Lietuvių kalbos daiktavardiniai junginiai sintaksinių ryšių požiūriu

ACTA LINGUISTICA LITHUANICA XLVIII (2003), 143 – 158 Noun Phrases in Lithuanian from the Perspective of Syntactic Relations RAMUNĖ VASKELAITĖ Institute of the Lithuanian Language, Vilnius In this paper, a new classification of Lithuanian nominal groups is proposed, based on criteria different from those formerly used in Lithuanian grammar. Whereas the traditional classifications were based on heterogeneous criteria, partly syntactic but predominantly morphosyntactic, the classification proposed here is based on the fundamental distinction opposing complements to modifiers, regardless of morphosyntactic features. 1. CLASSIFICATION OF DEPENDENCY RELATIONS AND ITS CRITERIA In the most recent Lithuanian syntax, there is a tendency to classify dependency relations between words according to a purely formal criterion. Taking into account the formal expression of the dependent constituent of a phrase, three types of dependency are distinguished: agreement, government, and adjunction (Ambrazas 1986: 7–9; Ambrazas, ed., 1997: 480; Labutis 1998: 29–43). In some accounts, form correlation is also distinguished (Labutis 1998: 38), but it is usually treated as a certain subtype of agreement (Ambrazas 1986: 7–9; Ambrazas, ed., 1997: 480). When relations are classified according to the formal expression of the dependent constituent, agreement is generally defined as “the selection of the morphological form (case, number, gender) of the dependent word according to the head word,” government as “the selection of the dependent word’s case form, conditioned by the head word’s valency,” and adjunction as “dependency not expressed by an inflectional ending of the dependent word” (Ambrazas, ed., 1997: 480–481). When formal criteria are adopted, very clear boundaries are drawn between the various types of dependency. In practice, it is quite simple to determine the relations connecting the constituents of any noun phrase: phrases whose dependent constituent has formal markers that match those of the head constituent (copper handle, wooden spoon, nine brothers, all people) are considered to be formed by agreement; in all phrases whose dependent constituent has a case form different from that of the head constituent (writing a letter, gold ring, a gift for parents, a path along the riverbank), government is discernible; and phrases whose dependent constituent has no formal marker (hope to return, opportunity to visit, step back, life abroad) belong to the group of phrases formed by adjunction. Nevertheless, this classification, convenient from a practical standpoint, identifies morphological rather than syntactic differences between relations. In some works, agreement, government, and adjunction are not even called syntactic relations—they are termed formal word relations or formal means of expressing relations (Labutis 1998: 29–43). This conception of word relations is apparently shaped to a great extent by the objective set in contemporary Lithuanian syntax: “to define as clearly as possible and on a single basis to distinguish at least the principal categories of the levels of form and semantics” (Ambrazas 1986: 4). Word relations are assigned to the category of the level of form; in classifying and defining them, one abstracts away from the feature inherent in a word’s meaning that it requires a particular dependent constituent. 144 | RAMUNĖ VASKELAITĖ A different classification of dependency relations is characteristic of earlier Lithuanian syntax. There, relations are classified with reference to whether or not the head constituent of a phrase imposes a particular requirement, while the formal expression of the dependent constituent is also taken into account (Balkevičius 1963: 29–39; Kalinauskas 1961: 31–34; 1972: 3–6; Ulvydas, ed., 1976: 12–17; Sirtautas 1981: 14; Sirtautas, Grenda 1988: 38–42). The two types of dependency—government and adjunction—are distinguished by applying two criteria at once: the requirement imposed by the head constituent and the form of the dependent constituent: “Government is a syntactic relation in which the head constituent requires a particular form of the dependent constituent (the dependent constituent is formally determined by the head constituent). Adjunction is a relation in which the dependent constituent attaches to the head without being required by it; it is not formally determined, but is logically connected with the head constituent” (Ulvydas, ed., 1976: 12). The relation of agreement is associated only with the form of the dependent constituent: “Agreement is the adjustment of the form of the dependent constituent to the form of the head constituent” (Ulvydas, ed., 1976: 11). A different classification of subordinate relations is characteristic of Lithuanian syntax in earlier years. In it, relations are classified according to whether the head constituent of a word combination imposes a particular requirement, while also taking into account the formal expression of the dependent constituent (Balkevičius 1963: 29–39; Kalinauskas 1961: 31–34; 1972: 3–6; Ulvydas, ed., 1976: 12–17; Sirtautas 1981: 14; Sirtautas, Grenda 1988: 38–42). The two types of subordination—government and adjunction—are distinguished according to two criteria at once: the requirement imposed by the head constituent and the form of the dependent constituent: “Government is a syntactic relation in which the head constituent requires a particular form of the dependent constituent (the dependent constituent is formally defined by the head constituent). Adjunction is a relation in which the dependent constituent joins the head, without being required by it; it is formally undefined, and is connected with the head constituent only logically” (Ulvydas, ed., 1976: 12). The relation of agreement is now associated only with the form of the dependent constituent: “Agreement is the adjustment of the form of the dependent constituent to the form of the head constituent” (Ulvydas, ed., 1976: 11). As specific cases of relations show, it is practically impossible to reconcile two different criteria. In Lithuanian, there are many cases of word relations in which the dependent constituent is inflected but is not required by the head (locatives or prepositional constructions, some genitives), or in which the dependent constituent has no formal markers but is required by the head word (some infinitives, adverbs, or supines). Studies of verb valency, which are particularly useful for explaining word relations, also confirm that obligatory valency dependents do not always have inflectional forms, while non-obligatory dependents of a verb are not always formally unmarked constituents (Šližienė 1986: 45–96, 1994, 1998). When assigning the cases of relations mentioned here to the group of government or adjunction, one must decide which of the two criteria is more important. The most comprehensive account of syntactic relations—the three-volume “Grammar of the Lithuanian Language”—is inconsistent: in one case, one criterion is considered more important, and in another, the other. For example, adverbial case forms and prepositional constructions are considered adjuncts because the head constituent does not require them. At other times, however, greater weight is given not to whether a requirement is imposed, but to whether there is formal expression, and all genitives associated with nouns are considered governed—in reality, the head constituent sometimes requires them no more than it does adverbial case forms or prepositional constructions. According to the grammar, the relations between constituents in the phrases mountain lake, city house, African sands, autumn night, gold ring must be distinguished from those in the phrases lake in the mountains, house in the city, sands in Africa, night in autumn, ring made of gold: the former are to be treated as government, the latter as adjunction. On the other hand, dependent constituents with adverbial meaning can also be required by the head word. For example, such constituents are required by the verbs to come, to leave, to travel, to march, and thus also by nouns derived from them, DAIKTAVARDINIAI JUNGINIAI 145 while most nouns with a specific meaning, for example, lake, house, do not require them at all. Grammar disregards such differences: both in the phrase a cottage in the village and in a journey to Lithuania or a trip as far as Vilnius, the relation of adjunction is identified. Nothing is said about those noun phrases whose dependent constituent is expressed by an infinitive. In general, the section on syntactic relations in the grammars mentioned above does not discuss all instances of syntactic relations in noun phrases, while the section on noun phrases does not analyse constituent relations at all. In foreign linguistics, syntactic relations are usually defined and classified according to a single criterion—whether or not the head requires the dependent constituent. On the basis of this criterion, two types of dependent constituents in phrases are most often distinguished: complements (complements)—dependent constituents required by the head—and modifiers (modifiers)—dependent constituents not required by the head. The latest dictionary of linguistic terminology distinguishes two types of word relations: complementation (complementation) and modification (modification). Complementation is understood as the relation involving a complement, and a complement is defined as “a syntactic element that completes the construction formed by another element” (Matthews 1997: 63). Modification is described as “a type of syntactic construction in which an element not required by the head occurs with it” (Matthews 1997: 229). This classification of relations is most commonly applied to verb phrases; the concepts of verb complements and its non-required constituents—adverbials—are based on it. It is somewhat more difficult to identify complements in noun phrases, but the view is widespread in foreign linguistics that nouns, too, can have their own arguments—that is, semantically required but not always syntactically realized complements (Matthews 1981: 146–220). The distinction between complements and non-required phrase constituents (modifiers) is of great theoretical importance in generative grammar: in more recent works in generative grammar, the structure of all phrases is usually described according to a universal model—the so-called “X-bar” theory, the foundations of which were formulated by Jackendoff (Jackendoff 1977). In some works in generative grammar, words not required by nouns, or modifiers, are divided into adjuncts (adjuncts), attributes (attributes), and determiners (determiners); all are contrasted with words required by the noun—complements (Radford 1988: 167–217). Analysing noun phrases using the generative analysis method, A. Radford notes that complements, adjuncts, attributes, and determiners may all be optional members of a noun phrase, but in the case of adjuncts and attributes, the phrase-generation rule itself is optional. There have also been attempts in Lithuanian syntax to distinguish sentence constituents dependent on nouns. For example, genitives governed by deverbal nouns (writing poems, a weaver of canvas) have been distinguished from other non-agreeing attributes and treated as complements (Balkevičius 1963: 186). In the “Grammar of the Lithuanian Language,” all cases, prepositional constructions, infinitives, and half-participles dependent on a noun are treated as non-agreeing attributes; however, it is noted that some of them are close in meaning to complements or adverbials, and are considered attributes only because they are not directly related to the predicate (Ulvydas, ed., 1976: 418–428). V. Ambrazas, discussing verb- 146 | RAMUNĖ VASKELAITĖ derived noun phrases with a genitive, expresses the view that “only at the level of transformational (or derivational) sentence analysis can genitives dependent on deverbal nouns (the setting of the sun, the rotation of a wheel) be considered subjects or complements of secondary predicates incorporated into the sentence” (Ambrazas 1986: 34). The overview shows that the conception of syntactic relations is connected with the choice of criteria for classifying those relations. In Lithuanian syntax, the two types of relations—government and adjunction—tend to be distinguished either by the formal markers of the dependent constituent or by the requirement imposed by the head. A classification based on the form of the dependent constituent is practical, since it makes it possible to draw a very clear boundary between government and adjunction. Nevertheless, it indicates morphological rather than syntactic differences between the relations. The classification found in Lithuanian linguistic studies that is oriented towards the head—towards whether or not it requires a particular complement—is closer to the conception of syntactic relations. However, it raises considerable contradictions and uncertainties, because the formal criterion is often brought into the discussion as well. This article will avoid that confusion: government and adjunction will be distinguished solely according to whether or not the head imposes a requirement. We will understand government as a relation in which the dependent constituent attaches to the head because it is required by it, and adjunction as a relation in which the dependent constituent attaches to the head although it is not required by it. This refined conception of government and adjunction will be applied to noun phrases widely used in contemporary Lithuanian. We will distinguish two types of noun phrases: 1) phrases formed by government; 2) phrases formed by adjunction. If adjunction is understood as the relation between non-required constituents and nouns, and is not linked to whether the dependent constituent has formal markers, agreement could essentially also be regarded as such a relation. Nevertheless, agreement has specific features, and therefore needs to be considered separately. 2. NOUN PHRASES FORMED BY GOVERNMENT 2.1. Characteristics of the head constituent Nouns that are derived from words characterized by government tend to govern, or require, a particular complement. Nevertheless, this tendency is associated not only with derivational but also with lexical properties of the noun. Not all derivatives require a complement, but only those with an abstract meaning. The tendency to govern is retained primarily by deverbal nouns used as names of actions (1–5) or states (6–8), e.g.: (1) Until final approval of the declaration, it was inaccessible to the public LR (R–V) 2001 11 22. (2) Support for the interim governmentwould also decrease LR (R–V) 2001 11 22. (3) Po dviejų metų pertraukos atnaujintas nuvertėjusių rublių indėlių grąžinimas pirmajai gyventojų grupei LR 2002 01 12. (4) Z. B. objects to Russia’s inclusion in the NATO Council LR (R–V) 2001 12 08. DAIKTAVARDINIAI JUNGINIAI | 147 (5) Criminals demanded negotiations with the state LR (R–V) 2001 01 06. (6) Children’s outlook on life is somewhat different from mine L 2001 09. (7) A. L.’s inclination toward strict rhetoric is well known LR (R–V) 2002 11 16. (8) Researchers link employees’ unwillingness or inability to come to work to factors related to the work itself VP 2001 07–08. The group of abstract nouns characterized by government also includes nouns denoting an action or state that share a root with verbs, e.g.: (9) Jis nusprendžia savo jėgas skirti kovai su nusikalstamumu TVA 2002 05 04–10. (10) Kai spalį prasidėjo karas su terorizmu, Amerika davė H. K. ginklų bei maisto TVA 2002 05 04–10. (11) Jis pademonstravo, kad JAV yra pasirengusios savo karių aukoms mūšio lauke LR (R–V) 2001 10 17. Deverbal nouns that denote the performer of the action expressed by the base word generally also inherit the verb’s government property, e.g.: (12) Belarus is the main supplier of military weapons to the radical Islamic world LR (R–V) 2002 12 12. (13) The number of asylum seekers in Norway has increased sevenfold in recent years LR (R–V) 2002 11 17. (14) One of the suspected attackers against the president’s brother was stopped by highway patrol north of Miami on Thursday evening LR 2002 01 12. (15) A 15-year-old secondary school student distributed the Lithuanian Catholic Church Chronicle here and was an active fighter for Lithuanian freedom TVA 2003 08 08–14. Nouns derived from adjectives with various derivational formatives retain the tendency to govern. Some of these adjectives are primary words (16), but most are derivatives (17–19) that have inherited the tendency to govern from their base verbs. Adjectival nouns denote an abstract property, e.g.: (16) The first discussion about the rise in electricity prices for small consumers[…] flared up at the end of the year R 2002 01 26. (17) The hostages gradually develop a conditional attachment to their captors LR 2002 11 26. (18) It is difficult to say whether this intensification of fighting is linked to O. bin Laden and the Taliban, which had already shown a marked intolerance of other religions LR (R–V) 2001 12 29. (19) This fact was presented as an example of Moscow’s favor toward Tbilisi and its refusal to exert pressure on it LR (R–V) 2001 10 20. Some nouns derived from primary nouns that require such a dependent constituent also require a dependent constituent. The derivatives here denote an abstract property, e.g.: 148 | RAMUNĖ VASKELAITĖ (20) E. K. publicly stated that he had suspended his membership in the Homeland Union and in this party’s faction LR 1996 10 01. (21) European membership will deprive us of our national sovereignty LA 1999 01 23. (22) It seemed that friendship with the photographer had healed the wounds in Roda’s heart LR (GB) 2002 08 31. (23) Car thefts – a headache for officials LR (S) 1999 01 22. Usually, nouns require the dependent constituent of the adverb much, which exhibits the property of government, to be formed, e.g.: (24) During a search of the mosque complex, officials discovered a large number of clues LR (R–V) 2001 01 25. (25) Most of these individuals were initially charged with collecting money for Palestinian and Chechen fighters KP 2001 06. International words displaying a government property and having a Lithuanian (26, 27) or non-Lithuanian (28–34) derivational formant merit separate mention. They can be understood as names of actions (26–30), states (31), properties (32), or agents (33, 34). (26) The bishops approved the organization of such an exhibition and seminar LA 2001 10 02. (27) Deployment of US forces in Central Asia could undermine Russia’s influence in the region LR 2001 10 27. (28) The ensuing occupation of Iraq will cost the United States 200 billion dollars or more LR (R–V) 2001 11 16. (29) Only issues of integration into the EU were touched upon V 1997 12 06. (30) However, earlier this month Washington lifted the aforementioned sanctions against Pakistan and India […] LA 2001 10 02. (31) But suddenly, a strong nostalgia for those times arose in the municipality LR 1999 01 19. (32) At a meeting held late on Sunday evening in Gravenbruch, near Frankfurt, the leadership unanimously approved D. Schipanski’s candidacy LR 1999 01 26. (33) Project coordinator in Lithuania, R. L. briefly recalled the history of this project V 1999 07 30. (34) R. A. – conductor of the Lithuanian National Radio and Television orchestra – wrote the lyrics […] LR (S) 2001 12 15. Some international words with the property of government lack a clear derivational formant, but they can be associated with Lithuanian abstract nouns that do have such a formant, e.g.: (35) During one such visit to the Republic of South Africa (cf. a trip to the Republic of South Africa), Margaret admitted to her sister that a teenage infatuation had turned into true love LR (GB) 2002 02 15. (36) For now, only apprehensions of a military conflict with Iran (cf. disagreement with Iran) are not intensifying LR (R–V) 2003 01 18. DAIKTAVARDINIAI JUNGINIAI | 149 (37) R. D. was engaged in cigarette smuggling (cf. transporting cigarettes) LR 2001 12 08. Non-derived nouns may also require a particular dependent constituent. Such constituents are generally needed by nouns denoting a person in relation to other persons (38, 39), groups (39, 40), or organizations (41). In such cases, it is necessary to specify with respect to whom the person is identified, e.g.: (38) The future husband of the actress – P. G., a 36-year-old New York theater manager LR (GB) 2001 12 29. (39) The best man was a friend of the groom C. G., a member of a prominent family of British politicians LR (GB) 2001 12 29. (40) Small groups of elite special forces are already in Afghanistan and in the southern part of the country are trying to establish contact with tribal leaders LR (R–V) 2001 11 27. (41) More and more Norwegians would like Norway to become a member of the European Union LR 1998 12 19. Nouns denoting a part of some whole also require dependent constituents. They require the specification of what the part belongs to. In noun phrases with dependent constituents, government can also be identified, e.g.: (42) This is yet another reason why last Saturday’s events in the imperial family became, for almost every Japanese person, part of their personal life LR (R–V) 2001 12 08. (43) This is the most complex and dangerous part of the art of warfare LR (R–V) 2001 10 27. (44) Their soft furniture is covered with pieces of sheepskin M 1999 08. (45) Moreover, Madonna’s best works belong to the dance music genre, one of the most mature forms in which elements of Latin American and Black culture TVA 2001 12 15–21. Some of these nouns can denote an indefinite quantity—in such cases they require a complement even more strongly, e.g.: (46) A substantial number of complaints against Lithuania have been written by prisoners LR 2002 12 07. Other nouns denoting an indefinite quantity (47, 48) or a measure of quantity (49, 50) also exhibit the property of strong government, e.g.: (47) Since when have the “Yankees” been throwing dogs paper from the roof of the World Trade Center? LR (R–V) 2001 12 29. (48) And the manager will notice something else: there are no longer any culprits in the institution; suddenly there is a host of assistants VP 2000 12. (49) Klaipėdos specialiųjų tarnybų atstovai vakar nusprendė, kad būtina pašalinti 30 tonų neaiškios kilmės cheminių medžiagų LR 2001 11 17. (50) A farmer who eats little other food devours 30 kilograms of sand per week. LR 2001 12 22 150 | R A M U N Ė V A S K E L A I T Ė 2.2. Characteristics of the dependent constituent The derived and underived nouns mentioned above generally govern various cases with an object meaning, as well as indeclinable forms. Among the governed cases with an object meaning, the objective genitive should be mentioned first. In noun phrases with an object meaning, the genitive marking is inherited from the verbal phrase (51, 52, 53), though it is sometimes acquired by a verbal phrase that takes the accusative (54), dative (55), or instrumental (56, 57), e.g.: (51) The longing for harmony encourages the search for pure spirituality L 1998 06. (52) Seeking help is a kind of fear that you will not manage on your own L 1998 08. (53) The need for love is very natural and understandable L 1998 06. (54) One of the documents recorded that the recipient of the shipment in Lithuania is D. S.'s sole proprietorship LA 1999 01 23. (55) After returning from school, the girl told her mother about a trip being organized at school, about the costs of the trip, the route, and her friends' reactions L 1998 06. (56) Currently, “Status” is engaged in real estate trading R 2000 12 29. (57) Drug dealers or intermediaries usually give teenagers their first pills for free LA 2001 10 02. Genitives are also governed when they denote quantity or the object of nouns indicating a collection of homogeneous items. In Lithuanian syntax studies, their meanings are termed objective (Ambrazas, ed., 1997: 512–513) or quantitative (Ulvy-das, ed., 1976: 202–203). Phrases with such a genitive are not productive; they are formed only with a certain restricted group of nouns, e.g.: (58) Kita vertus, skyrybomis baigiasi 38 procentai santuokų LR (R–V) 2001 11 10. (59) A. S. Naujuosius anksčiau sutkdavo su būriu draugų LR (SA) 2001 12 29. (60) Praėjusios savaitės pabaigoje dėl skolų atliekų surinkėjams susikaupė kalnai šiukšlių LR (S) 2001 10 27. (61) Ji kankina begalę žmonių visame pasaulyje LA 1999 01 23. Some nouns require a dative with an objective meaning as their complement. It corresponds to the dative of verbal or adjectival phrases (62–66), the accusative (67, 68), sometimes the genitive (69), or the instrumental (70), e.g.: (62) Kokių nuolaidų išsiderės V. Putinas už nesipriešinimą NATO plėtrai – dar nežinia LR (R–V) 2002 01 12. (63) Kalbama, kad tai padaryti ją paskatino didėjantis amerikiečių nepritarimas jos žiau-riems kovos metodams LR (R–V) 2001 12 29. (64) Drauge neteisėtų būtų pripažintas ir susitarimas dėl Vilniaus krašto grąžinimo Lietuvai LR (R–V) 2002 06 29. (65) Toks sprendimas leido pradėti jo išdavimo Ispanijai procedūrą LR 1999 01 19. DAIKTAVARDINIAI JUNGINIAI 151 (66) Some explain this kind of US favor toward Russia as a result of Washington’s recent increased disagreements with its allies in Europe LR (R–V) 2001 12 22. (67) We are very different, but what unites us is love for the Lord L 1998 08. (68) Another important decision is US economic aid to Russia LR 2001 11 17. (69) Psychologists speculate that initial hatred of O. bin Laden may have turned into sympathy LR (R–V) 2002 01 12. (70) Public interest in the Japanese Catholic family had waned in recent years LR (R–V) 2001 12 08. The governed member of a nominal phrase is often also an instrumental case denoting an object (71–75) or an instrument (76), corresponding to such an instrumental in verbal phrases, e.g.: (71) This is the paradox of this conflict: a threat of war can lead to peace LR (R–V) 2003 01 25. (72) Po savižudiško skrydžio vaikino kišenėje buvo surastas jo susirašinėjimą O. bin Ladenu įrodantis raštelis LR (R–V) 2001 01 12. (73) Disappointment with the relationship between men and women has plagued the actress for five years now LR (GB) 2002 08 31. (74) Tada itin padidėja pasitikėjimas valstybės teisinančiu Strasbūro teismu LR 2002 12 07. (75) However, 34-year-old R. N. is troubled by a disagreement: her daughter, who escaped the human traffickers’clutches, does not even tell her what she had to go through LR (GB) 2002 11 09. (76) Driving through Israeli city streets is a great way to lose weight L 1998 08. Prepositional constructions with object meaning dependent on nouns are also governed, e.g.: (77) The subtleties of communicating with clientswere learned by the 75-year-old tailor over many years of work LR (GB) 2002 12 07. (78) Sixty-nine percent of Russia’s population support political rapprochement with the United States LR (R–V) 2001 12 08. (79) Soon after making the acquaintance of the Americansa branch of the association was established in Kaunas as well LR (GB) 2003 01 25. (80) Refugees from Islamic countries are also seeking contact with Lithuanian Muslims R 2002 02 23. (81) The Queen actively supported the creation of a navy and thereby paved the way for maritime trade with the New World M 1988 08. (82) The Swedes’ approach to child-rearing should be mentioned separately KP 2001 06. Often what is required by a noun, and thus governed by it, is also an objective infinitive, e.g.: (83) However, the Canadian most emphatically stressed the inability or incapacity to promote his country LR 1996 11 27. (84) This is an even more highly developed ability to follow and attend to the trends dictated by the world’s leading fashion houses I 1999 12. 152 | R A M U N Ė V A S K E L A I T Ė (85) The 64-year-old cleric’s fondness for cycling astonishes the faithful LR (GB) 2002 12 07. (86) Nesinori čia minėti apie sunkumus šiais laikais gauti nemokamą salę 7MD 1995 12 15. Besides words with an objective meaning, dependent constituents expressing some other meanings should also be considered governed. A genitive used with nouns denoting a person according to some relationship is considered governed. In “The Grammar of the Lithuanian Language,” this genitive is assigned to the group of genitives expressing possession relations. It most often combines with the nouns commander, director, servant, member, e.g.: (87) The US believes that many of the people in the building were Taliban commanders LR 2001 12 29. (88) 31-year-old Ž. K. is an army commander R 2001 01 19. (89) Indeed, H. K. himself denies this—presumably not wanting to appear weak and supposedly a servant of the US LR (R–V) 2001 12 22. (90) Quite recently, the media gleefully broadcast liberal A. M.’s doubt as to whether, by advertising pickled cucumbers “Geras vaizdelis,” Member of ParliamentV. U. had broken the law TVA 2001 12 15–21. A possessive genitive used with nouns denoting a part of a whole should also be considered governed, e.g.: (91) The accident occurred because, when the city bus stopped, a careless passenger suddenly ran into the roadway LR (S) 2001 12 22. (92) The killing of opponents in the Middle East has already become a regular element of political games LR 2001 10 20. Although in The Grammar of the Lithuanian Language all words with adverbial meaning are considered to be adjoined, they are required to complement some nouns. Thus, in certain cases, words with adverbial meaning should also be considered not adjoined but governed, for example: (93) Living in garden plots is no longer a rarity today N 2002 07–08. (94) Absence from work is the main reason for dismissal in many countries VP 2001 07–08. (95) After a month and a half in this position, Culture Minister G. K. held a press conference R 2001 01 19. (96) Tai ir buvo pagrindinė jų išvykimo iš Rusijos priežastis LR (R–V) 2002 09 17. (97) The warning was issued several hours before US special envoy E. Z.’s arrival in Israel R 2002 01 04. If government is classified according to the requirement imposed by the head, then those adverbial words that are expressed by invariable forms—adverbs—should likewise be considered governed. Noun phrases with adverbs are used very rarely, for example: DAIKTAVARDINIAI JUNGINIAI (98) Establishing a foothold there will open the way to international aid LR 2001 12 15. (99) I am not planning now what my life abroad will be like LR 2001 12 29. Although the dependent constituents of all the noun phrases discussed are required by the nouns as words that complement their meaning, unlike verb complements they can very often be omitted from the sentence, for example: (100) Even while losing her close adviser, G. W. Bush said he was pleased that the woman had decided to put her family first R 2002 04 25. (101) The main subject of disagreement between the candidates and EU states is financial aid to new members LR 2002 12 07. In these sentences, the nouns adviser, member, which generally tend to require a certain complement, do not have genitives complementing them attached; these are understood from context: G. W. Bush’s adviser (100), EU members (101). In other cases, these dependent constituents are omitted to avoid repetition, for example: (102) The closest US president George W. Bush’s confidante, Karen Hughes, announced that she would leave her influential position at the White House and return home to Texas. The Texan, one of the people close to the president (cf. close to the US president) who had worked with him back in the state of Texas, says she can no longer bear being homesick and wants to spend more time with her family R 2002 04 25. 3. NOUN PHRASES FORMED BY ADJUNCTION 3.1. Characteristics of the head constituent Nonderived nouns with a concrete meaning generally do not require a separate complement. Various words are adjoined to Lithuanian (103–106) or international (107) nouns denoting a concrete object, e.g.: (103) We gazed at the choristers—their expressive faces with broad noses and curved lips LR (GB) 2002 01 12. (104) The audience’s applause was elicited by the very short jackets of blue suede with concealed fastenings LR (S) 200 07 07. (105) Since last autumn, R. J. had rarely set foot outside her home in Nemenčinė, where she lives with her beloved cat Luse. She left her apartment in Vilnius to her daughter R 2002 02 23. (106) The nine suspicious boxes from Iran spotted at the Lithuanian Post transport center may also be nothing more than ordinary private parcels LR 2001 12 08. (107) Another film featuring Ali Later, “Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back,” will soon appear on screens TVA 2001 11 10–16. 153 154 | R A M U N Ė V A S K E L A I T Ė No additional information is needed with nouns denoting persons either, especially when they do not identify those persons by some relation, e.g.: (108) The day before yesterday, one could meet a girl with white angel wings LR (S) 2000 12 02. (109) Doro’s-face young man plays a quiet country bumpkin in “Beno’s Diary” TVA 2000 01 29–02 04. (110) Such pipes suit people of proud bearing LA 1999 01 23. (111) Pashtuns from Pakistan armed with old rifles LR (R–V) 2001 11 10. (112) According to friends, 25-year-old Nicole lost patience even before Christmas R 2001 01 19. Various words are also adjoined to derived concrete nouns denoting an object (114), a place (114, 115), or a person (116, 117), e.g.: (113) US and British planes shelled targets in the suburbs of Baghdad LR 1999 02 27. (114) She said that the store in the city center shapes the company’s image LR (S) 2002 11 16. (115) Every Wednesday evening he hurries to the Franciscan monastery in Kaunas LR (GB) 2003 01 25. (116) All visitors from the Middle East are being interviewed LR (R–V) 2001 12 15. (117) In the opinion of a TV journalist from Germany this is unethical LR (R–V) 2002 08 17. Words with certain meanings are adjoined not only to concrete words but also to verbal abstracts. These abstracts may be Lithuanian words (118–120) or international words (121–123), e.g.: (118) They should retain this status until the forthcoming direct elections to the European Parliament in the summer of 2004 LR 2002 11 29. (119) J. W. nevertheless stated that he essentially agreed with President George W. Bush’s vision of the Alliance, expressed in a speech in Warsaw in June LR 2001 12 29. (120) Street fighting claimed thousands of lives LR (R–V) 2003 01 25. (121) The fight against corruption in customs is obvious D 1997 11 14–20. (122) A meeting is being held in London on Friday, devoted to the crisis in Kosovo LR 1999 01 29. (123) During a large-scale ground operation, many civilians may be killed LR (R–V) 2001 10 20. 3.2. Characteristics of the dependent constituent Nouns with concrete and abstract meanings often do not require words expressing circumstantial meaning. The inessive case expressing location (124–126), the genitive (127), or prepositional constructions (128) are usually adjoined, e.g.: (124) Paskutinis prieš mirtį sukurtas E. Z. kūrinys 1996 m. pelnė visus svarbiausius bulgarų filmų festivalio Varnoje apdovanojimus 7MD 1997 01 03. DAIKTAVARDINIAI JUNGINIAI 155 (125) The governor was taken to a hospital in the capital, Ankara LR 1999 03 06. (126) This luxurious store in the center of Moscow belongs to her husband LR (S) 1999 01 29. (127) Vis dėlto Šanchajaus susitikimas buvo naudingas Kinijai LR (R–V) 2001 10 27. (128) Vašingtonas delsė pradėti talibų pozicijų už Kabulo ribų bombardavimą LR (R–V) 2001 10 27. Various words expressing circumstantial meanings of time (129), manner (130–132), or cause (133, 134) are also adjoined to nouns, e.g.: (129) The couple raised their glasses to success in 2003 LR(GB) 2003 01 18. (130) The man sleeping in the fresh air calls it the best rest LR (GB) 2002 12 07. (131) A public competition or qualification examinations may be conducted as an oral or written interview, or by means of testing D 1999 10 20. (132) Many people left the accident site in Switzerland through a protective tunnel with independent lighting and ventilation systems LR 2001 10 27. (133) In such luxurious surroundings, foreigners who have experienced stress over business in China should rest LR 1999 11 21. (134) After the conflict over reforms two parliaments emerged in the country LR 2000 01 29. Prepositional constructions that have a purely attributive meaning are also adjoined, e.g.: (135) “Orbita” was once, for a time, the only night bar in the Soviet Union with clandestine striptease LR 2002 01 12. (136) Exchanged glances are something more than the beginning of a novel with fainting spells and charming characters LR 2001 10 13. In Lithuanian syntax, a tradition has taken hold of identifying government in all noun phrases with a genitive. In such cases, the decisive factor is apparently considered to be the case form borne by the dependent constituent. With respect to the requirement imposed by the head constituent, only those genitives that occur with nouns exhibiting a particular government property could be considered governed. All other genitives are not required by the head constituent. This applies especially to genitives called descriptive in the “Grammar of the Lithuanian Language.” Such descriptive genitives are attached to the head constituent like adjectival words, and can often be replaced by adjectives, e.g.: (137) No other nation in the world has such complex vocal music (cf. vocal music) LR (GB) 2002 01 17. (138) Probably no world leader benefited as much from terror attacks (cf. terrorist attacks) in New York and Washington as A. Lukashenko LR (R–V) 2002 01 12. (139) Atvykėlius pasitiko apie 300 vietos gyventojų (plg. vietinių gyventojų) LR (R–V) 2001 10 20. 156 | RAMUNĖ VASKELAITĖ Other descriptive genitives are close to case forms or prepositional constructions with an adverbial meaning, and therefore their relations with nouns should be treated uniformly. Such genitives can often be replaced by case forms or prepositional constructions with an adverbial meaning, e.g.: (140) Several more people were killed at a strategically important mountain pass (cf. a pass in the mountains) west of Kabul LR 2001 11 10. (141) Since major ground operations (cf. operations on land) may result in many civilians being killed LR (R–V) 2001 10 20. (142) The Yugoslav government announced that it was ready to negotiate with all participants in the Kosovo crisis (cf. participants in the crisis in Kosovo) LR 1999 01 29. (143) Ice dancing (cf. dancing on ice) champions M. D. and P. V. have so far rarely managed to return home in time to celebrate the New Year R (B) 2002 12 28. The relations between genitives with a naming function and nouns should also be considered juxtaposition, since such genitives are not required either. They merely describe the noun and provide ancillary information, e.g.: (144) Tokį fontaną Rotušės aikštėje įsivaizdavo V. T. LR (S) 2001 12 22. (145) I handed my next work over to the “Tyto alba” publishing house LR 2002 11 17. (146) This year the “Infobalt” exhibition is being held at the “Litexpo” exhibition center for the eighth time R 2001 10 25. (147) At the age of twenty, A. Š. reached the peak of his fame as a bodybuilder—he won the “Mister Universe” title VŽ 2001 08 01. Nouns do not require a subject genitive either, so such a genitive may also be considered juxtaposed, e.g.: (148) An equally mysterious report appeared in the media about the apparently planned exile of S. Hussein LR 2003 01 08. (149) After this politician’s victory in the election, Loreta intends to continue looking after his appearance LR (GB) 2003 01 25. Although The Grammar of the Lithuanian Language does not provide examples of juxtaposed infinitives, infinitives expressing purpose or aim that are not required by nouns should be distinguished from object infinitives and treated as juxtaposed, e.g.: (150) Nearby are two tanks of water for washing hands (=for hands) LR 1995 08 03. (151) The Lithuanian Democratic Labour Party and its satellites have many mechanisms for manipulating voters’ consciousness (=-u) LM 1995 12 14. (152) E. S. G. founded an association to investigate wrongful court judgments P 1996 12 03. Participles are also adjoined to nouns, e.g.: (153) This was a very important step in strengthening a new kind of relationship between the United States and Russia LR 2001 11 17. DAIKTAVARDINIAI JUNGINIAI | 157 (154) Nevertheless, T. T. most impresses the reader with his perseverance in making his way to the top of show business LM 1996 11 16. (155) Russia was among the first to declare its support for the United States in its fight against terrorism LR (R–V) 2001 12 22. 4. CONCLUSIONS Lithuanian syntax is characterized by a twofold classification of syntactic relations: 1) classification according to the form of the dependent constituent; 2) classification based on the property of the head constituent to require a complement. Classification according to the form of the dependent constituent makes it possible to draw a clear boundary between government and adjoinment, but is not essentially syntactic. Classification according to the requirement imposed by the head constituent marks syntactic differences between relations, but does not permit government and adjoinment to be clearly distinguished, since it is not separated from the formal differences between dependent constituents. This article refines that classification by abandoning the mixing of formal criteria. Taking the head constituent’s requirement or non-requirement of a complement as the criterion for distinguishing government from adjoinment, the relations in some noun phrases are treated in this article differently from the customary treatment in works on Lithuanian syntax: government is identified in some noun phrases whose dependent constituent has an adverbial meaning—a case form, a prepositional construction, or an adverb—while noun phrases whose dependent constituent is a descriptive or subject genitive are assigned to the group of phrases formed by adjoinment. The discussion of noun phrases in terms of the relation linking their constituents brought to light the characteristics of the head and dependent constituents in phrases formed by government and adjoinment. Derived nouns with abstract meanings are most often inclined to require a particular complement, or to govern one, whereas nouns with concrete meanings do not require such a complement and may be either derived or underived. Words with an object meaning are most often governed, as are some words with adverbial and possessive meanings; words with adverbial, descriptive, and attributive meanings are adjoined, as are infinitives expressing purpose and aim. ABBREVIATIONS D – Dienovidis (weekly) I – Ieva (magazine) KP – Kelionės ir pramogos (magazine) L – Laima (magazine) LA – Lietuvos aidas (daily newspaper) LM – Literatūra ir menas (weekly) LR – Lietuvos rytas (daily newspaper) LR (GB) – Gyvenimo būdas (“Lietuvos rytas” supplement) LR (R–V) – Rytai–Vakarai (“Lietuvos rytas” supplement) LR (S) – Sostinė (“Lietuvos rytas” supplement) LR (SA) – Sporto arena (“Lietuvos rytas” supplement) LŽ – Lietuvos žinios (daily newspaper) 158 | RAMUNĖ VASKELAITĖ M – Woman (magazine) N – The House I Live In (magazine) 7MD – 7 Days of Art (weekly) P – Miss (magazine) R – Republic (daily newspaper) R (B) – Brigita (Republic’s weekly supplement) TVA – Television Antenna (Lietuvos rytas’s weekly supplement) V – Face (weekly magazine) VP – The Manager’s World (magazine) VŽ – Evening News (daily newspaper) LITERATŪRA AMBRAZAS, V. 1986: Lietuvių kalbos sakinio sintaksinės ir semantinės struktūros vienetai. Lietuvių kalbotyros klausimai 25, 4–44. AMBRAZAS, V., red., 1997: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos gramatika, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas. BALKEVIČIUS, J. 1963: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos sintaksė, Vilnius: Valstybinė politinės ir mokslinės literatūros leidykla. JACKENDOFF, R. 1977: X-bar Syntax: A Study of Phrase Structure, Cambridge: MIT Press. KALINAUSKAS, J. 1961: Žodžių junginys kaip sintaksės objektas. Tarybinė mokykla 5, 31–39. KALINAUSKAS, J. 1972: Lietuvių kalbos žodžių junginių sintaksė, Vilnius. LABUTIS, V. 1976: Žodžių junginių problemos, Vilnius: Vilniaus universitetas. LABUTIS, V. 1998: Lietuvių kalbos sintaksė, Vilnius: Vilniaus universiteto leidykla. MATTHEWS, P. H. 1981: Syntax, Cambridge: University Press. MATTHEWS, P. H. 1997: Concise Dictionary of Linguistics, Oxford–New York: Oxford University Press. RADFORD, A. 1988: Transformational Grammar: A First Course, Cambridge: University Press. SIRTAUTAS, V. 1981: Sakinio dalys, Kaunas: Šviesa. SIRTAUTAS, V., GRENDA, Č. 1988: Lietuvių kalbos sintaksė, Vilnius: Mokslas. SLIZIENĖ, N. 1986: Lietuvių kalbos veiksmažodžių valentingumas ir sintaksinė klasifikacija. Lietuvių kalbotyros klausimai 25, 45–96. SLIZIENĖ, N. 1994: Lietuvių kalbos veiksmažodžių junglumo žodynas 1, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla. SLIZIENĖ, N. 1998: Lietuvių kalbos veiksmažodžių junglumo žodynas 2 (1), Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas. ULVYDAS, K., red., 1976: Lietuvių kalbos gramatika 3, Vilnius: Mokslas. Ramunė Vaskelaitė Lietuvių kalbos institutas P. Vileišio g. 5, 2055 Vilnius, Lietuva [email protected] Gauta 2003 04 08