposites is usually symbolic. 27 Contextual antonyms acquire opposite meanings only in a certain cohesive context. For example: i Leke as a falcon, landed as a beetle M.Valanč. You see the speck in another's eye, but not the log in your own. These antonyms symbolize both concrete and abstract characteristics of people, things or phenomena. These characteristics are so intertwined that it is often difficult to limit the interpretation of contextual antonyms to one or two words. For example: a) greatness, strength, power; worthiness, pride—minority, weakness; inferiority, humility are expressed by certain pairs of antonyms. For example: oak — shoot, reed; deer — pigeon, sparrow; cereals — meal, straw; bull —fly, sparrow; carriage — shaps; wolf — sheep, lamb; From the gray ashes, from the pain and the ruins you will go with the green branch of spring to the sun of God, the great and bright oak of destiny, not the path of the seedling! B.Braz. Juozas Gruodis was not a reed and according to his spiritual dispositions could not bend, reacting to every blow of the wind. It was an oak that could only break sp. Better a sparrow in the hand than a deer in the forest M.Valanč. Better in the nails (in the nails) doves, not moose in the forest (in the forest) prš. If I try to pick out the grains of his thoughts from all that I have read, I usually find nothing but the dust of rs. More straw from that work than grain KrvP(ŽI). The word sparrow escapes, and feel returns LTs. Your word flew like a fly, and came like a bird. On the other shovel, on his own no carriage LTR(Mrj). Guards like a wolf sheep Btg. He covered himself with the fur of a lamb (seems gentle), but the claws of a wolf cannot be hidden. Promise like a hiccup, and gift like a nail VK). b) activity, industriousness — inactivity, laziness. For example: horse —cock; man —shepherd (That to work as a cock, to eat as a horse J.Jabl. Pri (prie) bliūdo kopūstų vyras, pri (prie) dalgio —example VP38). c) pleasure, attractiveness — unpleasantness, repulsion. For example: honey —pepper; wax —stone (Honey sow, pepper cut Sch88(B). Medum sowing, pepper explodes MZ331. The man's heart is stone, the woman's heart is wax. d) inspiration, elevation — everydayness, simplicity. For example: poetry — prose (We are looking for the sources of poetry in everyday life, wandering through prose B.Braz). e) any beginning, life — any end, death. For example: alpha —omega (Words of the native language are our alpha and omega, from them you can make a spell for yourself and others, you can put them under the head of a sick person sp. The stream runs through the native green old-fashioned farm, which as the alpha — omega of life as if silver shines out of dusk B.Braz). Both members of this pair of antonyms as if merge into a whole and in their meaning approach phraseology. The wholeness of life (i.e., the beginning and the end) is also symbolised by these antonyms — cradle — grave, coffin (Death in my cradle you wrapped, so that there would be again living graves, M.Mart. 28 Interestingly, alongside the old, traditional contextual antonyms, such as: horse — rooster, grain — mouse, found — crystal, shapes, etc., new ones are being created, adapted to the poetic and intellectual environment. Thai alpha-omega; ocean — drop; poetry — prose; pyramid — anthill, etc. Pragmatically analyzing language contradictions, a particularly interesting and very old language phenomenon — enantiosemity — falls into the eye. It is believed that this phenomenon originated in times when the original meanings of words were not yet differentiated. Especially clear enantiosemy is found in verbs that in one way or another denote temperature fluctuations (e.g., burn, cook, burn; burn, cook, bake, burn, etc.). In this case, the same word has two opposite meanings — it can mean intense, intense warming (or heating) and freezing (or cooling). (This linguistic phenomenon requires a separate article, dedicated only to it, so it is thought to be analyzed in more detail in the future.) Most often, words opposed in speech have pragmatic properties. These words are distinguished by their expressive contrast, although often neither in content nor in form do not resemble "traditional" antonyms. For example, children—parents relate as antonyms, denoting generations of different, sometimes even opposite views. Such pragmatic opposites as work — word are also regularly used in speech; a celebration — everyday life; sky — earth, etc. Pragmatic opposites are usually of a connotative nature, i.e. the secondary meaning is emphasized (The oppression of stone suppresses the hearts and minds, the oppression binds the hands and feet.) However, in some cases such pragmatic oppositions even reinforce the corresponding semantic oppositions, for example: heaven — earth (high — low); heaven — hell (good — bad), etc. Antonym is an important lexical and semantic phenomenon, which has been analyzed relatively little in Lithuanian lexicology and presented little and incorrectly in lexicography. It is one of the composite elements of lexis and semantics, showing the natural need of the human mind to compare and examine the opposites of various kinds and types. The very structure of antonyms is based on opposites, which in language mean opposite logical concepts. ABBREVIATIONS M. Daukš Daukša M. (between 1527 and 1538 —1613), his writings V. Kar Karalius V., his writings M. Mart Martinaitis M., his writings K. Sirv Sirvydas K. (between 1578 and 1581 —1631), his writings, St.Šalk Šalkauskis St. (1886 —1941), his writings (Other abbreviations in "Lietuvių kalbos žodynas") LITERATURE Drotvinas V. 1986: Pagrindinės leksikologijos sąvokos, Vilnius. Ermanyte I. 1985: Lithuanian language antonyms dictionary, Kaunas. 29 1973: The New York Times: A Critical Commentary. —Language Culture 25, 32–33. Ermanyte I. 1982: Two stylistic functions of words of overarching meaning. —Language Culture 42, 24—2T. Ermanyte I. 1984: On the meaning and use of antonyms in language. —Language Culture 46, 43–46. 1991. "Antonyme of the same verb". —Language Culture 61, T3—T4. Ermanyte I. 1993: Contextual antonyms. —Language Culture 65, T4—78. Gaivenis K.,Keinys S. 1990: Dictionary of Language Terms, Kaunas. Jakaitienė E. 1980: Lithuanian Language Lexicology, Vilnius. 1988: Lexical semantics, Vilnius. Lexikon PWN. 1972: New York. Palionis J. 1985: Basics of Language Science, Vilnius. Palmer F. R. 1982: Semantic a new outline, Moscow. 1977: Dictionary of English Phrases and Phraseology. 1987: Systematic Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language, Vilnius. Pikčilingis J. 1975: Lithuanian Language Stylistics 2, Vilnius. Sosiūras F. 1983: General Linguistics Course. —Thought and Sign, 140. Webster 1973: Webster- 's New Dictionary of Synonyms. A Dictionary of Discriminated Synonyms with Antonyms and Analogous and Contrasted Words, Springfield. Vosylytė K. B. 1985: Comparative Dictionary of Lithuanian Language, Vilnius. Zuperka J. 1983: Lithuanian language stylistics, Vilnius. 3uxnoBpreBB A. A. 1971: Jlozuxa nayxu, Mocksa. Kapayanos IH. H. 1972: CTpykTypa JIEKCcHKO-- CeEMAHTHUEeCKOTMO IIOJIA. — Hayunbie doxaadn evicurell wrxoavt. Puaoaozuvecxue nayxu 1, 57-68. I'm not sure what you mean. 1987: Mocksaa. HoBu cos Ji. A. 1973: Aumonumus e pyccxom azvine (Cemanmuvecxull anarus npomueonoaoxcnocmu 8 aexcuxe), Mocksa. Coccwop O. no. 1933: Kypc obuetl aunzeucxux, Mocksa. AN OPPOSITION AS A SEMANTIC AND A LOGICAL FOUNDATION OF ANTONYMY Summary A logical foundation of antonymy is created not by contradictory (baltas —nebaltas), but contrary (baltas —juodas) conceptions. In this way a lexical antonymy by its logical and semantic content concerns these oppositions. An inherent semantic sing of antonymity is a greatest negation, which turns up only during the semantic analysis, which is being maked in a sintagmic and paradigmic way. In this case antonyms are interpreted as a matter of the text and the language system. Pragmatic way also is important for the semantics of antonyms. In this context, the term "vasara" is used to describe not only the warmth, but also the light, goodness and comfort, and the term "žiema" is used to describe darkness, badness and discomfort, but not only the cold. A stylistic variety and figurativeness is a pragmatic characteristics of the nature of antonymy. Antonyms give emotionaly to the language, make it more sugestive and richer. Such an important stylistic figures there are: antithesis, paradox, irony. Antonyms can make oxymorons —stylistic figure, which is made of two logically incompatible words. Contextual antonyms also broghten up the language. The relations of oppositions here are symbolical and a common component is secondary. 30 Antonymous phraseologisms diversify tlie language very much. They mean generalized a action the lenght the of phenomenon from the of begining the end and expresionally described guality, time, to space and on. so ; The another phenomenon antonymity of enentiosemy — wonderful — is a way anliven the to language. 31