Toponymization in the Latvian Language

S aipsniai / A icles 117 SANDA RAPA La ian Language Ins i u e, Uni e si y o La ia Fields o esea ch: onomas ics, lexicology, g amma . TOPONYMIZATION IN THE LATVIAN LANGUAGE Toponimizacija la ių kalboje ANNOTATION This a icle deals wi h g amma icaliza ion p ocesses in he La ian oponymy and ies o ind di e ences in he de i a ion o oponymy and common ocabula y. Th ee ypes (p ima y, seconda y and compounding oponymiza ion) and six s ages o oponymiza ion (ex ension o he use o a wo d in new ex ensions, ansca ego iza ion o he change o ca e- go y, deca ego iza ion o he loss o some ca ego ical componen s, deseman iciza ion o he loss o change o semes in he seman ic ield o a place name, cli iza ion o me ging o wo wo ds in o one, e osion o he loss o phone ic subs ance, epexege icaliza ion o he acquisi- ion o a new mo phological o seman ic ex ension in o de o explain he place name) we e obse ed. Two s ages o deseman iciza ion – pa ial and comple e – ha e been dis inguished. KEYWORDS: place names, oponymisa ion, deseman iciza ion, g amma ical changes o oponym. ANOTACIJA S aipsnyje ap a iami la ių kalbos ie o a džių g ama izacijos p ocesai i mėginama nus a y i ie o a džių i bend inių žodžių da ybos ski umus. Bu o išski i ys oponi- mizacijos būdai (pi minė, an inė i sudė inė oponimizacija) i šeši lygiai (eks encija, a - ba žodžio a ojimas ki ame kon eks e, anska ego izacija, a ba ka ego ijos pasikei imas, deka ego izacija, a ba am ik ų ka ego inių komponen ų išk i imas, deseman izacija, a ba žodžio semų išk i imas a pasikei imas seman iniame ie o a džio lauke, kli izacija, a ba d iejų žodžių sujungimas, e ozija, a ba one inių elemen ų išk i imas, epeksege izacija, a ba naujo mo ologinio a seman inio komponen o, paaiškinančio ie o a dį, įgijimas). Išski i du deseman izacijos lygiai: dalinė i isiška. ESMINIAI ŽODŽIAI: ie o a džiai, oponimizacija, deseman izacija, ie o a džio g ama iniai paki imai. SANDA RAPA 118 Ac a Linguis ica Li huanica LXXIII By gaining he s a us o a p ope name he common noun does no s op i s de elopmen – i is s ill being adap ed o he language sys em and g amma . G amma ians no mally call i g amma icaliza ion (o g amma iza ion) – he p ocess whe eby lexical i ems and cons uc ions come o se e g amma ical unc ions in ce ain linguis ic con ex s, and, once g amma icalized, con inue o de elop new g amma ical unc ions (Hoppe , T augo 1994: XV). Bu , bea - ing in mind ha p ope names a e a speci ic ca ego y o ocabula y, and hus ha e di e en de i a ional models and pe haps also a di e en u he de el- opmen , he p ocess o wo d adap abili y o he language sys em in onomas ics should be e e ed o as oponymiza ion. The e a e wo opinions abou oponymiza ion held by onomas icians in e - e ence o he comple eness o he p ocess. The Uni ed Na ions G oup o Ex- pe s on Geog aphical Names (UNGEGN) p o ides he ollowing de ini ion o he e m: “ac o p oducing a oponym (i.e. a p ope noun) om a common noun o o he pa o speech” (Repo 2011: 3). In Russian onomas ics, he p ocess o oponymiza ion is explained in a mo e de ailed way: as a ype o onymiza ion which implies no only he change o a common noun in o a p op- e noun, bu also he u he g amma ical and lexico-seman ic de elopmen o he name (Podolskaja 1978: 143); i is a p ocess which is mos likely o occu in in lec ional languages. Based on his b oade unde s anding o oponymiza ion, he a icle in es- iga es some aspec s o he g amma ical de elopmen o La ian place-names. In o de o explain he p ocess o oponymiza ion in he La ian language mo e explici ly, he e minology and me hodology o g amma icaliza ion will be used (Hoppe , T augo 2003; Heine, Ku e a 2004; Heine 1993; Fische , Rosenbach 2000; Lehmann 2002; Meille 1958, e c.). The ma e ial o analy- sis – place names wi h a clea o igin (e ymon) – was aken om he ca d iles o he La ian Language Ins i u e. On he i s le el – when a common noun becomes a p ope name – h ee ypes o oponymiza ion can be dis inguished (acco ding o he classi ica ion elabo a ed by he Polish linguis S anisław Rospond and adop ed by La ian and Li huanian onomas icians (Rospond 1957: 235 ., Vanagas 1970, Balode 1985, Laumane 1996)): • p ima y oponymiza ion – when he common noun ob ains he s a us o a p ope name wi hou any mo phological ans o ma ion (mo phological de i a ion should ake place in he appella i e a he han in he p ope name, e.g., a alley called Ab a ‘kneading ough, hod’1 in Baižkalns < 1 He e and hence o h – an app oxima e o li e al ansla ion o a place name. S aipsniai / A icles 119 Toponymiza ion in he La ian Language ab -a [ oo + ending] and a na ow alley Ab iņa in Cēsis < diminu i e o ab a – ab -iņ-a [ oo + diminu i e su ix + ending]); • seconda y oponymiza ion – when he common noun is de i ed by opo- o man s (mo phological de i a ion should ake place in he p ope name, e.g., Celmājs ‘a place wi h many s umps’ in Iz al a < celm-āj-s [ oo + opo o man i.e. su ix + ending]), • compounding oponymiza ion – when he p ope name consis s o wo o mo e wo ds (some imes i can be accompanied by seconda y oponymiza- ion). Mos compound place names a e nominal cons uc ions – usually a gene ic elemen in combina ion wi h ano he noun (89%) o adjec i e (10%). O he examples a e e y a e – p eposi ional, coo dina i e, nu- me al, p onominal, and in e jec ional cons uc ions cons i u e only 1% o compound place names. The e iew o mo e han 100,000 place names om he ca d iles o he La - ian Language Ins i u e shows ha one hal o all La ian place names (50%) is de i ed by compounding oponymiza ion, 48% a e o med by seconda y op- onymiza ion, and only 2% a e p ima y place names (see Pic u e No. 1). PICTURE 1. Th ee ypes o oponymiza ion Howe e , he de i a ion o place names is no he main objec o his pape – he mo phological s uc u e o La ian place names has al eady been ho ough- ly in es iga ed by bo h La ian (e.g., Laimu e Balode, Vallija Dambe, Beni a Laumane, e c.) and Li huanian (e.g., Aleksand as Vanagas, Laimu is Bilkis, Da- lia Kačinai e-V ubliauskiene, e c.) linguis s. In his s udy, he main p ocesses o deepe oponymiza ion (i.e. g amma icaliza ion) in he La ian language will be ou lined. In o de o show mo e explici ly he u he and deepe oponymiza ion in La ian place names and o compa e he de elopmen o p ope s. common Seconda y oponymiza ion Compounding oponymiza ion P ima y oponymiza ion P ima y oponymiza ion S e c o n d o p o n y d i n g z a i o n SANDA RAPA 120 Ac a Linguis ica Li huanica LXXIII ocabula y, he ollowing scheme elabo a ed by Be nd Heine (Heine 1993: 58) was selec ed: deseman iciza ion → deca ego iza ion → cli iza ion → e osion This chain o g amma icaliza ion shows he basic s ages o wo d g amma i- caliza ion wi hou deepe agmen a ion o he p ocess. Since place names usu- ally main ain hei g amma ical o m o a long pe iod, e idence o oponymi- za ion should be ound wi hou a deepe analysis. Fu he mo e, each s age o g amma icaliza ion will be desc ibed in e ms o oponomas ics. DECATEGORIZATION When ying o pu a place name in he g amma icaliza ion chain, he i s co ec ion should be done in he sequence o s ages because in he p ocess o onymiza ion he ca ego y o he wo d is a ec ed a he e y beginning. When a common noun shi s o a p ope noun, i no only acqui es a g aphical dis- inc ion (namely, i comes o be spelled wi h a capi al le e ), bu also eezes in a ce ain (and o en unchangeable) ca ego ial o g amma ical o m. Thus, i loses a leas one ca ego ial componen ( o example, he nouns ha become oikonyms in La ian oponymy mos equen ly lose hei singula o m, while adjec i es, as hey become oikonyms, usually lose hei eminine o m). How- e e , his shi be ween he appella i e and he p ope name ne e leads o a lowe -le el ca ego y (e.g., auxilia ies) – common nouns ans o m wi hin an equi alen lexical ca ego y; he e o e, he i s s age o oponymiza ion should be called ansca ego iza ion o eca ego iza ion. Some g amma ians ha e dis- ce ned ano he sub-s age in his p ocess be o e deca ego iza ion and desc ibed i as ex ension – he use o he wo d in new ex ensions (Heine, Ku e a 2004). Al hough hey la e abandoned his idea, i may be applied o onomas ics. Thus, he i s s age o oponymiza ion may comp ise he ollowing: ex ension (use in new ex ensions) > ansca ego iza ion (change o ca ego y) > deca ego iza ion (loss o some ca ego ial componen s). DESEMANTICIZATION The nex s age – deseman iciza ion – is some imes e e ed o as he igge o g amma icaliza ion which ini ia es an i e e sible change o a language uni , and is esponsible o all he ollowing s ages o g amma icaliza ion. I we ag ee wi h John S ua Mill, Alan Ga dine and o he s who claim ha p ope names ha e no lexical meaning and a e emp y di e en ia ing signs, we should say ha S aipsniai / A icles 121 Toponymiza ion in he La ian Language common nouns each hei comple e deseman iciza ion a he poin when hey become p ope names. On he o he hand, i we ag ee wi h hei opponen s, such as O o Jespe sen, Ojā s Bušs and mysel , we can say ha p ope names ha e a lexical meaning which is e en b oade and encompasses mo e han com- mon nouns do, and hus he naming o a place ini ia es no only deseman iciza- ion bu also eseman iciza ion o he appella i e. Fo example, he appella i e ē gļi ‘eagles’, a e i became a p ope noun Ē gļi, los i s appella i e meaning and gained a new meaning which is, howe e , di icul o de ine: ‘a illage on he bank o he Og e i e , he bi hplace o he La ian w i e Rūdol s Blau- manis, e c.’. In he ca d iles o he La ian Language Ins i u e he e a e many ins ances which show place name deseman iciza ion. Two di e en le els o deseman i- ciza ion in he La ian oponymy can be dis inguished: pa ial and comple e deseman iciza ion, which a e bo h usually ini ia ed by me apho o me onymy, i.e. analogy and e-analysis ( hese wo ypes o seman ic ansposi ion a e ec- ognized as he mos impo an seman ically mo i a ed mechanisms in he p o- cess o g amma icaliza ion (Hoppe , T augo 2003: 87, Heine 1993: 96, Fische , Rosenbach 2000: 15, e c.)). Pa ial deseman iciza ion can be ound in compound place names wi h a ge- ne ic elemen which does no ( ully) cha ac e ize he ca ego y o he objec . The s udy o app oxima ely 100,000 compound place names wi h a gene ic elemen (which should, o cou se, deno e he ca ego y o he objec ) shows mo e han 24,000 seman ic misma ches be ween a place name and he eal geog aphical objec – which means ha mo e han a i h o gene ics in La ian compound oponyms do no desc ibe he ca ego y o he eal geog aphical objec , o only pa ially do so (see Pic u e No. 2). gene ic e m ≠ di ec objec name 24% gene ic e m = di ec objec name 76% PICTURE 2. Gene ics in La ian place names SANDA RAPA 122 Ac a Linguis ica Li huanica LXXIII I could be a esul o ei he unc ional change o me apho ic and me onymic ansposi ion. Bu e en pa ial deseman iciza ion can be o a di e en deg ee: me apho ically ansposed names pa ially b eak he link be ween he appel- la i e and he objec , bu me onymically ansposed place names and names which emain unchanged a e he change o he objec do i almos comple ely, while he lexical meaning o he appella i e is s ill ecognizable ( o ins ance, a equen me apho ic designa ion o a hollow place, bļuoda ‘li .: bowl’, used in he alley name Sid aba Bļoda ‘Sil e Bowl’ in Anna2, and he appella i e bļoda ‘bowl’ ha e a leas one common seme ‘ ound shape’, while he gene ic e m in he meadow name Medus S au s ‘Honey Ri ule ’ in Džūks e which is named, h ough synecdoche, a e he i ule which lows along he meadow, and he appella i e s au s ‘ i ule ’ do no ha e any common seme). The mos ep esen a i e example o pa ial deseman iciza ion is he appella- i e pu s ‘bog’ in La ian place names. Abou one six h o geni i e compounds wi h his gene ic e m exis ing in La ian oponymy do no designa e he co e- sponding physiog aphical objec , i.e. a eal bog o swamp, o a leas a we land. Lexeme pu s in La ian place names is o en used o designa e meadows, o - es s, ields, ponds, bushes, illages, alleys, pi s, e c. This appella i e (p obably, due o changes in he lo a and geology o he espec i e objec s) has unde gone all ypes o seman ic changes. An objec may be called a bog h ough: • me apho (when he place looks like o has some ea u es o he espec i e objec , e.g., a meadow name Elles Pu s ‘Hell’s Bog’ in Ā la a; cha ac e - ized by an in o man as “ e y we ”); • me onymy, i.e. synecdoche ( he place is si ua ed nea a bog o a bog is inside i s e i o y, e.g., a o es name Līkais pu s ‘C ooked Bog’ in B en- guļi; “has some li le bogs inside”); • his o ical changes (when he e i o y has ea lie been a eal bog, e.g., Lai- as pu s ‘Boa Bog’ in Bilska, “was a huge bog, now amelio a ed land”). The same a e has be allen o he gene ics which a e included in abou a hal o all La ian place names. P obably, a bleaching o he appella i e meaning o a place name is also de e mined by he equency o i s use. I can be obse ed in he use o he mos widesp ead appella i es such as as e ‘na ow e i o y’ (li .: ‘ ail’), gals ‘end’, kalns ‘hill, kāja ‘na ow e i o y’ (li .: ‘leg’), leja ‘ alley’, lauks ‘ ield’, mala ‘edge’ mežs ‘ o es ’, upe ‘ i e ’, idus ‘middle’, zeme ‘land, soil’. The e a e se e al indica ions o seman ic bleaching o he mos widesp ead ap- pella i es in place names: 2 He e and hence o h he place name and i s li e al ansla ion is ollowed by he name o he pa ish (adminis a i e en i y a e 1939) whe e he place name was egis e ed. In some cases, some addi ional in o ma ion gi en by an in o man in quo a ion ma ks is also quo ed. S aipsniai / A icles 123 Toponymiza ion in he La ian Language a) hey a e o en used in he geni i e (usually singula ) o m: e.g., kalna-, le- jas-, lauka-, meža-, idus-, and ha e acqui ed a pa icula meaning which is used only in onomas ic compounds – in mos cases, o di e en ia e a new a mhouse om an olde one (e.g., a m names D ibas, Kalna D ibas ‘Hill D ibas’, and Lejas D ibas ‘Valley D ibas’ in Baižkalns, Kalna Uodiņi in D abeši, as he in o man said, “we e sepa a ed om Uodiņi”); b) usually hey ha e los some phone ic subs ance: kalna- > kal-, lejas- > le- js-, lauka- > lau-, idus- > ids- (e.g., a m name Kalmaļi [< kalns ‘hill’ + mala ‘bo de ’] in Vā e, illage name Laugals [< lauks ‘ ield’ + gals ‘end’] in Nīca); c) hey a e o en used in a pa icula mo phological o m which does no ha e a speci ic meaning and canno be ound in he common ocabula y: gals > -gale [de i a ion wi h a eminine ending], -gali, -gaļi [nom. pl.]; mala > -male [ eminine], -maļi [nom. pl.]; upe > -upi, -upji [ nom. pl.]; idus > - idi [nom. pl.]), zeme > -zemi, -zemji [masculine, nom. pl.] (e.g., Mež idi [< mežs ‘ o es ’ + idus ‘middle’] in Dignāja, Ē ģeme, Gaujiena, e c., Ciemgali in Dundaga, Ciemgaļi [< ciems ‘ illage’ + gals ‘end’] in Bauņi, Tu la a, e c.); d) hey some imes con ain a eduplica ion which is conside ed by Lehmann (Lehmann 2002: 116–117) o be a eliable indica o o deseman iciza ion: e.g., hill names wi h he eduplica ed gene ic kalns ‘hill’: Kalniņkalns, Kalnijkalns, a m names Kalnk ie kalns, Kalnkalniņi in Ē gļi; e) some imes an addi ional conno a ion can appea : e.g., leja ‘ alley’ can also deno e ‘a a m se an ’s house’ and kalns ‘hill’ – ‘a a m owne ’s house’ (ME II 143, 447) (e.g., Lejas ē zemnieki ‘Valley Vē zemnieki’ in Ci gaļi desc ibed by an in o man as “ he se an s’ house”). These indica ions show ha he mos widesp ead lexemes ha e almos ac- qui ed he s a us o an a ixoid (in mos cases, a p e ixoid) – a egula wo d which can also unc ion as a mo phological componen o a name, as an a ix (p e ix). E en i an independen wo d loses i s phone ic subs ance and becomes un ecognizable, i may s ill be used as a opo o man in de i a ion o new place names. Some imes a coincidence wi h egula auslau s can help ( o example, a equen appella i e as e ‘ ail, na ow e i o y’ is eminiscen o auslau -a(i)s e o su ix -s - in Bal ic Finnic languages). Many lexemes in place names ha e eached comple e deseman iciza ion. This phenomenon can be obse ed in he so-called obscu e place names whe e he speci ic meaning has been long o go en and now can be disco e ed only h ough e ymological analysis. Fo example, he equen ending -a a in La i- an hyd onyms (e.g., in i e names Aba a, Dauga a, Ruca a) has p obably a is- en om Indo-Eu opean oo *a(e)- and o iginally had he meaning ‘ o mois- en, o low’ (c . La . a o s ‘sp ing [o wa e ]’) (Ka ulis I 93–94; Buck 1949: 44; Poko ny 1959: 78). SANDA RAPA 124 Ac a Linguis ica Li huanica LXXIII The e a e many opo o man s which ha e en e ed La ian oponymy as in- dependen wo ds om o he languages. Due o subsequen un ecognizabili- y, hese bo owed appella i es (mainly gene ics) ha e become g amma ical o man s. Thus, La ian lake names Kaņie is in Riga, Ninie is in Cēsis, Spicie is in Smil ene p obably con ain Es onian jä ‘lake’ o Li onian jō a, jä u ‘lake’ (Dambe 1987: 34; Hauzenbe ga 1932: 134). This ending has become a egula opo o man ; he e o e, i is included no only in hyd onyms, bu also in mead- ow names (e.g., Pinie s in Liezē e) and a m names (e.g., Poņe i in Pil ene). Bo - owed pos ixoids a e also -nī e in Ku zeme egion (c . Es onian nii , Li onian nī ‘meadow’) and -pole in La gale (c . Russian поле ‘ ield’ which, acco ding o Fasme III 307, is ela ed o Old Russian полъ ‘open, emp y’), e c. No only deseman iciza ion bu also ansseman iciza ion o eseman iciza- ion can be obse ed in La ian place names i a new meaning appea s as he esul o g amma icaliza ion. Fo example, a m name Rīskalni in Renda has a isen as a esul o con amina ion om ijas- [gen. sg.] ‘ h eshing ba n’ and kalni ‘hills’, no om he wo ds īss ‘ ice’ and kalni ‘hills’; a m name Da dedži has a isen om da ( )dedži ‘ a -boile s’, no om da dedze ‘ ainbow’; a m name Sālskalns – om saules kalns ‘hill o he sun’, no om sāls kalns ‘hill o sal ’, a m name Piesa gi means pie sa gi ‘wa chmen o meadow’, no ‘nea /a Sa gi’. In some cases, i is p obably due o olk e ymology, no g amma icaliza ion, bu he eason is s ill deseman iciza ion. CLITIZATION The mos widesp ead igge o a ixoids is cli ic, when one wo d in ap- id speech blends wi h he nex wo d and phonologically depends on ano he wo d. I does no necessa ily ollow deseman iciza ion, as i was shown in he g amma icaliza ion chain, because he e he componen o a oponym usually keeps i s meaning – i is always ecalled by he conno a ion wi h he co e- sponding objec . The mos cha ac e is ic p ocess in La ian oponymy is p ocli ic when a wo d (usually a p eposi ion) wi hou an independen accen me ges wi h he ollowing wo d in he p ocess o speech. The e a e s ill many place names in La ian oponymy which esemble an onomas ic desc ip ion. Mos o hem a e p e ixal cons uc ions, and many o hem a e combined in p ocli ic wo ds: Aizeze e < aiz + eze s ‘behind he lake’, Aizupe < aiz + upe ‘behind he i e ’, Aizpu e < aiz + pu s ‘behind he bog’, Pie obeža < pie + obeža ‘by he bo de ’, Pā dauga a < pā + Dauga a ‘o e /ac oss he i e Dauga a’, pā mežs < pā + mežs ‘behind he o es ’, Pā pu s < pā + pu s ‘behind/o e he bog’. In hese S aipsniai / A icles 125 Toponymiza ion in he La ian Language cons uc ions (mo e o en han in he common ocabula y), he accen shi s om he independen wo d o he p e ix (acco ding o he ule o he ypical i s syllable s ess in La ian). A he same ime, he new lexeme adap s (by aking he espec i e de i a ional ending) o he co esponding deno a um: o example, a meadow name Pieakmene has become eminine, because i e e s o a eminine noun pļa a ‘meadow’, while a ishing place Pie akmeņa s ill con ains he masculine ending o he noun akmens ‘s one’ in Jumu da. An encli ic, whe e a wo d phone ically me ges wi h he p eceding wo d, seems o be a he in equen in La ian oponymy. Howe e , i is also less isible and ecognizable (because, as Ch is ian Lehmann has no ed, i is o - en ollowed by agglu ina ion and usion (Lehmann 2002, 145 .)). F equen opo o man s which ha e a isen om independen wo ds eze s ‘lake’ and a ājs ‘plowman’ in La ian oponymy a e, o example, auslau s -e is o -a s and - ā- ji - e.g. in he names o se lemen s Meldze e in Nīg ande and Sauze i in S ū i, meadow name Melze e in Sk unda, lake name Zuosa s in Gaigala a, and a m- house names Dziļ āji in Code, Jaun āji in Padu e, Muiž āji in Ī ande – hese place names p obably ha e ea lie been Meld-eze e (< ‘ eed lake’), Saus-eze i (< ‘d y lake’), Mel(n)-eze e (< ‘black lake’), Zuos-eze s (‘lake o geese’), Dziļ-a āji (< ‘deep plowing plowmen’), Jaun-a āji (< ‘young/new plowmen’), Muiž-a āji (< ‘mano plowmen’). Besides cli ics, di e en kinds o phonological changes can a ec place names. The La ian linguis Edī e Hauzenbe ga-Š u ma has desc ibed mo e han 150 ypes o phonological changes in app oxima ely 2000 La ian oiko- nyms, including loss o owels, consonan s, o syllables, as well as quali a i e owel changes, epen hesis, assimila ion, dissimila ion, me a hesis, alli e a ion, e c. (see Hauzenbe ga 1932). EROSION E osion o loss o phone ic subs ance (Heine, Ku e a 2002: 2) always goes hand in hand wi h he p ocess o cli ic and usually ollows deseman iciza ion (Meille 1958: 135–139). Commonly, a oponymic colloca ion (onomas ic lex- eme + gene ic) becomes a compound place name, and hen he second com- ponen o he name becomes a opo o man (as we could see in he encli ic ex- amples abo e), bu o en he las componen (mos ly a gene ic) is comple ely d opped. P obably, i is due o language economy which is mo e e ec i e in oponymy han in common language, because in he case o oponymy one has o memo ize many speci ic, o en non-s anda d language uni s (Supe anska- ja 1973: 87). Besides, he mo e e iden loss o he so-called oponymic ellipsis