Word-formation Patterns of the German and Lithuanian Nomina Loci from the Dictionary of Seven Languages (Sieben-Sprachen-Wörterbuch)

DALIUS JARMALAVIČIUS Vilnius University ORCID id: orcid.org/0000-0002-6755-6316 Field of research: synchronic and diachronic word-formation; history of the Baltic and Germanic group of languages; analysis of word-formation of nominal compounds in bilingual manuscript dictionaries of the Baltic languages; translation problems of specific terminology, teaching methodology of the German language. DANGUOLĖ STRAIŽYTĖ Vilnius University Field of research: nominal word-formation, comparative analysis of Nomina Loci between the Baltic and Germanic languages, teaching methodology of ESP (English for Specific Purposes) and teaching English as a foreign language (EFL); translation theory and practice; medical terminology. VIRGINIJA JŪRATĖ PUKEVIČIŪTĖ Vilnius University ORCID id: orcid.org/0000-0002-3219-2794 Field of research: application of the latest methods in teaching foreign language; didactics of foreign languages, word-formation in foreign language teaching and learning. DOI: doi.org/10.35321/all88-02 WORD-FORMATION PATTERNS OF THE GERMAN AND LITHUANIAN NOMINA LOCI FROM THE DICTIONARY OF 28 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXVII Word-formation Patterns of the German and Lithuanian Nomina Loci from the Dictionary of Seven Languages (Sieben-Sprachen-Wörterbuch) SEVEN LANGUAGES (SIEBEN-SPRACHEN-WÖRTERBUCH1) Septyniakalbio žodyno (Sieben-Sprachen-Wörterbuch) vokiečių ir lietuvių kalbų vietų pavadinimų (nomina loci) daryba A N N O T A T I O N This article analyses place nouns (Nomina Loci) in German and their derivational equivalents in Lithuanian. The objective of the paper is to ascertain the similarities and differences between place nouns in German and Lithuanian. The research material was collected from a seven-language multilingual dictionary published in 1918, which was commissioned and compiled by the authorities of the ‘Oberost’ military administrative unit. On the basis of the selected data (in total, 253 German samples out of 8,000 word tokens), the aim is to analyse the word-formation tendencies of Nomina Loci in both languages by comparing the German place nouns recorded in the dictionary at the beginning of the 20th century with their Lithuanian equivalents. The Nomina Loci study is presented in the following order: first, the place nouns of the German language are analyzed, with the aim of finding out what proportion of the Nomina Loci consists of compounds, derivatives, and simple words (simplicia). In the next stage of the analysis, the words recorded in the source are compared with the equivalents in the Lithuanian part of the dictionary. This part of the article aims at determining the word-formation patterns of Nomina Loci in Lithuanian and comparing them with the German compounds, derivatives, and simple words. The study revealed that out of 253 recorded examples of Nomina Loci found in the German section of the dictionary the majority is comprised of compound and simple words, however, the number of German Nomina Loci made up with affixes is considerably lower. Mostly, German compound place nouns are represented by syntagmas in Lithuanian. German simple place nouns are translated into Lithuanian by using simplicia and less frequently by derivatives, while the Nomina Loci formed with affixes are mostly rendered into Lithuanian by employing derivatives or syntagmas. KEYWORDS: Nomina Loci (place nouns), word-formation, affixes, compounds, dictionary of seven languages. 1 Sieben-Sprachen-Wörterbuch: Deutsch / Polnisch / Russisch / Weißruthenisch / Litauisch / Lettisch / Jiddisch (1918), herausg. im Auftrag des Oberbefehlshabers Ost, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, 2014. Straipsniai / Articles 29 DALIUS JARMALAVIČIUS, DANGUOLĖ STRAIZYTĖ, VIRGINIJA JŪRATĖ PUKEVIČIŪTĖ ANOTACIJA Šiame straipsnyje aprašomi vokiečių kalbos vietų pavadinimai (Nomina Loci) ir jų darybos atitikmenys lietuvių kalboje. Tyrimo medžiaga buvo rinkta iš gretiminio septyniakalbio žodyno, kurio rengimą inicijavo karinio administracinio vieneto Oberosto valdžia, o leidinys buvo publikuotas 1918 metais. Atrinktų duomenų pagrindu, kurį iš šaltinyje įtrauktų 8000 lemų sudaro 253 vokiečių kalbos vietų pavadinimai, siekiama išanalizuoti abiejų kalbų nomina loci darybą, palyginti žodyne užfiksuotų vokiečių kalbos vietų pavadinimų ir XX amžiaus pradžiai būdingų lietuviškųjų atitikmenų darybines ypatybes. Atliktas tyrimas pristatomas tokia tvarka: pradžioje aptariami vokiečių kalbos vietos pavadinimai, turint tikslą išsiaiškinti, kokią šios kalbos nomina loci dalį sudaro dūriniai, vediniai ir paprastieji žodžiai. Po to šaltinyje užfiksuoti žodžiai palyginami su lietuviškoje žodyno dalyje esančiais atitikmenimis. Šioje straipsnio dalyje siekiama nustatyti, koks lietuvių kalbos vietų pavadinimų darybos būdas atitinka vokiškuosius kompozitus, derivatus ir simplicijas. Iš žodyne užfiksuotų 253 vokiečių kalbos nomina loci daiktavardžių, didžiąją jų dalį sudaro dūriniai ir paprastieji žodžiai, daug mažiau rasta vietų pavadinimų, kuriems būdinga afiksacija. Vokiškuosius sudurtinius nomina loci lietuvių kalboje atitinka žodžių junginiai (sintagmos), o paprastieji vietų pavadinimai verčiami į lietuvių kalbą simplicijomis, rečiau – derivatais. Afiksiniai vokiečių kalbos nomina loci dariniai žodyne pateikiami dažniausiai lietuviškais vediniais ar žodžių junginiais. ESMINIAI ŽODŽIAI: Nomina Loci (vietų pavadinimai), žodžių daryba, afiksai, dūriniai, septyniakalbis žodynas. INTRODUCTION During the First World War, the Kaiser’s German army occupied part of the western lands of the Tsarist Russian Empire, on the basis of which a military administrative unit, ‘Oberost’, was formed (German: Ober Ost) (see Figure 1). As stated in the publication of the Oberost Press Department, Das Land Ober Ost (hereinafter – DLOO), the governance decisions and ordinances in the territory that were disseminated orally or through publicly displayed posters eventually proved to be of limited effectiveness. Therefore, after the restoration of printing presses, it was decided to publish important documents and information in newspapers (DLOO 1917: 128). At first, it was thought that all the press should use the Fraktur font used in the German language, which was also used to print publications in the Curonian Spit. However, the other languages of the Oberost area used the Latin alphabet (Antikva) and Slavic letters (Cyrillic), so printing equipment was installed for the publication of texts 30 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXVIII Word-formation Patterns of the German and Lithuanian Nomina Loci from the Dictionary of Seven Languages (Sieben-Sprachen-Wörterbuch) in these fonts, and their reorientation to Fraktur would have been financially unprofitable. Thus, it was decided to continue publishing in ancient Latin, and to use Hebrew letters for the Yiddish language (DLOO 1917: 136–137). Due to martial law, publications and announcements were censored, which resulted in the establishment of the Oberost Press Department (German: Presseabteilung) consisting of local departments (German: Pressestellen). The Translation Unit of the Press Department (German: Übersetzungsstelle der Presseabteilung) supervised newspapers printed in local languages and prepared translations of the most important orders of the Oberost’s authorities into individual languages. To facilitate the work of translators, a directory of German words and their translations into Latvian, Lithuanian, Polish, Yiddish, Belarusian, and Russian was compiled. It consisted of about 8,000 words (DLOO 1917: 147–148), on the basis of which a seven-language dictionary (German: Sieben-Sprachen-Wörterbuch, hereinafter – SSW) was prepared and printed in 1918; this dictionary was used as the data source to select the research material described in this article. FIGURE 1. Administrative territory of Oberost (the source: Das Land Ober Ost 1917: 345) Straipsniai / Articles 31 DALIUS JARMALAVIČIUS, DANGUOLĖ STRAIŽYTĖ, VIRGINIJA JŪRATĖ PUKEVIČIŪTĖ As stated in its introductory section, the preparation and publication of the dictionary was initiated by the First World War German-occupied Eastern European authorities responsible for the media and translation of various administrative documents into local languages (SSW 1918: 5). However, according to the compilers of the dictionary, this lexicographical work was carried out without the participation of specialists of this field of linguistics, so it should be acknowledged that this undoubtedly reduces its scientific value. However, despite this shortcoming, the practical significance of the dictionary is unquestionable, as it improved the communication of the military authorities with the local population (SSW 1918: 5–6). The fundamentals of German word equivalents consisted of the word cards cataloged in six languages, which had hitherto been used to translate various administrative writings into the local languages of the occupied territories. The authors of this dictionary also faced some difficulties, as the local languages did not have equivalents for the German terms of administration, law, or the military. In those cases, new words were coined in accordance with local language structures, presumably in consultation with native speakers. Thus, this multilingual dictionary was chosen as a source of research data due to the colloquial words and cases of word creation registered in it, which has enabled the derivational properties of the Lithuanian place nouns used at the beginning of the 20th century to be determined. On the other hand, this study could be further extended to include more languages (e.g. Latvian and Russian), which would make it possible to compare and identify the most productive word–formation types of place nouns in these respective languages. The subject of the present research is the formation of Nomina Loci (hereinafter – NL) in German and Lithuanian. The study seeks to examine word–formation characteristics of German NL equivalents in the Lithuanian language. To achieve the aim of the research, the following objectives have been set: 1) to review the theory of NL word–formation; 2) to analyse the word–formation structure of NL in German; 3) to investigate the peculiarities of the Lithuanian NL word–formation recorded in the dictionary; 4) to compare and describe word–formation patterns of German NL with their equivalents in Lithuanian. The NL research results are described in the following order: first, an overview of the NL formation theory is provided; then, the peculiarities of the word formation of NL in the German and Lithuanian languages recorded in the dictionary are presented, allowing us to highlight the predominant types of 32 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXVIII Word-formation Patterns of the German and Lithuanian Nomina Loci from the Dictionary of Seven Languages (Sieben-Sprachen-Wörterbuch) noun derivation in this category. Finally, the word-formation of German NL is compared with the Lithuanian NL counterparts from the Lithuanian part of the dictionary. The main conclusions and references are presented at the end of the article. 1. OVERVIEW OF THE WORD-FORMATION OF PLACE NOUNS (NOMINA LOCI) Traditionally, there seems to be a general consensus in the academic community regarding the overall basic definition of Nomina Loci. Both Franz Rainer and Hans C. Luschützky (2013: 1302) as well as Bogdan Szymanek (2015: 1328) define Nomina Loci primarily as a category of nouns within a word-formation system, particularly as cases of deverbal derivation. Nevertheless, the authors acknowledge that the category of place nouns encompasses primary nouns, compounds, and other types of derivations as well (Rainer, Luschützky 2013: 1302; Szymanek 2015: 1329). Prototypical derivatives of NL tend to follow the pattern of deverbal nominalization, e.g. Lith. dirb-tuvė ‘workshop’ (← dirbti ‘to work’); Eng. refin-ery (← to refine). Denominal types of NL are also widespread, e.g. Lith. dilgėl-ynas ‘nettle shrubbery’ (← dilgėlė ‘nettle’), klamp-ynė ‘bog’ (← klampus, -i ‘boggy’); Eng. pigg-ery (← pig). The main way of deriving NL is considered to be suffixation; however, conversion, paradigmatic derivation or compounding are also utilised (Kastovsky 1985: 224; Szymanek 2015: 1334). In the English language, the category of NL is weakly productive: to coin new NL suffixation, conversion, and compounding are employed. The suffix -(e)ry, which is borrowed from the French language, can be used to form deverbal or denominate derivatives, where the basis can be both a verb and a noun, such as e.g. Eng. boil-ery (← to boil), pigg-ery (← a pig) (Marchand 1969: 284). Other NL suffixes of relevance are as follows: –(e)(t)eria, e.g. chocolat-eria (← chocolate); -age, e.g. orphan-age (← orphan) (Kastovsky 1985: 223; Szymanek 2015: 1335) and the formative –dom, e.g. king-dom (← king), which James P. Blevins (2006: 526) classifies as the type of semi-affixes.² As Rochelle Lieber (2004: 150) observes, ² In the word-formation theory, semi-affixes are generally considered to be constructive elements that occupy an intermediate position between affixes and individual lexemes. However, researchers have not reached a unanimous opinion on the status of affixes, and the issue of separating them from other means of word-formation remains a point of discussion (for more detail, see Jarmalavičius 2017: 75–88; Jarmalavičius, Straižytė 2020: 123–127). Straipsniai / Articles 33 DALIUS JARMALAVIČIUS, DANGUOLĖ STRAIZYTĖ, VIRGINIJA JŪRATĖ PUKEVIČIŪTĖ the suffix –age is not a productive affix of NL formation, but with the suffix –ery a number of words in this category are formed in English. However, among the productive English suffixes, Ingo Plag (2006: 541–545) has not mentioned any suffixes which render the derivation of NL, suggesting that suffixation as a derivational means of forming NL in English is less common. Nevertheless, NL formed with suffix –ment (encampment, settlement) also occurs (Kastovsky 1985: 225). Moreover, to produce NL in English, conversion can be employed, e.g. a stop (← to stop), as well as compounding, e.g. with the second constituent shop (book-shop), house (slaughter-house) (Marchand 1969: 375). Although approximately 60 per cent of the German nouns are derived by using suffixation (Fleischer, Barz 1995: 84), this way of derivation is not predominant in the field of NL. Only a few affixes are used in the formation of NL, most common of them being deverbal or denominal derivation. Wolfgang Motsch (2004: 352) mentions some productive ones – most often deverbal nouns indicating a place where an activity happens (Motsch 2004: 337), e.g. the suffix –(er)ei Druck-erei ‘press, printing-house’ (← drucken ‘to press’). However, the suffix –erei can also be used in the German language to form denominal derivations, e.g., Käs-erei ‘cheese shop’ (← Käse ‘cheese’), –(l)erei: Först-erei ‘forestry’ (← Först-er ‘forester’), Tisch-lerei ‘carpentry’ (← Tisch-ler ‘carpenter’). A deverbal derivation of NL with the suffix –e is also possible: Kipp-e ‘garbage dump’ (← kippen ‘to tip’), Schwemm-e ‘floodbank’ (← schwemmen ‘to flood’) (Fleischer, Barz 1995: 146; Motsch 2004: 353). Also, only a few words derived with other affixes are found: suffixes -icht, -nis, -ung, -t and prefix ur-, e.g. Dick-icht ‘thicket’ (← dicht ‘thick’), Gefäng-nis ‘prison’ (← gefangen past participle form ‘caught’), Ansiedl-ung ‘settlement’ (← ansiedeln ‘to settle’), Buch-t ‘bay’ (← biegen ‘to bend’), Ur-wald ‘jungle’ (← Wald ‘forest, wood’) (Fleischer, Barz 1995: 35, 163, 166, 176, 203; Motsch 2004: 353). A significant proportion of German nouns are formed by compounding. Any part of speech can become the first constituent of a compound; however, determinative compounds corresponding to the N + N word-formation type³ are highly productive (Fleischer, Barz 1995: 84). Although the authors of this article have not been able to find any specific research on the compounding of NL in German, the facts mentioned above suggest that this method of word-building is more common than affixation, as shown by the analysis of NL word-formation. As with other nouns, the first elements of compound NL can be adjectives, e.g. Flach-küste ‘flat coast’, ³ In the bilingual dictionaries of the Baltic languages, N + N type German compounds constitute 78,9–83,2 per cent, V + N 9,4–12,6 per cent, A + N 5,2–6,9 per cent, and compound nouns with the first constituents of other parts of speech comprise 1,3–3,2 per cent (Stundžia, Jarmalavičius 2019: 64, 301, 319). 34 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXVIII Word-formation Patterns of the German and Lithuanian Nomina Loci from the Dictionary of Seven Languages (Sieben-Sprachen-Wörterbuch) verbs, e.g. Koch-ecke ‘kitchenette’, Treib-haus ‘greenhouse’ (Motsch 2004: 353), prepositions, e.g. Vor-garten ‘front yard’, but also a large group of NL consists of both noun elements, e.g. Schuß-feld ‘field of fire’, Unglücks-stelle ‘accident site’ or Gemeinde-wald ‘community forest’). Such a pattern is especially prevalent among NL with the second constituent indicating location, e.g. Stelle ‘place’, Wald ‘forest’, Feld ‘field’, etc. In Lithuanian, NL is a relatively new category of nouns formed from nomina collectiva (Ambrazas 2000: 63, 207) and characterised by average productivity. The majority of these words are formed by employing suffixes. The most productive affixes to form NL are as follows: Lith. –ynas, e.g. berž-ynas ‘birch grove’ (← beržas ‘birch’), –ynė, e.g. dyk-ynė ‘empty place’ (← dykas, –a ‘empty’), –inė, e.g. malk-inė ‘wood shed’ (← malka ‘wood’), –ykla, e.g. mok-ykla ‘school’ (← mokyti ‘to teach’), –idė, e.g. kiaul-idė ‘piggery’ (← kiaulė ‘pig’), –uma, e.g. saus-uma ‘dry land’ (← sausas, –a ‘dry’) and a few others, the first three formatives being the most productive ones. According to the Grammar of Modern Lithuanian (Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos gramatika (hereinafter – DLKG) 1997), less productive suffixes are: –uva, e.g. žvalg-uva ‘scouting ground’ (← žvalgyti ‘to scout’), –lis, e.g. sandė-lis ‘warehouse’ (← sudėti, –jo ‘to store’), –einė, e.g. buv-einė ‘dwelling place’ (← būti, –vo ‘to be’), –imys (–imis), e.g. paplūdimys ‘beach’ (← paplūsti, –do ‘to overflow’), –vė, e.g. kal-vė ‘smithery’ (← kalti, –ė ‘to coin’) and –udė, e.g. al-udė ‘beerhouse’ (← alus ‘beer’), which are responsible for producing only a few words (Ambrazas 2000: 63). Taking into account the word-formation of NL, derivational inflections, such as, e.g. Lith. prieplauk-a ‘dock’ (← priplaukti, –ė ‘to dock’), are infrequent (Ulvy das 1965: 396). According to the Grammar of Modern Lithuanian (DLKG 1997: 137), NL are represented by the derivatives of the endings –a, –is, –ė and –as, e.g. perėj-a ‘passage’ (← pereiti, –jo ‘to pass’), guol-is ‘den’ (← gulėti, –jo ‘to lie’), plyn-ė ‘wilderness’ (← plyn as ‘bare’), nuotak-as ‘drain’ (← nutekėti, –jo ‘to drain’). Another means of word-formation of the category of NL described in the Grammar of Modern Lithuanian (DLKG 1997: 145) is prefixation. The prefix pais presented as the most productive prefix formation, e.g. pa-kalnė ‘slope’ (← kalnas ‘hill’), pa-kelė ‘sideway’ (← kelias ‘way’). The Grammar of Modern Lithuanian (DLKG 1997: 145–147) also provides such formatives of this prefix like už-, e.g. už-stale ‘behind the table’ (← stalas ‘table’), ant-, e.g. ant-kapis ‘tombstone’ (← kapas ‘grave’), prie-, e.g. prie-pirtis ‘ante-sauna’ (← pirtis ‘sauna’), į-, e.g. į-kalnė ‘ascension’ (← kalnas ‘hill’), apy-, e.g. apy-kaklė ‘collar’ (← kaklas ‘neck’), po-, e.g. po-žemis ‘dungeon’ (← žemė ‘ground, earth’), prieš-, e.g. prieš-kambaris ‘ante-room’ (← kambarys ‘room’). Straipsniai / Articles 35 DALIUS JARMALAVIČIUS, DANGUOLĖ STRAIZYTĖ, VIRGINIJA JŪRATĖ PUKEVIČIŪTĖ In contrast to Germanic languages, such as English and German, Lithuanian is not abundant in nominal compounds, because, according to the Grammar of Modern Lithuanian (DLKG 1997: 151), compound nouns comprise only about 5 per cent of all the words registered in the dictionary, and their dominant pattern is with the second noun constituent. N + N type words are most productive, while compound nouns of other structures are less common (Stundžia, Jarmalavičius 2019: 26–28). In the absence of sufficient data and research, it is difficult to determine the extent to which NL are represented by compounding in the Lithuanian language, but given the relatively small number of noun compounds, it is assumed that there will be far fewer NL expressed by compounds than those formed by affixation. In summary, it could be argued that affixation is not a common way of forming NL in English and German; it is certainly not as frequent as compounding, which is a generally productive way of denominal word-formation in German. Formation of NL in the Lithuanian language is dominated by suffixation, with significantly fewer prefixes and derivational inflections employed. However, in the absence of more in-depth research, it remains difficult to ascertain with any precision the proportion of the Lithuanian NL word-formation taken up by compounding. 2. THE WORD-FORMATION OF PLACE NOUNS (NOMINA LOCI) IN THE GERMAN SECTION OF THE DICTIONARY This part of the article describes NL in the German section of the dictionary, consisting of 253 recorded examples with the focus on their formation and derivational structure. It should be noted that in the process of collecting these examples, some difficulties were encountered in distinguishing NL from other categories of nouns. As Vincas Urbutis notes (2009: 194), there are no strict boundaries to distinguish between separate categories, therefore, in the absence of a broader context, it is difficult to determine whether, for example, Brücke ‘bridge’, Bohrturm ‘(oil) derric’, Abweg ‘wrong way’, Eisenbahn ‘railway, railroad’, Feldbefestigung ‘field fastening’, Treppe ‘stairs’ are to be regarded as NL or other representations of noun categories denoting buildings or instruments. For this reason, similar words remain outside the boundaries of derivative analysis. In addition, nouns, such as Anwaltskammer ‘Chamber of Lawyers’, Behörde ‘agency, office, government body’, Fakultät ‘faculty’, Generalstab ‘General Staff’, Sparkasse ‘savings bank’, etc., are also excluded from the study as they do not 36 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXVIII Word-formation Patterns of the German and Lithuanian Nomina Loci from the Dictionary of Seven Languages (Sieben-Sprachen-Wörterbuch) indicate a specific place but seem to identify certain institutions or bodies. As shown in Figure 2, more than half of the NL identified in the dictionary are compounds followed by simple, unmotivated words, while the smallest part is represented by the words formed by means of an affix (see Figure 2). FIGURE 2. Word-formation of place nouns (NL) in German As it has already been mentioned in this part of the article, most of the NL in German under focus consist of compound words, both constituents of which are nouns, i.e. corresponding to the N + N formation type (see Figure 2), e.g. Bier-brauerei ‘brewery’ (← Bier ‘beer’ + Brauerei ‘brewery’), Gärungs-raum ‘fermentation room’ (← Gärung ‘fermentation’ + Raum ‘room’), Herstellungs-ort ‘place of production or manufacturing’ (← Herstellung ‘production, manufacturing’ + Ort ‘place’), Klee-brache ‘fallow land planted with clovers’ (← Klee ‘clover’ + Brache ‘uncultivated land, fallow’), Laub-wald ‘leafy forest’ (← Laub ‘leaf’ + Wald ‘forest’), Milch-keller ‘milk cellar’ (← Milch ‘milk’ + Keller ‘cellar, vault’), Nadel-wald ‘coniferous forest’ (← Nadel ‘needle’ + Wald ‘forest, wood’), Pferde-stall ‘horse stable’ (← Pferd ‘horse’ + Stall ‘stable’), Sumpf-land ‘swampland’ (← Sumpf ‘swamp, marsh’ + Land ‘land, ground’), Waren-haus ‘store’ (← Waren pl. ‘article, goods’ + Haus ‘house’), Zier-garten ‘flower garden’ (← Zier ‘adornment’ + Garten ‘garden’). NL compounds of type N + N recorded in the dictionary are most numerous, while those with the first constituent-verb are four times less frequent (see Figure 3), e.g. Anbau-fläche ‘cultivable land, cultivated area’ (← anbauen ‘to cultivate, to grow’ + Fläche ‘area, land’), Bade-stube ‘bathroom, bathhouse’ (← baden ‘to bath, to take a bath’ + Stube ‘house, room’), Kauf-laden ‘shop’ (← kaufen ‘to buy, to sell’ + Laden ‘shop, store; loading’), Näh-stube ‘sewing room’ (← nähen ‘to sew, to stitch’ + Stube ‘house, room’), Säge-mühle ‘lumbermill, Straipsniai / Articles 37 DALIUS JARMALAVIČIUS, DANGUOLĖ STRAIZYTĖ, VIRGINIJA JŪRATĖ PUKEVIČIŪTĖ sawmill’ (← sägen ‘to saw, to cut’ + Mühle ‘mill’), Sprech-zimmer ‘consulting room’ (← sprechen ‘to speak’ + Zimmer ‘room’), Warte-saal ‘waiting room’ (← warten ‘to wait’ + Saal ‘hall’), Wohn-sitz ‘place of residence’ (← wohnen ‘to live, to stay’ + Sitz ‘seat, place’), Zucht-haus ‘jail, penitentiary’ (← züchten there: ‘to discipline’ + Haus ‘house’). FIGURE 3. Structural patterns of compound place nouns (NL) in German NL with the first constituents of other parts of speech are considerably less frequent (see Figure 3), e.g. An-höhe ‘hill’ (← an ‘on, at, to’ + Höhe ‘height’), Eigen-wirtschaft ‘farm’ (← eigen ‘own’ + Wirtschaft ‘economy, farm, property’), Elementar-schule ‘elementary school’ (← elementar ‘basic, elementary’ + Schule ‘school’), Quer-straße ‘crossroad, cross street’ (← quer ‘cross’ + Straße ‘street’), Vor-hof ‘forecourt, front court’ (← vor ‘before, in front of’ + Hof ‘court’), Vor-zimmer ‘anteroom’ (← vor ‘before, in front of’ + Zimmer ‘room’). A significant proportion of the vocabulary under focus consists of NL represented by simple, i.e. unmotivated, words, comprising 35 per cent of NL found in the dictionary (see Figure 2), e.g. Berg ‘hill, mountain’, Boden ‘bottom’, Feld ‘field’, Garten ‘garden, yard’, Forst ‘forest’, Haus ‘house, home’, Hütte ‘cabin, hut’, Küste ‘coast’, Platz ‘place, room, seat’, Scheune ‘barn’, Stall ‘stall, stable, cote’, Wald ‘forest, wood’, Wüste ‘wilderness, desert’, Zimmer ‘room’, etc. As the data of the study showed, the number of German NL formed by affixation is not significant, with a total of 14,2 per cent (see Figure 2). In the 36 examples collected, considerable variation in affixes was observed, with some variants used more frequently, while others were only identified once (see Table 1). 38 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXVIII Word-formation Patterns of the German and Lithuanian Nomina Loci from the Dictionary of Seven Languages (Sieben-Sprachen-Wörterbuch) TABLE 1. Word-formation affixes of place nouns (NL) in German Affixes Number of NL examples –ung 12 –e 5 –stätte/–statt 4 –erei 4 –werk 3 –de 2 Haupt- 2 –icht 1 –nis 1 –ei 1 Ob- 1 Total: 36 The majority of NL examples recorded are those with the suffix –ung, e.g. Bösch-ung ‘slope’, (← böschen ‘to slope’), Erhöh-ung ‘heightening, rise, hill’ (← erhöhen ‘to rise’), Fest-ung ‘stronghold, fastness’ (← fest ‘hard’), Höhl-ung ‘hollow’ (← hohl ‘hollow’), Münd-ung ‘estuary, affluent’ (← münden ‘to flow’), Wohn-ung ‘flat’ (← wohnen ‘to live’), Umgeb-ung ‘vicinity, neighbourhood’ (← umgeben ‘to surround’). Fewer of the identified examples are NL with the suffix –e (see Table 1), e.g. Höh-e ‘height’ (← hoch ‘high’), Höhl-e ‘cave, hole’ (← hohl ‘hollow’), Niederlag-e ‘repository’ (← niederlegen ‘to put down’), Schenk-e ‘tavern, alehouse’ (← schenken ‘to give something, to lace’), Tief-e ‘depth’ (← tief ‘deep’). Less common are NL with the suffixes –stätte/–statt, –erei, –de and the semi-affixes –werk and Haupt– (see Table 1), e.g. Brut-stätte ‘breeding ground’ (← brüten ‘to breed’), Feuer-stätte ‘fireplace’ (← Feuer ‘fire’), Werk-stätte ‘workshop, repairer’ (← Werk ‘factory’), Zahlungs-statt ‘payment place’ (← Zahlung ‘payment’), Brau-erei ‘brewery’ (← brauen ‘to brew’), Bücher-ei ‘library’ (← Bücher pl. ‘books’), Druck-erei ‘print office’ (← drucken ‘to print, to press’), Web-erei ‘weaving mill’ (← weben ‘to weave’), Gebäu-de4 ‘building’ (← bauen ‘to build’), Gelän-de ‘ground, land’ (← Land ‘land, country, ground’), Berg-werk ‘mine’ (← Berg ‘mountain’), Stock-werk ‘floor’ (← Stock ‘floor’), Vor-werk ‘estate, property’ (← vor ‘before, in front of’), Haupt-stadt ‘capital 4 The German words Gebäude and Gelände are to be considered as a case of the formative of the prefix geand the suffix -de (cf. Fleischer, Barz 1995: 207–209). Straipsniai / Articles 39 DALIUS JARMALAVIČIUS, DANGUOLĖ STRAIZYTĖ, VIRGINIJA JŪRATĖ PUKEVIČIŪTĖ (← Stadt ‘city, town’), Haupt-wechselstube ‘general currency exchange office’ (← Wechselstube ‘currency exchange office’). One example of each of NL has been registered with the suffixes -icht, -ei, -nis and the derivative of the prefix Ob- (see Table 1), e.g. Dick-icht ‘thickset, thicket’ (← dicht ‘thick’), Gefäng-nis ‘prison’ (← gefangen past participle form ‘caught’), Ziegel-ei ‘brick manufacture’ (← Ziegel ‘brick’), Ob-dach ‘shelter’ (← Dach ‘roof, housetop’). 3. EQUIVALENTS OF GERMAN PLACE NOUNS (NOMINA LOCI) IN LITHUANIAN This section of the article presents a description of the Lithuanian derivative equivalents of NL from the German language. NL can be translated from German into Lithuanian by using syntagmas, simplicia, derivatives, and compounds. It is common for a German word to have several equivalents in Lithuanian: simple words, syntagmas, and derivatives, simplicia, and phrases, while simple words, syntagmas or affixes are interchangeable with compounds (see Table 2). TABLE 2. German Place Nouns (NL) and Their Lithuanian Equivalents Since compounding is not a predominant way of word-formation in Lithuanian, the compound NL in German are usually conveyed by syntagmas or derivation (see Table 2). For example, the Lithuanian equivalent of Bade-stube 40 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXVII Word-formation Patterns of the German and Lithuanian Nomina Loci from the Dictionary of Seven Languages (Sieben-Sprachen-Wörterbuch) ‘bathroom’ found in the source is syntagma maudymo kambarys⁵ ‘room for bathing’, Bau-platz is also represented by the phrase statomoji vieta ‘building plot or ground’, the same is true for other compound NL such as Burg-ruine, Gast-zimmer, Malz-mühle, Sprech-zimmer and others, which are translated into Lithuanian by syntagmas pilies griuvėsiai ‘castle ruin’, svečių kambarys ‘guest room’, salyklo malūnas ‘malt mill’, priimamasis kambarys ‘consulting room’. Less frequently, the Lithuanian equivalents for German compound NL are the derivatives of suffixes and prefixes (see Table 2), e.g. Vor-platz, Lith. prie-angis ‘vestibule, lobby’ (← anga ‘opening’), Hühner-stall, Lith. višt-tinė ‘hen house, coop’ (← višta ‘chicken, hen’), Kauf-laden, Lith. pirk-tuvė and san-krova ‘shop and stowage’ (← pirkti ‘to buy’ and krauti ‘to load, stow’), Schwimm-bad, Lith. maud-ymas and plauk-imas ‘bathe and swimming’ (← maudyti ‘to bath’ and plaukti ‘to swim’). Neither is it uncommon to find that in the source the German suffix corresponds to a simple word or compound noun of the Lithuanian language (see Table 2), e.g. Bienen-stock, Lith. avilys, aulys ‘beehive’, Branntwein-schenke, Lith. smuklė ‘tavern, alehouse’, Gemüse-garten, Lith. daržas ‘vegetable garden’, Herren-haus, Lith. pilis ‘castle’, Zucht-haus, Lith. katarga ‘jail, penitentiary’, Bürger-steig, Lith. šali-gatvis ‘pavement’ (← šalia ‘by, near’ + gatvė ‘street’), Kranken-haus, Lith. ligon-būtis ‘hospital’ (← ligonis ‘patient’ + butas ‘flat’), Markt-platz, Lith. rinka-vietė ‘marketplace’ (← rinka ‘market’ + vieta ‘place’), Schul-ort, Lith. moksla-vietė ‘school place’ (← mokslas ‘study, science’ + vieta ‘place’), Waren-haus, Lith. preky-būtis ‘department store’ (← prekyba ‘trade, market’ + butas ‘flat’). In very rare cases, a compound German NL can be represented by several variants in the Lithuanian part of the dictionary: syntagma, simplicia, compound, and derivative, or a nominal compound, simple word or phrase (see Table 2), e.g. An-höhe, Lith. kalva, aukšt-uma ‘hill, height’ (← aukštas ‘high’), Schlupf-winkel, Lith. slėp-ykla, pasislepiamoji vieta ‘hiding place’ (← slėptis ‘to hide’), Nadel-wald, Lith. pušų-eglių miškas, šilas ‘forest of pines and firs, pinewood’, Bier-brauerei, Lith. alu-darė, bruzė ‘beer brewery’ (← alus ‘beer’ + daryti ‘to make, to do’), Wein-berg, Lith. vyn-ynas, vyn-kalnis ‘vineyard’ (← vynas ‘wine’; vynas + kalnas ‘hill’). According to the research data presented in Table 2, German NL expressed by simple words often correspond to simplicia in the Lithuanian language, with affixation also employed. In cases when several translation variants are presented, both of these lexical units are given (see Table 2), e.g. Berg, Lith. kalnas ‘hill’, Burg, Lith. pilis ‘castle’, Feld, Lith. laukas ‘field’, Haus, Lith. troba, namas ‘house’, Messe, Lith. turgus, rinka ‘fair, market’, Ort, Lith. vieta ‘place’, Wald, Lith. miškas, ⁵ The examples in the Lithuanian language are provided in contemporary Lithuanian. Straipsniai / Articles 41 DALIUS JARMALAVIČIUS, DANGUOLĖ STRAIŽYTĖ, VIRGINIJA JŪRATĖ PUKEVIČIŪTĖ giria ‘wood, forest’, Gasse, Lith. gatv-elė ‘alley, small street’ (← gatvė ‘street’), Herberge, Lith. nakv-ynė ‘hostel, place to overnight’ (← nakvoti ‘to sleep, to overnight’), Schule, Lith. mok-ykla ‘school’ (← mokyti ‘to tech’), Graben, Lith. griovys, perkas-as ‘ditch, digging’ (→ perkasti ‘to dig’), Küche, Lith. vir-tuvė, kuknė ‘kitchen’ (← virti ‘to boil, to cook’), Stall, Lith. tvartas, staldas, arkl-idė ‘stable, stall’ (← arklys ‘horse’). It is very rare to find a simple word in German represented by different means of denominal word-formation in Lithuanian (see Table 2), e.g. Gosse, Lith. gatvi-vagė, išliejamoji vieta ‘gutter, kennel’ (← gatvė ‘street’ + vaga ‘trench, furrow’), Latrine, Lith. srut-ynė, išeinamoji vieta ‘latrine’ (← srutos ‘sewage’), Wüste, Lith. tyr-laukis ‘wilderness, waste’ (← tyrai pl. ‘waste, wild’ + laukas ‘field’). As shown in Figure 2, NL formed by derivation in the German language are far less prevalent than other types of word-formation with only 36 examples. As affixation is a popular way of Lithuanian word-formation, German NL derivatives are usually corresponded by suffix, prefix, or by paradigmatic derivation as a word-formation pattern (see Table 2), e.g. Berg-werk, Lith. kas-ykla ‘mine’ (← kasti ‘to dig’), Dick-icht, Lith. tankum-ynas ‘dense, thick forest’ (← tankus ‘thick, bushy’), Fest-ung, Lith. tvirt-ynė ‘castle, fortress’ (← tvirtas ‘hard’), Münd-ung, Lith. įtak-a ‘inflow’ (← įtekėti ‘debouch, flow’), Ob-dach, Lith. pa-stogė ‘shelter’ (← stogas ‘roof, housetop’), Tief-e, Lith. gil-uma, gel-mė ‘depth’ (← gilus ‘deep’). However, the less frequently mentioned equivalents of the words mentioned in the source are phrases, simple words, or compounds (see Table 2), e.g. Brut-stätte, Lith. peramoji vieta ‘breeding ground, place’, Feuer-stätte, Lith. ugna-vietė ‘fireplace’ (← ugnis ‘fire’ + vieta ‘place’), Gebäu-de, Lith. troba ‘house’, Haupt-stadt, Lith. sosta-pilė ‘capital’ (← sostas ‘throne’ + pilis ‘castle’), Ziegel-ei, Lith. plytų degtuvė ‘brick manufacture’. When several Lithuanian words are to be selected for the relevant German NL, the corresponding examples of both simplicia and derivatives may be provided (see Table 2), such as Erhöh-ung, Lith. paaukštin-imas, kalva ‘heightening, hill’ (← paaukštinti ’to heighten’), Stell-ung, Lith. stov-is, vieta ‘condition, position’ (← stovėti ‘to stand’), Wohn-ung, Lith. butas, gyven-imas, gyvenimo vieta ‘flat, life, place to live’ (← gyventi ‘to live’). CONCLUSIONS 1. In the Germanic languages (English and German), NL makes up a low-productive category of nominal word-formation. Typically, these nouns can be formed by affixation, conversion, or compounding. 42 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXVIII Word-formation Patterns of the German and Lithuanian Nomina Loci from the Dictionary of Seven Languages (Sieben-Sprachen-Wörterbuch) Generally, derivation (especially suffixation) is a productive way of forming German nouns, however, the choice of prefixes and suffixes in the formation of NL is rather limited. A large group of German nouns is made up of words via compounding, which is a particularly productive type of N + N formation. Although there is a lack of in-depth research on German place nouns, the analysis of the source suggests that compounding is a rather significant method of NL formation in German. In Lithuanian, the NL category can be characterised as being of average productivity, and the majority of such words are formed by affixation. 2. The study of the German part of the dictionary has shown that: 2.1. More than 50 per cent of all NL recorded in the dictionary are compound words, which confirmed the claim that compounding is a productive way of forming NL in German. Most of these words can be characterised by the fact that both of their constituents are nouns. Considerably fewer compound NL corresponding to the type of V + N were identified; moreover, compounds with the first constituent belonging to other parts of speech (adjectives, prepositions and pronouns) are very rare. 2.2. A significant proportion of the vocabulary under focus consists of the NL which are simple lexical units, i.e. unmotivated words, which make up approximately 35 per cent of the NL found in the dictionary. 2.3. There are not so many German NL formed by affixation – 14,2 per cent in total. The analysis of the words under focus has revealed that some affixes (e.g. -ung, -e, -stätte/-statt, -werk, -erei, Haupt-) are used more frequently, whereas others (-icht, -nis, -ei, Ob-) have been found only once. This fact suggests that affixation is not a common way of forming NL in German. 3. Having analysed the NL equivalents of the German section of the dictionary in Lithuanian, it was noticed that: 3.1. German compound NL are very often represented by syntagmas or derivatives, and less often the equivalents in Lithuanian are simple words and compounds. 3.2. Simple German NL words tend to be translated into Lithuanian using simplicia, with affixation also used rather frequently; or when several translation variants are presented, these two methods can be used side by side. 3.3. German NL derivatives are mostly represented in Lithuanian by suffixes, prefixes or paradigmatic derivatives, and less frequently by syntagmas. Straipsniai / Articles 43 DALIUS JARMALAVIČIUS, DANGUOLĖ STRAIŽYTĖ, VIRGINIJA JŪRATĖ PUKEVIČIŪTĖ ABBREVIATIONS A + N adjective + noun Eng. English language Lith. Lithuanian language N + N noun + noun NL nomina loci (= place nouns, location nouns) P + N preposition + noun pl. plural Pr + N pronoun + noun V + N verb + noun REFERENCES Ambrazas Saulius 2000: Daiktavardžių darybos raida 2, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas. Blevins James P. 2006: English Inflection and Derivation. – The Handbook of English Linguistics, eds. B. Aarts, A. McMahon, Malden: Blackwell Publishing, 507–536. DLKG – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos gramatika, red. V. Ambrazas, 3-iasis patais. leidimas, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas, 1997. DLOO – Das Land Ober Ost. Deutsche Arbeit in den Verwaltungsgebieten Kurland, Litauen und Bialystok=Grodno, herausg. im Auftrag des Oberbefehlshabers Ost, bearbeitet von der Presseabteilung Ober Ost, Stuttgart, Berlin: Deutsche Verlags=Anstalt, 1917. Fleischer Wolfgang, Barz Irmhild 1995: Wortbildung der deutschen Gegenwartssprache, Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag. Jarmalavičius Dalius 2017: Dėl žodžių darybos teorijoje vartojamų terminų ir darybinių elementų klasifikacijos. – Acta Linguistica Lituanica 76, 75–88. Jarmalavičius Dalius, Straižytė Danguolė 2020: Disputable aspects of the historical development of constituents in German compounds. – Educational, linguistic and media discourses, eds. R. Kriaučiūnienė, Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 118–131. Kastovsky Dieter 1985: Deverbal nouns in Old and Modern English: from stem-formation to word-formation. – Historical Semantics. Historical Word-Formation, eds. J. Fisiak, Berlin, New York, Amsterdam: De Gruyter Mouton, 221–261. Lieber Rochelle 2004: Morphology and Lexical Semantics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 44 Acta Linguistica LXXXVIII Word-formation Patterns of the German and Lithuanian Nomina Loci from the Dictionary of Seven Languages (Sieben-Sprachen-Wörterbuch) Marchand Hans 1969: The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word Formation. A Synchronic-Diachronic Approach, 2nd edition, München: Verlag C.H. Beck. Motsch Wolfgang 2004: Deutsche Wortbildung in Grundzügen, Berlin, New York, Amsterdam: De Gruyter Mouton. Plag Ingo 2006: Productivity. – The Handbook of English Linguistics, eds. B. Aarts, A. McMahon, Malden: Blackwell Publishing, 537–557. Rainer Franz, Luschützky Hans C. 2013: Instrument and place nouns: A typological and diachronic perspective. – Linguistics 51(6), Berlin, New York, Amsterdam: De Gruyter Mouton, 1301–1359. SSW – Sieben-Sprachen-Wörterbuch: Deutsch / Polnisch / Russisch / Weißruthenisch / Litauisch / Lettisch / Jiddisch (1918), herausg. im Auftrag des Oberbefehlshabers Ost, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, 2014. Stundžia Bonifacas, Jarmalavičius Dalius 2019: Daiktavardžių daryba vokiškose XVII–XVIII a. baltų kalbų žodynuose, Vilnius: Vilniaus universiteto leidykla. Szymanek Bogdan 2015: Place nouns. – Word-Formation. An International Handbook of the Languages of Europe (Handbücher zur Sprachund Kommunikationswissenschaft / Handbooks of Linguistics and Communication Science 40(2)), eds. P. O. Müller, I. Ohnheiser, S. Olsen, F. Rainer, Berlin, New York, Amsterdam: De Gruyter Mouton, 1327–1339. Urbutis Vincas 2009: Žodžių darybos teorija, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas. Septyniakалbio žodyno (Sieben-Sprachen-Wörterbuch) vokiečių ir lietuvių kalbų vietų pavadinimų (Nomina Loci) daryba SANTRAUKA Šiame straipsnyje aprašomi 1918 metais išleisto septyniakalbio žodyno vokiečių kalbos vietų pavadinimai ir jų lietuviški atitikmenys. Kaip parodė atliktas tyrimas, daugiau nei pusė visų šaltinyje užfiksuotų vokiečių kalbos Nomina Loci yra dūriniai, kiek mažiau jų sudaro paprastieji žodžiai. Vokiečių kalbos vietų pavadinimų, pasidarytų afiksacijos būdu, tėra 14,2 proc. Straipsniai / Articles 45 DALIUS JARMALAVIČIUS, DANGUOLĖ STRAIZYTĖ, VIRGINIJA JŪRATĖ PUKEVIČIŪTĖ Analizuojant vokiškosios žodyno dalies NL atitikmenis lietuvių kalboje pastebėta, kad vokiečių kalbos sudurtiniai vietų pavadinimai labai dažnai perteikiami sintag­momis arba pasitelkiama derivacija, o rečiau dūrinių atitikmenys yra paprastieji žodžiai ir dūriniai. Paprastuosius vokiečių kalbos nomina loci linkstama į lietuvių kalbą versti simplcijomis, taip pat dažnai pasitelkiama afiksacija arba, kai žodis turi kelis vertimo variantus, paprastieji, darybiškai nemotyvuotieji, daiktavardžiai ir vardažodžių vediniai vartojami pagrėčiui. Vokiškuosius vietų pavadinimų darinius dažniausiai lietuvių kalboje atitinka priesagų, priešdėlių ar galūnių vediniai, rečiau – žodžių junginiai (sintagmos). Įteikta 2022 m. spalio 28 d. DALIUS JARMALAVIČIUS Vilnius University Faculty of Philology, Institute for the Languages and Cultures of the Baltic Universiteto g. 5, LT–01131 Vilnius, Lietuva [email protected] DANGUOLĖ STRAIZYTĖ Vilnius University Faculty of Philology, Institute of Foreign Languages Universiteto g. 5, LT–01131 Vilnius, Lietuva [email protected] VIRGINIJA JŪRATĖ PUKEVIČIŪTĖ Vilnius University Faculty of Philology, Institute for the Languages and Cultures of the Baltic Universiteto g. 5, LT–01131 Vilnius, Lietuva virginija.pukevič[email protected] 46 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXVIII