Lietuvių kalbos daiktavardiniai junginiai sintaksinių ryšių požiūriu

ACTA LINGUISTICA LITHUANICA XLVIII (2003), 143 -158 In this paper, a new classification of Lithuanian nominal groups is proposed, based on criteria different from those formerly used in Lithuanian grammar. In this paper, a new classification of Lithuanian nominal groups is proposed, based on criteria different from those formerly used in Lithuanian grammar. Whereas the traditional classifications were based on heterogeneous criteria, partly syntactic but predominantly morphosyntactic, the classification proposed here is based on the fundamental distinction opposing complements to modifiers, regardless of morphosyntactic features. 1. CLASSIFICATION OF ADAPTIVE WORDS In the modern syntax of the Lithuanian language, there is a tendency to classify connective word connections according to purely formal criteria. Depending on the formal expression of the dependent point of the compound, three ways of connection are distinguished: coordination, control and weaving (Ambrazas 1986: 7-9; Ambrazas, ed., 1997: 480; Labutis 1998: 29-43). In some places, correlation of forms is still distinguished (Labutis 1998: 38), but it is generally regarded as a certain subspecies of coordination (Ambrazas 1986: 7-9; Ambrazas, ed., 1997: 480). In classifying relations according to the formal expression of the dependent element, coordination is usually described as “the choice of the morphological form (vowel, number, gender) of the dependent word according to the main word”, control — as “the choice of the vowel form of the dependent word, conditioned by the conjugality of the main word”, and fusion — as “the connection, not expressed in the conjugation ending of the dependent word” (Ambrazas, ed., 1997: 480-481). When selecting the form criterion, very clear boundaries are drawn between the individual connection methods. In practice, it is quite simple to determine the connections between the elements of any noun compound: compounds whose dependent element has formal indicators adapted to the formal indicators of the main element (copper handle, wooden spoon, nine brothers, all people) are to be considered as compounds formed by combination, in all compounds whose dependent element has a different verbal form from the main element (writing a letter, golden ring, gift to parents, way down the river) there is noticeable control, and those compounds whose dependent element has no formal indicator (hope to return, opportunity to visit, step back, life abroad) are to be assigned to the group of compounds formed by weaving. However, such a practical classification indicates not so much syntactic as morphological differences in relation. In some works, coordination, control and weaving are not even called syntactic relations — they are referred to as formal relationships between words or formal ways of expressing relationships (Labutis 1998: 29-43). This concept of word connections, apparently, 144 | RAMUNĖ VASKELAITĖ A great deal is determined by the task posed in the current syntax of Lithuanian language “to define as clearly as possible and to distinguish on one basis at least the most important categories of form and semantics” (Ambrazas 1986: 4). The definition of a word is based on its meaning, and the definition of a word is based on the meaning of the word itself. A different classification of connective links is typical of the Lithuanian language syntax of the previous years. In it, the relations are classified according to the specific requirements of the main element of the word combination, but at the same time the formal expression of the dependent element is also taken into account (Balkevičius 1963: 29-39; Kalinauskas 1961: 31-34; 1972: 3-6; Ulvydas, ed., 1976: 12-17; Sirtautas 1981: 14; Sirtautas, Grenda 1988: 38-42). The two ways of connecting—controlling and blending—- are tried to be distinguished by two criteria at once—the requirement of the main node and the form of the dependent node: “Controlling is considered such a syntactic relationship when the main node requires a certain form of the dependent node (the dependent node is formally defined by the main node). Spreading is a connection where a dependent node joins the main node, the latter is not required; it is formally undefined, only logically linked to the main focus” (Ulvydas, ed., 1976: 12). The relationship of coordination is already associated only with the form of the dependent point: “The coordination is called the adaptation of the dependent démens form to the main démens form” (UIlvydas, ed., 1976: 11). As specific communication cases show, it is practically impossible to reconcile two different criteria. In Lithuanian there are many cases of word connections where the dependent accent is variable but the principal is not required (placeholder or prepositional constructions, some adjectives), or where the dependent accent has no formal indicators but is required for the principal (some adverbs, adverbs or aims). Studies of the valence of verbs, which are particularly useful for the explanation of word relations, also confirm that the necessary valence consonants do not always have the forms of the verb, and the non-necessary consonants of the verb are not always formally unmarked members (Sližienė 1986: 45-96, 1994, 1998). When assigning the cases of connections mentioned here to the control or weaving group, it is necessary to decide which of the two criteria to recognize as more important. In the most comprehensive description of syntactic relationships — the trilogy “Grammar of the Lithuanian language” — there is inconsistency: in one case one criterion is recognized as more important, in another — another. For example, circumstantial verbs and prepositional constructions are considered to be interjections because the main focus does not require them. However, the next time it is more important not to consider whether or not a requirement is made, but to consider whether a formal expression is present, and all noun-related adjectives are considered to be controlled — in fact, they are sometimes required of the main element no more than circumstantial verbs or prepositional constructions. According to the grammar, the word connections in the compounds mountain lake, town house, African sand dunes, autumn night, golden ring should be distinguished from the compounds lake in the mountains, town house, sand dunes in Africa, autumn night, ring of gold points — the former should be regarded as control, the latter — as melting. On the other hand, circumstantial dependent elements may also be necessary for the main word. For example, such elements are required by the verbs come, go, travel, march, and thus also by nouns made from them, 145 and most nouns with a specific meaning, such as lake, house, do not require them at all. In grammar, such differences are ignored — both in the compound trova kaime, and in marš į Lietuvą or kelionė iki Vilnius, we see a fusion. Nothing is said about those noun compounds whose dependent accent is expressed in the singular. In general, the section on syntactic relationships of the above-mentioned grammar does not discuss all cases of syntactic relationships of noun compounds, and the section on noun compounds does not analyze subject relationships at all. In foreign linguistics, syntactic relationships are usually defined and classified according to one criterion — the requirement or non-requirement of the main focus. In addition to the two above-mentioned, there are two other types of substituents: substituents that are required by the base element and substituents that are not required by the base element. The most recent dictionary of linguistic terms distinguishes two word connections — complementation and modification. A complement is defined as "a syntactic element that completes the construction of another element" (Matthews 1997: 63). Modification is described as “a type of syntactic construction in which a non-required element goes with the main focus” (Matthews 1997: 229). This division of connections is most often applied to verb combinations and is based on the concept of circumstances, which are the verb’s complements and its unrequired elements. It is more difficult to distinguish the suffixes in noun combinations, but in foreign linguistics there is a widespread view that nouns can have their own arguments —semantically required, but syntactically not always realized suffixes (Matthews 1981: 146-220). The distinction between complementary and non-complementary elements (modifiers) of a compound has great theoretical significance in generative grammar: in newer works of generative grammar, the structure of all compounds is usually described according to a universal model — the so-called "X-bar" theory, the basis of which was formulated by Jackendoff (Jackendoff 1977). The non-required words of nouns, or modifiers, are divided into adjuncts, attributes, and determiners in some works of generative grammar, all of which are opposed to the noun-required words, the auxiliaries (Radford 1988: 167-217). Analyzing noun phrases using the generative analysis method, A. Radford points out that both complements and circumstances, adjectives or determinants can be optional members of a noun phrase, but in the case of circumstances and adjectives, the very rule of generating those phrases is optional. In the Lithuanian language syntax, there have also been attempts to distinguish the noun-dependent parts of the sentence. For example, the adjectives governed by derived nouns (poem writing, canvas weaving) are distinguished from other incompatible adjectives and considered as complements (Balkevičius 1963: 186). In “Lietuvių kalbos gramatika” all verbs, prepositional constructions, communicatives and participles that belong to a noun are considered to be incoordinative signs, but it is noted that some of them are closer in meaning to complements or circumstances, and are considered to be signs only because they are not directly related to the conjunct (Ulvydas, ed., 1976: 418-428). V. Ambrazas, discussing the action- 146 | RAMUNĖ VASKELAITĖ, considering the combinations of nouns with the adjective, expresses the opinion that “only the adjectives in the context of transformational (or derivative) sentence analysis, which depend on the verb nouns (the sun’s light, the rotation of the wheel), can be considered as factors or complements of the secondary adverbs included in the sentence” (Ambrazas 1986: 34). The overview shows that the concept of syntactic relationships is related to the chosen criteria for classifying those relationships. In Lithuanian syntax, the two types of connections — controlling and weaving — tend to be distinguished either by the formal indicators of the dependent element, or by the requirement of the principal element. The classification, based on the criterion of the dependent spot form, is practical because it allows to draw a very clear line between control and weaving. However, it indicates not so much syntactic as morphological differences in relation. The classification presented in Lithuanian linguistic works is closer to the concept of syntactic relationships, as it is oriented to the basic démeni, to its requirement or non-requirement of a certain addition. However, it raises a number of contradictions and ambiguities, as the formal criterion is often confused. This article will avoid this confusion — control and blending will be distinguished only by the requirement of the main focus. We will consider such a connection as controlling when the dependent node joins the main node that requires it, and we will consider such a connection as blending when the dependent node joins the main node that does not require it. Such a refined concept of control and fusion will be tried to apply to noun compounds widely used in the current Lithuanian language. We will distinguish two noun compounds: 1) compounds formed by control; (2) compounds formed by casting. If we understand spreading as the connection of non-required elements with nouns and do not associate it with the possession or lack of formal indicators of the dependent element, such a connection could also be considered as a combination. However, the coordination relationship has its own specific characteristics and therefore requires a separate consideration. 2. NOUNS CONSTITUTED BY THE METHOD OF CONTROL COMPOUNDS 2.1. Characteristics of the main spot To control, or to require a certain addition, tend those nouns that are made from words with the characteristic of control. However, this tendency is not only related to the constructive, but also to the lexical characteristics of the noun. It is not necessary to supplement all the Vedas, but only those that have an abstract meaning. The tendency to control is mainly maintained by the derivatives of verbs, which are the names of actions (1-5) or states (6-8), e.g.: (1) Until the final approval of the declaration it was not available to the public LR (R-V) 2001 11 22. (2) Support for the interim government would also decrease (R-V) 2001 11 22. (3) After a two-year break, the repayment of impaired ruble deposits to the first group of residents was resumed 12 January 2002. (4) Z. B. objects to the inclusion of Russia in the NATO Council LR (R-V) 2001 12 08. NOUNS COMPOUNDS | 147 (5) Criminals demanded negotiation su state LR (R-V) 2001 01 06. (6) Children- 's į attitude to life Sick so different than mine L 2001 09. (7) A. L. tendency į to harsh rhetoric known LR (R-V) 2002 11 16. (8) Researchers link employees’ unwillingnear ss to come to work į with su work-related factors VP 2001 07-08. The group of abstract nouns with the characteristic of control includes those nouns denoting ir action or state that have a ar common root with verbs, e.g. : su (9) He decides to devote his energy to fighting crime su VAT 2002 05 04-10. (10) When the war on terror began in su October, America gave H. K. weapons and food VAT 2002 05 04-10. (11) He demonstrated that The US is ready for the sacrifices of its soldiers on the battlefield LR (R-V) 2001 10 17. The control feature of iš verbs is usually taken over by verb nouns, ir which denote the performer of the action said in the base word, e.g. : (12) Belarus is the main supplier of military weapons to the radical Islamic world LR (R-V) 2002 12 12. (13) The number of asylum seekers in Norway has increased sevenfold in recent years LR (R-V) 2002 11 17. (14) One of the iš suspected assassins of į the president's brother Thursday į night north of Miami stopped by traffic police LR 2002 01 12. (15) 15-year-old gymnast distributed the Lithuanian Catholic Church chronicle ir here was an active fighter už Freedom of Lithuania VAT 2003 08 08-14. The ability to control is maintained by nouns, su adjectives made in various forms of construction. iš Some adjectives are tų primary words but most often they have a Vedic (16), tendency to control the inherited base verbs. Adjective (17-19), nouns denote an abstract property, e.g. : iš (16) The first discussion about the increase in electricity prices for small |...) consumers broke out at the end of R 2002 01 26. (17) the year. LR 2002 11 26. (18) It's hard to say, this escalation ar of fighting is related to su O. bin Ladenu ir The Taliban, which even before September showed a marked intolerance to other religions LR (R-V) 2001 12 29. (19) This fact has been presented as An example of Moscow’s ir favour to Tbilisi and refusal to put pressure on it LR (R-V) 2001 10 20. Some nouns require a dependent ir object, making such an object necessary for primary nouns. iš The Vedic here indicates an abstract feature, e.g. : 148 | CHAMOMILLE VASKELAITĖ (20) E. K. publicly announced the suspension of his membership Homeland In the ir Union, this party's factionje LR 1996 10 01. (21) European membership will take iš away our national sovereignty LA 1999 01 23. (22) It seemed that the friendship su with the photographer healed Shows heart wounds LR (GB) 2002 08 31. (23) Car theft a headache — for officers LR (S) 1999 01 22. Usually, a dependent object is required for iš nouns with a lot of control attributes, e.g. : (24) During the search of the mosque complex, officers found numerous evidences LR (R-V) 2001 01 25. (25) Most of these individuals were initially charged with fundraising For Palestinian ir Chechen fighters KP 2001 06. Separately mentioned are the international words with a Lithuanian non-Lithuanian form. (26, 27) ar (28-34) They can be perceived as actions of states (26-30), of (31), properti- (32) ar es of actors (33, 34) names. (26) Bishops approved the organization of such an ir exhibition seminar LA 2001 10 02. (27) Deployment of US troops in Central Asia may harm Russia's influence in the region LR 2001 10 27. (28) Po its beginning The occupation of Iraq will cost the United 200 States billions. dollars or even more LR (R-V) 2001 11 16. (29) Only integration issues were touched on į ES V 1997 12 06. (30) But earlier this month, šį Washington lifted the aforementioned sanctions on Pakistan ir India |...) LA 2001 10 02. (31) But suddenly there was a great nostalgia for those times in the municipality LR 1999 01 19. (32) Sunday late night near At the meeting in Gravenbruch, Frankfurt, the management unanimously approved D. Schipanski candidacy LR 1999 01 26. (33) The project coordinator in Lithuania R. L. briefly recalled the history of this project V 1999 07 30. (34) R. A. — The conductor of the ir Lithuanian National Radio and — Television Orchestra wrote the lyrics [...] LR (S) 2001 12 15. Some international words with the characteristic of control do not have a definite formant, but they can be associated with Lithuanian abstract nouns with such a formant, e.g. : su (35) One such visit į Pietų Africa Republic (plg. travel į Pietų Africa Republic) during Margaret confessed to her sister that teenage fascination turned into true love LR (GB) 2002 02 15. (36) So far, only military conflict is not intensifying su Iranu (plg. disagreement su "Iran's new LR (R-V) 2003 01 18. NOUN CONJUNCTIONS | 149 (37) R. D. engaged in cigarette smuggling (cf. cigarette transportation) LR 2001 12 08. Non-derived nouns may also require a specific dependent element. These elements are usually required for nouns that designate a person according to his relationship with other individuals (38, 39), groups (39, 40) or organisations (41). In such cases, it is necessary to specify in relation to whom the person is named, e.g.: (38) The future husband of the actress — a New York theatre manager 36 years old P G. LR (GB) 2001 12 29. (39) The first nephew was the groom's friend C. G., a member of a famous British politician family LR (GB) 2001 12 29. president calls for talks with Iran" (PDF) (2001-11-27). (41) An increasing number of Norwegians would like Norway to become a member of the European Union LR 1998 12 19. Subordinate elements are also required for nouns denoting a part of the whole. They require an indication of who owns the share. In combinations of such nouns with dependent elements, control can also be seen, e.g.: (42) This is another reason why the events of last Saturday in the emperor's family became part of his personal life for almost every Japanese LR (R-V) 2001 12 08. (43) This is the most complex and dangerous part of the art of warfare LR (R-V) 2001 10 27. (44) Their upholstered furniture is covered with sheepskin pieces M 1999 08. (45) In addition, Madonna’s best works are in the dance music genre, one of the most mature forms of music, with clear elements of Latin American and black culture. 2001 12 15-21. Some of these nouns may mean an indefinite amount — in such cases they need to be supplemented even more, e.g.: (46) A considerable part of the statements against Lithuania have been written by prisoners LR 2002 12 07. Other nouns denoting an indefinite quantity (47, 48) or a measure of quantity (49, 50) also have the characteristic of strong control, e.g.: (47) Since when have the Yankees thrown a pile of paper from the roof of the World Trade Center? LR (R-V) 2001 12 29. (48) And the manager will notice another thing: there are no guilty persons in the institution, suddenly there are a lot of assistants VP 2000 12. (49) Representatives of Klaipeda special services yesterday decided that it is necessary to remove 30 tons of chemical substances of unclear origin LR 2001 11 17. (50) A farmer who eats little other food is killed by 30 kilograms of sand per week LR 2001 12 22. 150 | 150 2.2. Dependent spot characteristics The above-mentioned derived and non-derived nouns usually control various objective verbs and non-verbal forms. In the first instance, the objective objective objective objective objective objective objective objective objective objective objective objective objective objective The expression of the genitive in noun combinations of objective meaning is inherited from the verb combination (51, 52, 53), but sometimes it has been acquired by a verb combination with the adjective (54), the noun (55) or the adverb (56, 57), e.g.: (31) The longing for harmony encourages the search for pure spirituality L 1998 06. (52) Seeking help is a kind of fear of not being able to manage yourself L 1998 08. (53) The need for love is very natural and understandable L 1998 06. (54) In one of the documents it was recorded that the consignee in Lithuania is D. S. individual company LA 1999 01 23. (55) A girl, returning from school, told her mother about the trip organized by the school, about the travel costs, the route, the reactions of her friends L 1998 06. (56) Status is currently engaged in real estate trading R 2000 12 29. (57) Drug dealers or intermediaries usually give the first pills to adolescents free of charge LA 2001 10 02. There is also a number of categories of objects that can be classified by the number of objects that they contain. In Lithuanian syntax works their meanings are called objective (Ambrazas, ed., 1997: 512-513) or quantitative (Ulvydas, ed., 1976: 202-203). The 1990s saw a decline in the number of marriages, with only 38% of marriages ending in divorce, compared to 58% in 1980. (59) A. S. Naujuosius was previously met with a group of friends in LR (SA) 2001 12 29. (60) At the end of last week, due to debts to waste collectors, mountains of garbage accumulated LR (S) 2001 10 27. (61) It tortures countless people around the world LA 1999 01 23. Some nouns require an objective noun to be completed. It corresponds to the noun (62-66), the suffix (67, 68), sometimes — the pronoun (69), the suffix (70) of verbs or adjectives, e.g.: (62) What concessions will Putin negotiate for not opposing NATO expansion? (R-V) 2002 01 12. (63) It is said that she was encouraged to do so by the growing American disapproval of her brutal methods of fighting. (64) At the same time, the agreement on the return of Vilnius Region to Lithuania would be declared illegal LR (R-V) 2002 06 29. (65) This decision allowed the extradition procedure to Spain to be initiated on 19 January 1999. 151 (66) Such US favour for Russia is explained by some as a result of Washington’s recent increased disagreements with its allies in Europe LR (R-V) 2001 12 22. (67) We are very different, but we are united in love for the Lord L 1998 08. (68) Another important decision was the US economic support to Russia on 17 November 2001. (69) Psychologists speculate that the initial hatred for O. bin Laden could have turned into sympathy for LR (R-V) 2002 01 12. (70) Public Attention to Japanese Catholic Family Declined in Recent Years (R-V) 2001 12 08. The controlled member of a noun compound is often also the possessor of an object (71-75) or a means (76), corresponding to the inagininka in verb-subject compounds, e.g.: (71) This is —the paradox of this conflict: threatening war can lead to peace LR (R-V) 2003 01 25. (72) After the suicide flight, a note proofing his admiration for Osama bin Laden was found in the boy's pocket LR (R-V) 2001 01 12. (73) Disappointment in the relationship between man and woman has accompanied the actress for five years LR (GB) 2002 08 31. (74) Then the confidence in the Strasbourg Court judging the state increases considerably. (75) However, 34-year-- old R. N. is tormented by disagreement — her daughter, who escaped from the traps of human traffickers, does not even tell her what she had to experience LR (GB) 2002 11 09. we a 1998 08. Object-oriented prepositional constructions of nouns are also controlled, e.g. : (77) The subtleties of communication with customers 75-year-- old tailor learned during long years of work in LR (GB) 2002 12 07. (78) 69 percent of Russians support political rapprochement with the United States LR (R-V) 2001 12 08. (79) Soon after getting acquainted with the Americans, the section of the society was established in Kaunas, Lithuania (GB) 2003 01 25. (80) Refugees from Islamic countries also seek contact with Lithuanian Muslims R 2002 02 23. (81) The Queen actively supported the development of the navy and thus opened the way for maritime trade with the New World M 1988 08. (82) Separate mention should be made of the Swedish approach to parenting in KP 2001 06. Often the noun is required, therefore controlled, and there is also objective communicative, e.g.: (83) But most of all the Canadian emphasized the inability or inability to promote his country LR 1996 11 27. (84) This is an even more refined ability to follow and take care of the directions dictated by the great world fashion houses 1 1999 12. 158 | RAMUNĖ VASKELAITĖ M-Moteris (magazine) N —Namas, kuriame gyvenu (magazine) 7MD -7 meno dienos (self-published newspaper) P-Panelė (magazine) R-Respublika (daily newspaper) R (B) -Brigita (weekly supplement of "Respublika") TVA —Televizijos antena (weekly supplement of "Lietuvos rytas") V — Veidas (weekly magazine) VP —Vadovo pasaulis (journal) VŽ-Vakaro žinios (daily newspaper) LITERATŪRA AMBRAZAS, V. 1986: Units of the Syntactic and Semantic Structure of the Sentence in Lithuanian Language. Language Studies 25, 4-44. AMBRAZAS, V, ed., 1997: Grammar of the Contemporary Lithuanian Language, Vilnius: Institute for the Publishing of Science and Encyclopedias. BALKEVICIUS, J. 1963: Syntax of the Contemporary Lithuanian Language, Vilnius: State Political and Scientific Literature Publishers. JACKENDOFF, R. 1977: X-bar Syntax: A Study of Phrase Structure, Cambridge: MIT Press. KALINAUSKAS, J. 1961: The word combination as an object of syntax. School 5, 31-39. KALINAUSKAS, J. 1972: Syntax of Lithuanian word combinations, Vilnius. LABUTIS, V. 1976: Problems of word combinations, Vilnius: Vilnius University. LaBuTris, V. 1998: Syntax of Lithuanian Language, Vilnius: Vilnius University Press. MATTHEWS, P. H. 1981: Syntax, Cambridge: University Press. MATTHEWS, P. H. 1997: Concise Dictionary of Linguistics, Oxford-New York: Oxford University Press. RADFORD, A. 1988: Transformational Grammar: A First Cource, Cambridge: University Press. SIRTAUTAS, V. 1981: Parts of a sentence, Kaunas: Sviesa. SIRTAUTAS, V., GRENDA, C. 1988: Syntax of Lithuanian language, Vilnius: Mokslas. SLIZIENE, N. 1986: Valenting and syntax classification of Lithuanian verbs. Lithuanian Linguistics Questions 25, 45-96. SLIZIENE, N. 1994: Lithuanian Verb Conjugation Dictionary 1, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla. SLIZIENE, N. 1998: Lithuanian Verb Conjugation Dictionary 2 (1), Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas. Urvypas, K., ed., 1976: Lithuanian Grammar 3, Vilnius: Mokslas. Ramunė Vaskelaitė Received 08/04/2003 Lithuanian Language Institute P. Vileišio g. 5, 2055 Vilnius, Lithuania [email protected]