Paprastųjų ir įvardžiuotinių būdvardžių opozicija lietuvių kalboje kaip apibrėžtumo sistema

Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LIX (2008), 109 -139 Paprastujy ir ivardziuotiniu budvardziy opozicija lietuviy kalboje kaip apibréztuBiruté SpRAUNIENE mo sistema Vilniaus universitetas This article deals with the so-called pronominal forms of Lithuanian adjectivals in relation with definiteness. The pronominal morpheme added to the adjectival form is interpreted as a marker of definiteness, comparable to the definite article of other languages, and it is suggested that the adjectival forms themselves should be called definite. The aim of the article is to establish to what extent and in what contexts the use of these definite forms correlates with the semantic definiteness of the NP. An empirical investigation shows that in many cases the use of the definite adjective is at best optional, sometimes even ungrammatical, though the NP clearly functions as a definite description. This points to a major difference between the use of Lithuanian definite adjectives and the marking of definiteness in article languages. In Lithuanian the context is decisive for the definite or indefinite interpretation of the NP, and the selection of definite and indefinite adjectival forms depends, among other things, on information structure, i. e., on whether the adjective contains known (presupposed) or new information. 1. CATEGORY OF DEFINITION AND ITS SEMANTICS The literature acknowledges that the primary function of the definition category is the coordination of reference, which is necessary for communication to take place. Languages contain various tools that help the participants in the communication act to solve the problems of reference coordination. These are real names, surnames, etc. In articled languages, the main means of coordinating reference are the formal indicators of definiteness vs. indefiniteness—articles. Christopher Lyons gives the following definition of the definitional property:,,de109 Binute SPRAUNIENE finiteness is a morphosyntactic category, grammaticalizing a pragmatic cateidentifiabilitgory of y“ (Lyons 1999: 282). This means that definiteness is associated with the possibility of identifying the rapporteur. The referrer of the defined su noun is presented to the addressee as a singularly identifiable one, the use of an undefined noun means that the referrer is a newly developed discourse, and thus cannot be uniquely identified o jo j (Zr. Chafe 1976; Hawkins 1978 ir 1991; Haspelmath 1999; Lyons 1999; Hansen & Heltoft (printed)). It is important to note that in the case of the 'defining description' the referrer is presented to the addressee as identifiable. It may be feared that until the moment of the statement the referent was known to the recipient, neZinomas, but the definitional description itself is like an instruction to the recipient to seek the only possible referent until he finds it. Referrer paieSka, anot Hawkins, performed in ne the entire space of discourse, in a o certain pragmatic (Eng. pragmatic set of entities / P-set). Hawkins' theory, based on the facts of English language, can be summarized as follows: A noun phrase is definite (i) if its referent is locatable in a pragmatic set entities shared the speaker and the of that by hearer, is if it is pragmatically anchored, and (ii) the if referent unique is (or, more precisely, inclusive) within this set. (Haspelmath 1999: 231) Therefore, there must be a pragmatic essence of existence that is obvious (Eng. manifest) both to the recipient and the recipient, in ir which the noun reference exists is the only ir (unique). In this case, we have a defined noun combination. Using the definitions (t. y. In a significant article, the recipient indicates that the recipient is able to identify which ar referent referrer meant by finding the pragmatic set in which he (they) exist. Loginé uniqueness features facilitate paieSka — In this population there cannot be any other existing, satisfying content of the defining description. (Hawkins 1991: 414) Such a set may comprise the above-menir tioned essentials of the speaker's listener (,,aibé of the previous discourse“) or an indirect conversational environment in which there is a speaking listener. ir Essentials ir of the whole ar part in other associative connections susije also form pragmatic sets, e.g., car steering wheel, wedding bride. ir ir Hawkins claims that precisely Siose ‘ South end Zr. Holvoet, Tamulioniené (2006; 13-14 ir i8n. 3), also the sentence will Hawkins (1991: 406). 110 Paprastujy ir jvard%iuotiniy bidvardziy opposition in lietuviy language pragmatinése aibėje satisfies the requirement of uniqueness, and this helps the speaker and the listener to cooperate and unequivocally indicate the individual that corresponds to the content of the defining description (ibid., 420). 408). Thus, defining descriptions have uniqueness, while non-defining descriptions, according to Hawkins, are uniqueness-- neutral (ibid., 420). For example: (1) A professor is drunk?. (1) be correct if there is at least one professor who will be drunk. It is logically consistent with the su statement that biti gali more than one such professor, as well ir su in that such a professor is only one, so the sentence is (1) ,neutral in terms of uniqueness he doesn't get old“ ir (ibid., The use 407). of the indefinite article usually implies that the subject does not belong to any pragmatic set that is obvious to both the speaker and the listener. Ta¢iau Hawkins notes that the ir unmarked article can Zymeéti belonging to a pragmatic population, example, sentence Pass me a cup can be interpreted as: Give me the cup vienq if on the table in front of you. Hawkins uses the analysis of English articles Grice's implicatior theory. He argues that compounds of unmarked su articles may imply belonging to a pragmatic group, but this is an implication of conversation. (Eng. conversational implicature), which can be called, for example: (2) senator resigns. (2) Example U.S. Day This Tuesday may have the implication of a conversation about U.S. Senate. (3) in the example we see that Si the implicatiira can be called (Hawkins 1991: 418, example taken i8 from the (3) A author): senator resigns, not a US senator, but a senator in Japan. In the case of the substantive article, belonging to a pragmatic group is a conventional implication that cannot be deduced (ibid., 414). Hawkins discusses somewhat paradoxical cases where indefinite descriptions in English mean unique referents (examples taken from the author), cf. : i8 ® Example taken from i8 Hawkins (Hawkins 1991: 407). * ,[...] is actually neutral to uniqueness and does not contradict it.“ 111 Birute SPRAUNIENE (4) England has a prime minister, and America has a president. (5) This larger situation set contains professor, a classroom, a textbook, a etc. Predikatai have, contain, comprise ir kt. It is essential to belong to a certain population. That in (4-5) examples is implied indefinable descriptive uniqueness, we see in them unique essentials replaced by non-unique ones. The saying becomes strange: (6) ?England has a member of parliament, and America has senator. Hawkins observes that in (4-5) examples the substantive article can be used, but the meaning of the sentence changes completely (Hawkins 1991: 421), cf.: (5’) England has the prime minister, and America has the president. (5’) example assumes that the Prime Minister of another House is visiting England, or that the affairs of England are handled by John Major and those of America by George Bush. In other words, these examples are naturally interpreted as meaning that the referent of the defined noun combination does not belong to the set defined in the examples with the corresponding non-definitive descriptions, and the Listener must find another set in which the requirements of existence and uniqueness are satisfied (ibid., 422). 2. TYPES OF COVERAGE According to the basis of identification of the referent, four main types of definiteness are distinguished in the literature (plg. Chafe 1976; Hawkins 1978 ir 1991; Haspelmath 1999; Lyons 1999; Hansen & Heltoft (pressed): 1. anaphoric uses (anaforisk bestemthed), 2. immediate situation uses (deiktisk bestemthed), 3. larger situation uses (baggrundsbestemthed), inferential uses (inferencinis apibrėŽtumas) 4. (Eng. inferrability, associative-anaphoric uses, da. inferential determinity). 112 Paprastyy and jvardziuotiniy budvardziy opposition in Lithuanian language Anaphoric definitions include those cases when the referent of the noun is Zinomas in the linguistic context, because it was mentioned earlier: pasirodé miraglingas Ziburys (7) <...> né The anaphoric <...> definition coincides with Adelés Valeckiené's attribution of the indicative function of the singular singular in Lithuanian (Valeckiené 1986: 171). We have an anaphoric definition not only when the repeating noun and its predecessor are identical nouns, but also when they are co-referential synonyms (e.g.: There was such a young man... That guy) or when the predecessor is a hyponym and the repeating noun is its hyperonym (e.g.: | column jsirézé car. The vehicle was not forbidden) (Hansen & Heltoft, in print). In the case of substantive specificity, the speaker is identified because he is seen, heard or otherwise perceived in an indirect conversational environment, e.g. : Give me a hammer! Where's that sound? We have a situational definition when the basis for the identification of the referent is the general knowledge of physical objects or social and cultural events in the environment. For example, when the Danes say krig-en (war-en), they usually mean the Second World War, while the English say the Prime Minister. We have an inferential definition when the referent of the defined substantive compound is identified by the connection with another, not identical, referent, which has already been introduced into the discourse. Among the nouns associated with inferential definitions, there are often relationships between the whole and the (single) part, e.g.: namas.... stogas; The car... the engine. This type of definition is also called an associative anaphora. It is important to note that the first two types of definitions in article languages can be interpreted as both substantive and demonstrative articles, 0 situational and inference definitions are interpreted only as articles (Hansen & Heltoft, printed). * Example taken from i8 Dabartinés lietuviy kalbos gramatikos (Valeckiené in: Ambrazas, red., 1997: 175). 113 BinuTé SPRAUNIENE 3. IDENTIFIER ARTICLE LIFESTYLE CIKLAS In the literature, the emergence of the su definiteness sign is associated with the reanalysis of the adverbial demonstrative, dél which the noun acquires the function of article (Lyons 1999: 323). The formed article gradually penetrates j more and more into the context of consumption. In literature This process is called the defining article cycle, which is divided into gyvavimo the following stages: j (plg. Greenberg nearby Hawkins 2004: 84-86, Lyons 1999: 337-340): The first stage. The demonstrative loses its nominative ir meaning, thus disappearing the explicit implicit contrast ar between the objecty, which is close to the addressee, and the addressee, which is far from ar it. ar The use of the newly formed article is limited to anaphoric book the book) (a deyctic ... contexts ir (Pass the me book, please!). The second stage. Article used in situational verbs ir (the king, the sun) and in inference contexts house the roof). (a ... The third stage. The name artikelis penetrates j generic contexts, i.e. statements that say somethine ng about individuals, 0 ju raBis> (The lion is a mammal ,Lithium is Zinduolis'). Anot Hawkins, at this stage there is Modern German Languages. The fourth stage. The reference article is taken into use in undefined specific contexts where it Only the existence of the referent, o ne uniqueness®, is significant. These four stages show the gradual distribution of the definite article in the language. plétimasi At each stage, the distributional possibilities of the previous stage are replaced by new ones, thus increasing the polymorphism of the ir compound articles. The frequency of the article grows as it becomes mandatory in more and more su grammatiy konteksty konstrukty ir (e.g. predicative su noun combinations: John is a teacher / the best teacher I’ve ever had). Finally, the referenced article may lose any > Plg. Holvoeto ir Tamulioniene's used savoka,,generinis apibrėžtumas* (Holvoet, Tamulioniene 2006: 19). ° A similar phenomenon is observed in the American colloquial language, where kirt) lost the displaying noun this and was used for reference objects, not for the present tense. su o (She wanted to buy this house — "She wanted to buy a house" ir She wanted to buy house @ — She wants to buy (any) name’ (Givén 1995: 61, examples take over i8 Givéno). 114 Paprastyjy ir jvardZiuotiniy bidvardziy opozicija lietuviy kalboje the relationship with definition and become a marker of gender and/or number (see Greenberg's nominality marker). In many languages, this development has led to the emergence of a new defining article. Article life cycle i§ part of definition indicatory usage variation in different languages. This means that a noun compound may be formally defined in one language and its equivalent in another language may not be formally defined, even though they are referentially identical (cf. Lyons 1999: 160). The article's life cycle also shows that the semantics of the definiteness indicator gradually changes in language. 4. DEFINITION IN LITHUANIAN LANGUAGE Lithuanian is a non-articulate language, and the expression of definiteness in it is poorly accentuated. As Mikulskas observes, Lithuanian grammar does not examine in which cases and what kind of definiteness vs. undefiniteness is mandatory (Mikulskas 2006: 33). One of the i8 reference coordination means in Lithuanian is jvairiis jvardZiai. The indicative nouns serve as indicators of definition, some of them (e.g., tas and in some cases Sis, Sitas) are, according to Rosinas, turned into arthroids (Rosinas 1972: 83t; 1996: 72). With the articles of the article language, artroids are associated with loss of meaning and faded deyktiné meaning, and from the true articles they differ in that they do not have the character of the bit. Arthroids are very common in the colloquial language, they penetrate and in the written language. The function of indicator of indefiniteness in Lithuanian is performed by various nouns with the meaning of existence, e.g., vienas, kazkoks, kazin koks and the demonstrative noun toks (Rosinas 1996: 69; cf. also Girdeniené 1971: 45; Holvoet, Tamulioniené 2006: 18, Mikulskas 2006: 33). Of course, in many cases, definition in Lithuanian is expressed indirectly — by word order, by linksy prepositions (noun/final vs. origin) or simply perceived out of context (see Holvoet, Tamulioniene 2006: 30-32, cf. Rosinas 1996: 62-63). The only morpheme that can be associated with the formal definition of the word in Lithuanian is the named form of the verb named morpheme. This article will focus on the opposition of simple and named forms in contemporary Lithuanian language, with the aim to investigate the peculiarities of their distribution, differences in function and meaning, and their relationship with the category of definiteness. If ivardZiuotiniy form jvardine morpheme 115 If we interpret it as an indicator of definition, we can ask the question, in which stage of the article's life cycle it is, in what contexts it is used, when its use is mandatory, when optional, and when non-grammatical. According to Mikulskas, when studying the problems related to definition in Lithuanian, it is useful to refer to any article language in which the definition is expressed (Mikulskas 2006: 33). Todél In this article, we compare the participle (and participle) forms of the noun with the articles of the article language (Danish and English). 5. APIBREZIAMIEJI IR NEAPIBREZIAMIEJI BUDVARDZIAI The idea that the simple and substantiated forms of the biverb forms represent the category of definiteness in Lithuanian language is not new. [Adele Valeckiene (Valeckiene 1957 and 1986) has studied the functions of the forms in Lithuanian linguistics in the most detailed way, and her research is used as a basis for the description of these forms in both the academic Lithuanian grammar (Ulvydas, ed., 1965) and the contemporary Lithuanian grammar (Ambrazas, ed., 1997). In the latter, the definition is regarded as a category of the verb (cf. the statements that verbs »have categories of degree and definition* (Valeckiené in: Ambrazas, ed., 1997: 167). This subdiscipline is justifiably criticized in the fourth volume of the Lithuanian language grammar work Researches on noun compounds, two articles of which are devoted to the problem of definiteness. The authors of the article show that the definition in Lithuanian, as in the typical article languages, should be regarded as a category of noun compound. Mikulskas convincingly demonstrates that the grammatically named morphemes of a noun acquire not the ordinary and the named forms of the noun (e.g., mélyna vs. mélynoji), but the corresponding noun combinations (e.g., mélyna skarelé vs. mélynoji skarelé) (Mikulskas 2006: 59, 61). Holvoet and Tamulioniene also argue that the forms of the jvardZiuotinés binomials give a definition not to the ir binomial but to the whole noun combination. The author concludes that the expression place of the category of appropriateness is the appropriate area In this case they do not coincide” (Holvoet, Tamulioniené 2006: 13). By the way, the formulation used in the grammar of the present Lithuanian language —,,the simple form Zymi is a property of the object, and the noun, in addition to the property of the object, also indicates that the paixras (i8rySkinta mano —B. S.) is a Zinomas, an defined one“ (Valeckiené: in Ambrazas, ed., 1997: 174) —also presupposes that the noun form becomes the defined object itself, and not its property. It 116 Paprastujy ir jvardZiuotiniy badvardziy opozicija lietuviy kalboje should also be mentioned that only qualitative verbs (not all, for example, baltmargis, gerutis, saldinis do not have a noun form), as well as infinitive numerals, participles and some nouns can be used (Paulauskiené 1994: 220). Relative adverbs cannot be named, and this distinguishes them from qualitative adverbs. It is possible to ask whether the ability or inability of an adverb to join an adjective morpheme depends on the peculiarities of its construction (qualitative adverbs, which cannot be named, are connected with relatives not by meaning, but by construction — both gerutis and saldinis are derived from the root prefix, baltmargis is derived from the root dirynis) or on its necessity (cf. Paulauskienė's assertion that "all words that have a non-relative, object-specific property can be named" (ibid.)? It is worth noting that in Lithuanian, the noun form does not exist for adverbs of the infinitive genus (e.g., salta, brangu), because they are not used with nouns. [The noun forms are also unlikely to be used for semi-subjects (e.g., eidamas) and for the active subjects of the past tense (e.g., eidaves), because they are also not used to denote objects (Ambrazas, ed., 1997: 367). This may be an additional argument for the fact that the domain of the definition category is a noun compound. By the way, the term,,noun phrase“ itself is defined differently in Lithuanian linguistic tradition than noun phrase in recent linguistics. According to Labutis,,,- noun compounds are considered word compounds, whose main demu is a noun* (Labutis 1998: 68). In this way, substantive and pronoun compounds (e.g., he, She, the one with the yellow curls) and adjectives (e.g., active, the latter) (8-12) in the examples’ turéty biti are treated as substantive and adjective compounds, respectively. On the other hand, it is obvious that according to the syntactic function the words in question represent a noun compound in the sentence, e.g.: (8) Surado jiedvi Anuprq beska nebeživa. He burned with a living fire. (9) After A. Valinskas gave Zodj, Sis apologized for kollegq J. Jankeviciy (10) Bona had temporarily taken Plateliai and Kaunq (the latter was bought from her in 1545) (11) one you, the one with yellow curls, is my cousin Stasys ? (8-11) samples were taken from CT. 117 BirnuTe SPRAUNIENE ginio apibréztj. (18-19) examples problemi8ki also in that ir the adverb in the anaphoric j noun compound was not mentioned together with the antecedent. su The choice of the form of the descriptive bidvardzio assumes that the addressee He knows that Ina Lipman is famous that dainininké ir broliy's mother is an old woman. (18) in the example, the displaying noun allows the adverb to be defined by the postfix iSleisti, without disrupting the text's correferential meaning, but by replacing the example's defining form (19) with the undefining one, the correferential relationship between his paralyzed mother and the old woman breaks down or at least there is an ambiguity that it ir is a new referent, cf. : (19°) Tq The staircadu se brothers. They've hidden their paralyzed moting here. <...>. "The old woman's legs were paralyzed, but her hands could do any work. (20-20) The examples also illustrate that the correferential relationship between the antecedents of the anaphoric compound can be broken by ir replacing the defining form with the undefining one, if the displaying noun is not added, cf. : (20) 1955 m. August 12 d. miré german raxytojas ir Nobel Prize winners Thomas Mann's. The famous likimas writer had brought ir i mice Salj, http://www.ziniur.|t/apie/pranesimai?item = 506 (20°) 1955 m. August 12 d. miré german raxytojas ir Nobel Prize winners Thomas Mann's. ?Famous writer? / $i Famous writer? Fate had brought ir j miisy Snow. Thus, in the (19-20) examples, the defining form of the adverb is mandatory. There are two possible interpretations. (it is particularly difficult to draw a line between situational and ir quantitative definition) it is not appropriate to provide statistics on how the compounds under consideration are distributed by definition types. However, the material of the study allows us to conclude that the defining form of the verb is used to indicate an anaphoric situational definition, but it, ma as already ir mentioned, competes with the non-defining form in the case of an anaphoric definition. su o — ir su display names. 124 Paprastyjy ir jvardZiuotiniy bidvardziy opozicija lietuviy kalboje 8.1. Anaphoric definition (21) He left us the windmill, some_Jis mums paliko malting, porg arkfa horses, a young widow and a baby. _luky, young naile and kiidikj. <...> <...> The young widow married jaunoji naslé istekéjo ir iSvaziavo veek, and sig igen, flyttede et sted langt kazkur toli, o kiidikj atidavé mums. left us the baby. MAL 8 DST 7 (21) is a classic case of anaphoric definition. The descriptive form Gia, it seems, cannot be replaced by the non-descriptive form (e.g.:?jauna naslé istekéjo ir iSvaziavo kagkur toli). The thematic status of the compound does not allow it to do so. On the other hand, in the literature there are many cases when the anaphoric compound is used in Lithuanian with an undefined biword form, e.g. : (22) Derneest udvalgte han sig en hvid__ Tik po to jis paémé vienq baltg péstibonde og en sort <...> Den ninkg ir vienq juodq <...> I§ saujos hvide bonde gled ned frahans _isslydo baltas péstininkas. LTA 6 hdndflade. DST 5 Articleinése in languages (22) in the example, the defining form is required. In the Lithuanian text, we could replace the undefined word with a defining one (e.g., IS saujos isslydo baltasis péstininkas), but the undefined form of the word is sufficient to ensure the text's correferentiality. Perhaps the indefinite form was chosen by the author because the compound with the binomial In this case is reminiscent. The large distance between the anaphora and the antecedents (18 sentences) may also have led to the choice of the indefinite form. There are differing opinions in the literature about the maximum distance between noun combinations connected by anaphoric links. Some authors claim that it cannot be longer than 1-3 sentences, but Chafe gives a case where the anaphoric connection is separated from the antecedents by as much as 105 pages. Chafe’as pabréZia konteksto pobtidzio svarba referento identifikacijai: In fact, it would appear that context or scene is all-important, and that definiteness can be preserved indefinitely if the eventual context in which the referent is reintroduced is narrow enough to make the referent identifiable (Chafe 1976: 41; iSskirta mano —B. S.). 125 Biruté SPRAUNIENE In the material examined, there was also an example when the distance between the compounds connected by anaphoric bonds was several pages. (23) in the example, the distance between the antecedent and the anaphoric compound is 3 pages. In them, one of the protagonists, Janek, tells his friend Isaac about what happened on the day when all Jews were put into a ghetto. At the beginning of the story, Janekas kicked a round, broken stone. The mention of the pebble after 3 pages is like a flash back, and Zenklina returns from one timeline to another. In the Danish (and English) translation, the anaphoric connection is ensured by the defining form, cf. da. den lille runde sten (art.peF maZas.peF apvalus.- peF akmuo,,round pebble‘), in Lithuanian used as an indefinite form of biidvardzio (round pebble is not present). (23) Og just as he stopped sparsuster ojes spardo Ir akmenukg. Take him to stone. en It was a small rounded rock, nuzulintas. Mes round, worn stone. Vi we could really imagine that it was like laden som den var bold ball, play futbolq. om en ir <...> and give us to play football Mes einame toliau. Janeck and I. with it. <...> We go on, Apvalaus akmenuko kîera. There's Janek and me. The little round gerai. It's not a ball, our stones are no longer in front of us. not footballers. MAL 27-30 And that's good. It varjo no ball, and we are not footballers. DST 28-31 (24) in the example we see anaphory chain, where the second, third and fourth time mentioning the referrer is used the demonstrative noun that and the undefined form of the adverb. The same referent being mentioned in the fifth and sixth generation, the noun is allowed, only a noun with an undefined adjective form is sufficient to ensure the correferentiality of the text. In Danish, the defining form is consistently used. The seventh mention of the speaker in the Lithuanian text (I need to dig up sleeping Zmogy) is ambiguous, because the compound sleeping Zmogy can also have a generic interpretation. In the Danish translation such interpretation is eliminated, the compound den sovende mand (art.per sleeping Man) means only the specific Man, who has already been mentioned. (24) A man with a squeaky face leans over my face and blinks. <...> given Man and a blink. <...> This 126 Paprastujy ir jvardziuotiniy badvardziy opozicija lietuviy kalboje The bearded man has overbarzdotas Zmogus uzburé mane. manned me. <...> Jegkommer <...> Keliuosi ir matau Salia tq up and see the bearded man _barzdotq vyra, kuris mirkteléjo who blinked at me. <...> Sas He's dead, er the squeaker He's dead, the bearded man Zmogus. Man. <...> I spread out my jacket, <.4> pull out the beard—_Kloju Svarkq, uztempiu ant jo barzde man up pé it. <...> You dota Zmogy. <...> My nutcracker is crawling towards the lobed grave. We know what's going on. AS nuleidziu j I wish the bearded man ji barzdotq zmogy. <...> Now you don't. <...> Nuserdetud I think he's asleep. as if he's asleep. I'm scared. I'm scared. I need to bury the sleeping Zmogy. I need to bury the LTA 105-106 sleeping man. DST 112-114 Valeckiene states that,,in contemporary Lithuanian literary history, the use of adjectives in noun form is also the norm” (Valeckiene 1959: 191). The study shows that anaphoric definition in Lithuanian language is not consistently represented by defining binomials. 8.2. Situational specificity (25) Two guards stand neesten always at Prie didziyjy varty visuomet stovi the great gate. DST 14 two guards. LTA 15 The Great Gate is mentioned in the novel for the first time, but both in the article and in the Lithuanian language the adjective form is used. Since the novel takes place in the Vilnius ghetto, it is assumed that the addressee knew that it was talking about the great ghetto gates, which are the only ones. In the example of the descriptive biword form (25), it seems that we cannot replace the non-descriptive one, because the compound with the non-descriptive form can mean a non-unique referent or have a generic interpretation, cf. : (25°) "There are always guards at the big gate. (26) in du the example, the situational definition in Lithuanian also requires the definition in the bidward 127 BiruTE SPRAUNIENE (26) <...> om form: hun havde faet fortalt spéjo <...> ar ji pasakyti Gitai about Gita the new om german machine gun vokiskq kulkosvaidj, tq kurj pistol had dug down just jie uzkasé upés krante de kurio spynq by the river bank. ir De had entangled _susuko skudurg hid j the old klud fire ir mechanism in _linden wood. en om LTA 98 before de saved it i en hollowing i the old linden tree. DST 105 15 tam tikri pragmatinés aibés (for Roman characters Zinomy liepy) i8skiriama vienintelé, turėti bivardžių nurodoma pozymij. On the other hand, the novel is full of examples, where the indefinite form of the verb in Lithuanian language, being undefined, can perfectly be used to mean a situational definition: (27) I wish there at wasn't sé I wish I wasn't around so mange mennesker omkring mig a lot _ Zmoniy su geltonomis zvaigzwith these yellow stars tojet. pd dismissed. LTA 8 DST 6 (I wanted there to be fewer people around marked me those by yellow stars. S 3) (28) —Janek, people with yellow stars- — Jane, ar then there were already yellow ner dengang ogsd? DST 29 (Eng. Cows? LTA 29 “Janek, did people wear the yellow patches then?” S 26) (29) —I still know the narrow se — — Man akyse stovi siaura street for me, says Janek. DST _gatvelé, — bag Janeck. LTA 28 29 (30) I've worked long hours og er for lang I've been AS going for a long time, man ir Jau seniai tid siden blevet treet den gule af _atsibodo geltonas ménuo, kuris varmdne, som vender drejer og sig __tosi like a pancake <...>. LTA like a 79 pancake en <...>. DST 85 (27) the example mentioned yellow Zvaigzdés, with which the Nazis pozenklindaval ghetto livingy Jews are stealers. In Lietuviy, the form of neapibréziamobidvardzio is ji used (su yellow Zvaigdémis), in 0 the case of j articled languages, the definite noun compound is chosen with displaying su pronouns'? 2 Whereas the definition ia Display nouns, Sis example disse gule stjerner, 128 Paprastujy ir jvardziuotiniy bidvardziy opposition in Lithuanian (yes. ang. those yellow stars). (28) in the example mentioned those patios yellow Constellation (yellow laughs) Dad In this case, the English definition of the compound me is retained (Eng. the yellow patches), in Danish an 0 undefined noun is used (yes. yellow stars). Be Of course, it cannot be ruled out that in some cases the translators made mistakes, interpreting certain Lithuanian compounds with undefined verbs as defined. su On the other hand, there are too many such examples to be considered translation errors. Such a seemingly unmotivated choice of defining description has a certain effect, because it creates the stilistinj impression that the addressee is like a participant in the narrative, who together with the narrator sees all the events, sodél can identify the referents su related to them, the addressee is su ,,local“, Knowing all the streets, squares, streams, meadows ir etc. All this increases the narrative meaningfulness, because the reader identifies su with the characters ir of the story and the narrator. 8.3. Numerical definition This type of specificity occurs mainly in dialogues, where the participants in the conversation refer to objects that j are present in an indirect conversational environment, e.g.: daj mi dolgqji knilj! In a threatening text such cases are more difficult to detect, I assigned the Siam type to examples of deyctic adjectives su ten tia toto, but such a division is / relative, we / could also interpret the examples as cases of situational definition: ir (31-33) (31) Here's er the narrow street. Stay tight. LTA 21 DST 20 (32) Does it matter now, after have vi Argi tai svarbu dabar, kai mes abu boet kartu hel mdned, iSgyvenome istisq ménesj, i en trisdesimt tredive dienas, her ved bredden dieny, éia, sraunaus upelio pakranden lavvandede bek af DST 106 _Tea LTA 100 (33) I in the meantime there had been At the time in the city, there, where there was heengt tre mennesker byen, der i _ghetto fence, big square, where there was no ghetto fence, pd jo three hangers LTA the 113 great tory The DST 121 galéty bit is assigned to the day definition. On the other hand, the sharp lines between These types of definiteness cannot be overlooked, Zr. Lower. 129 BiruTE In the examples (31-33) below, we use the verb form, neapibréZiamoji but we could change the definition. ja 8.4. Inferred definition In this case only one example was found where the inferred definition is given in the form of a definition: (34) Han [Chaim] was taken alive to the prison hospital. og <...> De best games sogte at safe The Healing of Chaim DST 70-71 Ji [Chaimq] died and was taken to j the prison hospital. <...> The best Ji healers strive to Chaim is well LTA 66 Kituose The examples of this type use the undefining form, the defining form sounds strange, e.g. : (35) He could go to the fields, to ud the large, wide meadow. He could sit the bloody i grass meadow pa DST 31 He's not er young, he's just a soldier. en Hans heender er store <...>. The German stares for a long time pd Esther, the og jeg heavy hand pd stares at the faded, greenish og uniform sleeve that lies on my shoulder. pd DST, He 92-93 took the gun by om the lobe, raised it high, banged the blunt shank og against my thumb DST 82 (36) (37) galéty go to the j countryj side, a large place pievq. He sédéty in that meadow on the soft / ?soft Zolés LTA 31 Jis Not young, that soldier. Manual enlargement <...> German for a long time Ziuri j Esterq, oa’ — j sunkiq / ?sunkigjq rankg ir Zaliq / ?Zaliqapiblja ukusiq He's in a shirt sleeve, lying on my shoulder. LTA 87 He paémé brauningg pipe, uz uzsimojo trenké ir buka / The bare handle of j my death LTA 77 Note that in many Lithuanian examples the indefinite form can not be replaced by the definite form, although the ma noun compound explicitly gives the definite description. This indicates that the definitional designation in the biword form in Lithuanian language has been subjected to somewhat different principles than the definitional designation in articles in the articles languages. The noun compound is defined in the (35-37) examples, but the binomial presents a new 130 The opposition of simple and noun verbs in Lithuanian language is information, to which predicativeness belongs (see Larsen 2007: 40). (35) the example we could replace as follows: He sédéty in that meadow on Zolés, which is soft. Noun Zolé is defined as a meadow of dél sasajos, but su softness is not an identifying sign that helps to determine which Zolé is being spoken of. Todél lietuviy does not present the defining form of the verb. Let's consider another example, in which the predicativeness of a binomial is even more evident, because the binomial is presented as an opposition: (38) Oghan teenkte at dette var den —_jam synesé, kad pirmga kartg if taip ben sé tet pd, mens de fiedrenforste gang han havde set Basias arti mato Basios kojas, spyruokliuode _janéias kartu su Zingsniais, nakla, beveegede sig for hvert skridt, set _ilgq ir Silt, rainas akis, spindindias hendes lange, smukke hals, keistai, raudonas lipas, visai rauhendes kattegjne som glimtede ir sé donas. LTA 61 marvelously and her deeply nested lips sé neer by. DST 64 Junginj The bare neck can be attributed to an inferential definition, e.g. Larsen teiginj Modification by possessive genitives and possessive adjectives can also seen be as an expression of semantic inference (Larsen 2006: 363). Obviously, the biidvardziai longgg ir Siltq re-characterises referenta does not help ir identify. jo In articled languages, the attributive verbs of the definite noun form inevitably fall into the definitional determinant's j apprehension, used in the definite form (with final speech) -e dany perceived as ir presupposed (plg. her long-e, beautiful-e neck (if it is long-prr, grace-per-- caKlas, her long, beautiful neck in the example). (38) It is also used in the ir Latvian language, Zr. Holvoet, Tamulioniené 2006: 23-24. On the other hand, we cannot draw the conclusion that in the case of inferential definiteness, defining adverbs are not used at all in Lithuanian, because there are such examples, e.g. : (39) Wash the avocado séqlq. Dip the blunt end down into a glass filled i with water. http://gyvenimas.delfi.lt/archive/ article.php?id = 6446869 (39) in the example, the bluntness is an identification sign, helping to distinguish the referrer (the end of the section relevant to the speaker) i8 of the corresponding pragmatic alphabet, 131 BiruTé SpRAUNIENE todél is used as the defining form of biidvardzio. The use of the described biidvardzio presupposes that each avocado seed has a dull end, which is the only one. 8.5. Real names Proper nouns are inherently defined, in articled ir languages they are often used as indexes of definition be (plg. ang. *the Mary). Lietuviy kalboje su attributive binominals used with proper names can be both defining and non-defining, as shown by the examples: dag plager (40-41) (40) I Rudi me. His name was... Today I'm bothered Rudy. Jo varder noget andet, men alle kalder das kitoks, men visi vadina ji Rudy. ham Rudy. He rode er over it. _He's if actually all red. Plauhele. Hans har som ild, er hans kai like fire, face like Zarija face looks like et root flag <...>. <...>. Red sea bream Rudj My angry gaze pierces nest _evil eyes. LTA 72 Rudy. DST 68-76 (41) I'm going without at se me back, for einu neatsigrezdamas, kad neslippe for A at at se the beam where the material ir was found Esteros. Esther is nu left alone. LTA 135 DST 146 "I go without looking back, so I don't see where Esther is left to sit alone.’ (40) in the example reddishness is an inherent feature of the referent (He's all red). Therefore, both Danish and Lithuanian use the defining form (red Rudi / raudongjj Rudj), ir another variant néra. (41) in the example uniiSumas is not a constant, inherent property of the referent. It's rather a random — ta special moment when Isaac goes, Esther is left alone. Todél in the (41) example does not represent a binary definition (plg. *single Esteros), 0 the Danish translator has chosen all right, moving the verb to the position of the predicate. j Erikas Hansen also discusses interesting cases of the use of nouns with binomial modifiers in Danish, where the noun can be both a substantive and a non-substantive form (Hansen 2004). 2001: 199 etc, samples taken i8 Hansen): 132 Paprastuju and jvardZiuotiniy budvardziy opposition in lietuviy language (42a) en forked Welding (art.inpEF ,persiSaldes Lassenas’) (42b) the charred Welding (art.per ,persigaldes Lassenas’) (43a) *a reshdret Simonsen (art.1nper ,redhead Simonsen’) (43b) the redhdrede Simonsen (art.per ,redhead Simonsen’) Anot In Hansen's (42-43) examples, proper names retain their definition, i.e. In this case, we cannot speak of an appellated verification lemma. Ju use of articles su with the ir appropriate form of bidenominal modifiers Hansenas aiSkina noun compound information structure characteristics: Related article (and biidvardZio Significant form that indicates the final -e) signals that the attribute is Known information, i.e. that the addressee has already It is known that Lassen is persiSaldes (Example 42b). When a noun attribute provides new information, redefining an individual, the indefinite article is used (and po jo einanti nezymimoji biidvardzio forma) (Example 42a). (42-43) examples illustrate a certain (pragmatic) restriction: the adverb su not can be used in the designative article only in the case of temporary (random) property (42a), 0Winter bison forgali ma Sign both temporary and permanent (fearsome) individual characteristic (42b ir 43(b). Standby Rows (lied. ,red-haired‘) in su the indefinite article may be used as an attribute of a proper name if red hair is a new, accidentally acquired, non-permanent characteristic of the individual. In the case of a biding, constant property, the Significant form is provided. Anot According to Hansen, the use of proper nouns with indefinite forms of non-significant ir articles is an innovation in Danish. It is stylistically zyméta, a new construction, mainly occurring in the media (Hansen 2001 : 204). Hansen argues that similar phenomena are observed in attributive compounds of general nouns, where ir the noun definition is clearly su context-dependent.’’ iS (Hansen 2001: 201, examples taken by i§ the author): (44a) dog-a stabbed snut-a —_forward SUuO-DEF kiSo snukis-per j prieki Suo iskiSo snukj‘ (inference definition of the noun,snukis) (44b) dog-e stabbed the vdd-e face forward 8 All the examples of general nouns discussed by Hansen are of inferential definition, although the author does not use this pronoun. 133