Žodžių spekuliacija, spekuliantas ir spekuliuoti reikšmių pokyčiai

ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ Institute of the Lithuanian Language ORCID id: orcid.org/0000-0001-8775-788X Research areas: semantics, lexicology, lexicography, computational linguistics. DOI: doi.org/10.35321/all89-08 CHANGES IN THE MEANINGS OF THE WORDS SPEKULIACIJA, SPEKULIANTAS AND SPEKULIUOTI Changes in Meanings of Words speculation, speculator, and speculate ANNOTATION The article presents a study of the meanings of the words spekuliacija, spekuliantas and spekuliuoti, the aim of which is to determine changes in the meanings of the words under study on the basis of general (explanatory) and specialized dictionaries and the usage of contemporary written Lithuanian. Thus, the article examines how many and which meanings of the words under study are recorded in Lithuanian, English, and Russian dictionaries, examines what contemporary written Lithuanian usage shows, and raises assumptions about the causes that led to the emergence of new meanings, among other things. KEYWORDS: the word spekuliacija, the word spekuliantas, the word spekuliuoti, changes in meanings, definitions of meanings, dictionary. ANNOTATION The article delves into a comprehensive examination of the meanings associated with the words speculation, speculator and speculate. Its primary objective is to discern shifts in the meanings of these words by drawing from general (explanatory) and special dictionaries alongside contemporary usage of the Lithuanian written language. The discussion within the article explores the breadth and variations of meanings attributed to these words across Lithuanian, English, and Russian dictionaries. It further examines insights derived from the current usage trends in the Lithuanian written language while also offering conjectures about the reasons for the emergence of new meanings. KEYWORDS: word speculation, word speculator, word speculate, changes in meanings, definitions, dictionary. 164 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXIX Žodžių spekuliacija, spekuliantas ir spekuliuoti reikšmių pokyčiai INTRODUCTORY REMARKS At first glance, it may seem that the words spekuliacija, spekuliantas and spekuliuoti are very clear, easy to understand, and recognizable. However, an examination of their usage raises quite a few questions concerning changes in the meanings of these words. Thus, the object of this article is the meanings of the words spekuliacija, spekuliantas and spekuliuoti and their changes. The aim of the study is to determine changes in the meanings of the words under study on the basis of general and specialized dictionaries and the usage of contemporary written Lithuanian. To achieve this aim, the following tasks were set: 1) to investigate the definitions of the words under study in general and specialized dictionaries of Lithuanian, English, and Russian; 2) to identify the principal features selected when defining the meanings of the words under study; 3) to investigate the usage of the words under study in contemporary written Lithuanian. The research methods are descriptive-comparative and semantic analysis. As Rita Miliūnaitė states, “changes in the meanings of words, especially those related to the development and violations of norms, have been very little studied in the Lithuanian language. To date, no clear criteria have been formulated for evaluating various variations in word meanings, apart from a few more general theoretical statements and examples” (Miliūnaitė 2022: 161). In clarifying changes in word meanings, it is important to determine under what circumstances and why new meanings emerge, while some meanings, conversely, disappear or transform (Miliūnaitė 2022: 161). Two modes of meaning change are most often identified—denotation and connotation. Aloyzas Gudavičius distinguishes four classes of denotata: “1) a prototypical denotatum, 2) an expanded or narrowed denotatum, 3) a new aspect of a prototypical denotatum, and 4) a new denotatum. Accordingly, in a polysemous word, four semantic zones could be distinguished, reflecting these interrelated denotata and the word’s capacity to name elements of the world; in other words, the directions of the word’s semantic development” (for more detail, see Gudavičius 2013: 75). Drawing on Evaldas Jakaitienė (1986: 102), R. Miliūnaitė distinguishes the following principal sources of shifts in word meanings: 1) other languages (semantic calques), 2) dialects of Lithuanian, 3) the substandard variety of Lithuanian, and 4) the system of the standard language itself (Miliūnaitė 2022: 162). Thus, the article will go on to examine how many and which meanings of the words under study exist (are recorded) in dictionaries and usage, and will raise assumptions about what caused the emergence of new meanings. Research sources and empirical material. In studying the meanings of the words spekuliacija, spekuliantas and spekuliuoti, the study draws not only on Lithuanian sources but also on sources in other languages—English and Russian. According to Aloyzas Gudavičius, comparative semantic studies are very important for determining the characteristics of the categorization of reality in language, which “[...] are perhaps most clearly reflected in the structure of a word’s meaning, and this structure is most clearly revealed when compared with other meanings and, especially, with corresponding meanings in other languages” (Gudavičius 2009: 93). According to Kristina Rutkovska et al., “[t]he meaning of a linguistic unit, as the result of people’s interpretation of the world, is determined by culture, and this [...] must be shown in the definition” (Rutkovska et al. 2017: 30). In other words, the same words may be defined differently in dictionaries of different nations, that is, those features are highlighted which are important and recognizable to the people of a particular nation. Straipsniai / Articles 165 ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ when compared with other meanings and, especially, with corresponding meanings in other languages” (Gudavičius 2009: 93). According to Kristina Rutkovska et al., “[t]he meaning of a linguistic unit, as the result of people’s interpretation of the world, is determined by culture, and this [...] must be shown in the definition” (Rutkovska et al. 2017: 30). In other words, the same words may be defined differently in dictionaries of different nations, that is, those features are highlighted which are important and recognizable to the people of a particular nation. Thus, this article draws on1: 1) general (explanatory) Lithuanian dictionaries—Lietuvių kalbos žodynu (LKŽe), Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynu (DLKŽe), the specialized dictionary Tarptautinių žodžių žodynu (TŽŽ), and the database Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenynu (ND); 2) general (explanatory) English dictionaries—Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (CAMBRIDGE), Collins English Dictionary (COLLINS), Merriam-Webster Dictionary and Thesaurus (MERRIAM-WEBSTER), Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries (OXFORD), and 3) general (explanatory) Russian dictionaries—Словарь русского языка (МАКС), Русский семантический словарь (SEM), and Толковый словарь русского языка (TSOŠ). In examining contemporary written Lithuanian usage, the study draws on the Corpus of the Contemporary Lithuanian Language (DLKT). Internet texts were searched using the Google search engine. The examples examined in the article were selected from fiction, non-fiction2, administrative literature, and journalistic texts in DLKT. In total, approximately 1,000 examples of the noun spekuliacija, approximately 500 examples of the verb spekuliuoti, and approximately 450 examples of the noun spekuliantas were examined. Most of the examples found using the Google search engine in which the words under study were used were also reviewed. In examining examples from both sources, the question was raised of how many and which meanings of the words under study the examples reveal. ¹ These sources were selected because they are the most representative examples of their category. Another representative lexical source is the Bendrinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas (BLKŽ), but since the dictionary is still being compiled, words beginning with the letter s are not yet publicly available. ² DLKT non-fiction includes scholarly, educational, popular-science, and other literature. 166 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXIX Žodžių spekuliacija, spekuliantas ir spekuliuoti reikšmių pokyčiai 1. NOUN SPEKULIACIJA 1.1. Definitions of the noun spekuliacija³ in Lithuanian, English, and Russian dictionaries It is most convenient to begin discussing the definitions of the noun spekuliacija by consulting general (explanatory) Lithuanian dictionaries⁴—LKŽe, DLKŽ₈e—and the specialized dictionary TŽŽ (see Table 1). TABLE 1. Definitions of the noun spekuliacija in Lithuanian dictionaries DICTIONARY DEFINITIONS⁵ LKŽe 1. trade intended to make an easy profit; the purchase and sale of goods at higher prices prohibited by law 2. stock-exchange operations—the purchase and sale of various securities in order to obtain the difference in exchange rates 3. fil. abstract reasoning unrelated to practice and experience DLKŽ₈e 1. trade intended to make an easy profit; the purchase and sale of goods at higher prices 2. stock-exchange operations—the purchase and sale of various securities in order to obtain the difference in exchange rates 3. fil. abstract reasoning unrelated to practice and experience TŽŽ [Lat. speculatio—following, reconnoitering, observing] 1. the purchase of goods, securities, and currencies with the expectation of reselling them and earning from the anticipated price difference 2. in the USSR—the purchase and sale of goods at higher prices prohibited by law 3. filos. abstract reasoning unrelated to practice and experience Table 1 shows that dictionaries record three meanings of the noun spekuliacija. The definitions of this word are presented almost identically in LKŽe and DLKŽ₈e. As can be seen, the first definition of spekuliacijos mentions trade (without specifying its type) intended to make an easy profit, e.g.: Spekuliacija žemės sklypais (LKŽe), Smulkioji spekuliacija (LKŽe); the second definition refers to stock-exchange operations, i.e. the purchase and sale of various securities in order to obtain ³ The noun spekuliavimas is not examined separately in the article because its meanings coincide with those of the noun spekuliacija. ⁴ The definition of the word spekuliacija has not yet been provided in BLKŽ; the word has been included in the Headword List. ⁵ The tables present the definitions of the words under study recorded in dictionaries, without illustrative examples. The definitions from English and Russian were translated into Lithuanian by the author of this text. Straipsniai / Articles 167 ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ the difference in exchange rates (to profit). Regarding the second part of the definition of the first meaning (given after the semicolon), LKŽe records the purchase and sale of goods ‘prohibited by law’. DLKŽe does not record this part of the definition. The definitions of the third, philosophical meaning are identical in both dictionaries, cf. ‘abstract reasoning unrelated to practice and experience’⁶ The first definition in TŽŽ includes ‘the purchase of goods, securities, and currencies with the expectation of reselling them and earning from the anticipated price difference’. The definition records the feature ‘anticipated price difference’, which is mentioned neither by LKŽe nor by DLKŽe. The definition of the second meaning records a way of making money characteristic of the Soviet period—the purchase and sale of goods at higher prices prohibited by law; cf. VLEe: “In the USSR, speculation was regarded as an economic crime; in countries with a market economy it is unavoidable, but speculation on the black market in scarce goods (for example, food during war, an embargo, or natural disasters, tickets to sporting competitions or other events) incurs administrative or criminal liability”⁷ The noun spekuliacija is an international word, so it is useful to examine how it is defined in English and Russian dictionaries (see Table 2). TABLE 2. Definitions of the noun spekuliacija (English speculation) in English dictionaries DICTIONARY DEFINITIONS OXFORD⁸ 1. forming an opinion about what has happened or what may happen without knowing all the facts 2. an activity in which goods or company shares are bought and sold in the hope of making a profit, while risking losing money CAMBRIDGE⁹ to guess possible answers to a question without having enough information; trade intended to make a profit ⁶ VLEe records a similar definition of spekuliacijos, cf.: ‘a theoretical mode of cognition based not on sensory experience or scientific achievements but on reflection, abstraction, and other modes of thought’. ⁷ For more detail, see: https://www.vle.lt/straipsnis/spekuliacija/. ⁸ Angl. speculation 1. the act of forming opinions about what has happened or what might happen without knowing all the facts; 2. the activity of buying and selling goods or shares in a company in the hope of making a profit, but with the risk of losing money. ⁹ Angl. speculation the activity of guessing possible answers to a question without having enough information to be certain; the act of speculating in order to make a profit. 168 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXIX Žodžių spekuliacija, spekuliantas ir spekuliuoti reikšmių pokyčiai DICTIONARY DEFINITIONS COLLINS10 1. the act or instance of speculation 2. an assumption, theory, or opinion formed by speculating 3. investments involving high risk but also the possibility of high profit MERRIAM- WEBSTER11 the act or instance of speculation: a) assuming unusual business risk in the hope of obtaining a corresponding profit b) a transaction involving such speculation As can be seen from the definitions presented in Table 2, the noun spekuliacija in English dictionaries (OXFORD, CAMBRIDGE, COLLINS) is most often associated with two actions: 1) guessing, speculating, considering (forming an opinion without knowing the facts, without having information, etc.), e.g.: His personal life is the subject of much speculation12 (OXFORD). People speculate about his future plans13 (CAMBRIDGE); and 2) buying and selling goods (company shares or the like) in order to make a profit, while risking the loss of money, e.g.: Speculation in oil, euros (OXFORD). Some dictionaries (COLLINS, MERRIAM-WEBSTER) mention not merely trade but investments involving high risk and at the same time the possibility of high profit; they also mention unusual business risk and transactions undertaken in the hope of obtaining a corresponding profit. Interestingly, the definitions provided in the MERRIAM-WEBSTER dictionary do not record a meaning related to guessing, speculating, considering, or making assumptions; however, examples provided separately in the dictionary (not under the definitions) show otherwise, cf.: He dismissed their theories as mere speculation14. Her speculations leave many questions unanswered15. 10 Angl. speculation 1. the act or an instance of speculating; 2. a supposition, theory, or opinion arrived at through speculating; 3. investment involving high risk but also the possibility of high profits. 11 Angl. speculation an act or instance of speculating: such as a: assumption of unusual business risk in hopes of obtaining commensurate gain; b: a transaction involving such speculation. 12 Angl. His private life is the subject of much speculation. 13 Angl. Speculation about his future plans is rife. 14 Angl. He dismissed their theories as mere speculation. 15 English Her speculations leave many questions unanswered. Straipsniai / Articles 169 ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ In Russian dictionaries, two homonyms are distinguished for the noun spekuliacija: the first is broadly related to trade, while the second is related to philosophical reasoning16 (cf. Table 3). TABLE 3. Definitions of the noun spekuliacija (Russian спекуляция) in Russian dictionaries DICTIONARY DEFINITIONS MAKS17 spekuliacija1 1. the purchase and sale of goods at higher prices for profit 2. in capitalist countries: stock-exchange trading in which the price of securities is raised or lowered 3. figurative: a calculation, intention based on something, the use of something for selfish purposes spekuliacija2 bookish: philosophical reasoning SEM18 spekuliacija1 1. the purchase and sale of securities (shares, bonds), currency, in order to profit from the difference between the purchase and sale prices (exchange rates) 2. the purchase and sale of property, valuables, and goods for profit spekuliacija2 obsolete, bookish: philosophical reasoning 16 When defining the verb spekuliuoti and the noun spekuliantas, this meaning is not recorded in Russian dictionaries. 17 Russian спекуляция1 1. Purchase of goods and resale of them at higher prices for profit. 2. In capitalist countries: stock-exchange trading on the rise or fall of the exchange rate of securities. 3. figurative: calculation, intention based on something, the use of something for selfish purposes. спекуляция2 bookish: philosophical speculative construction. 18 Russian спекуляция 1. The purchase and sale of securities (shares, bonds, currency) for the purpose of obtaining profit from the difference between the purchase and sale price (exchange rate) (specialized). 2. The purchase and resale of property, valuables, and goods for profit. спекуляция2 (obsolete, bookish). Philosophical speculative construction. 170 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXIX Žodžių spekuliacija, spekuliantas ir spekuliuoti reikšmių pokyčiai DICTIONARY DEFINITIONS TSOŠ¹⁹ spekuliacija¹ 1. the purchase and sale of securities (shares, bonds), currency, in order to profit from the difference between the purchase and sale prices (exchange rates) 2. the purchase and sale of property, valuables, and goods for profit 3. figurative calculation, intention aimed at using something for selfish purposes spekuliacija² obsolete, bookish philosophical reasoning Thus, as can be seen, in Russian dictionaries the first homonym has two meanings related to trade, that is, different objects of purchase are defined: 1) the purchase and sale of goods, property, and valuables, and 2) the purchase and sale of securities (shares, bonds) and currency (stock-exchange operations). The definitions of the second homonym of spekuliacijos coincide in the dictionaries—‘philosophical reasoning’, e.g.: Idealistinės spekuliacijos²⁰. To summarize the foregoing, it should first be said that the definitions (and their number) of the meanings of the noun spekuliacija in the dictionaries of the three languages examined differ somewhat; for example, ‘the conscious use of something (someone’s property) for selfish purposes²¹’ is recorded only in Russian dictionaries, while the meaning ‘guessing, speculating; considering; making assumptions’ is recorded only in English dictionaries, although Lithuanian dictionaries record a meaning semantically close to the one mentioned: ‘abstract reasoning unrelated to practice and experience’. Naturally, all dictionaries record a meaning of the noun spekuliacija related to trade. Some Lithuanian dictionaries also record a reality characteristic of the Soviet period—‘the purchase of goods prohibited by law and their sale at higher prices’. An analysis of the definitions of the noun spekuliacija and a comparison of the features recorded in them (see Table 4) showed that some dictionaries emphasize different features of meanings (see underlining). For example, concerning the trade-related ¹⁹ Russian спекуляция 1. The purchase and sale of securities (shares, bonds, currency) for the purpose of obtaining profit from the difference between the purchase and sale price (exchange rate) (specialized). 2. The purchase and resale of property, valuables, and goods for profit. 3. figurative: calculation, intention directed at using something for one’s selfish purposes. спекуляция² (obsolete, bookish). Philosophical speculative construction. ²⁰ Russian Идеалистические спекуляции. ²¹ For the sake of brevity, the definitions of meanings are presented here in generalized form. Straipsniai / Articles 171 ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ with the trade-related meaning, it should be noted that easy profit is recorded in LKŽe and DLKŽe, purchase prohibited by law in LKŽe and TŽŽ, and risk (of losing money) in OXFORD, COLLINS, MERRIAM-WEBSTER, etc. All these features are useful when editing the lexicographic entry for the noun spekuliacija. TABLE 4. Comparison of the features recorded in the definitions of the meanings of the noun spekuliacija FEATURES LITHUANIAN DICTIONARIESl Trade Easy profit Goods, valuables, securities, currency Action prohibited by law in the USSR Exchange-rate difference Anticipated price difference Higher prices ENGLISH DICTIONARIESl Trade Profit Goods, company shares, investments, transaction Risk (of losing money) Unusual business risk Formation of an opinion, speculation, assumption, theory Ignorance of the facts RUSSIAN DICTIONARIESl Trade Profit Goods, property, securities (shares, bonds), currency Stock-exchange trading Price (exchange-rate) difference Higher prices Abstract reasoning Philosophical reasoning Use of something (someone’s property), selfish purposes 1.2. Usage of the noun spekuliacija The examples found in DLKT and Google show that the noun spekuliacija turi kelias reikšmes: a) ‘trade intended to make an easy profit’, b) ‘guessing, ²² Here (and in analogous parts of the article), the definitions of meanings are presented in generalized form. When formulating lexicographic entries for the words under study, the meanings should be expanded and specified. 172 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXIX Žodžių spekuliacija, spekuliantas ir spekuliuoti reikšmių pokyčiai speculating; considering; making assumptions’, c) ‘the conscious use of something (someone’s property) for selfish purposes’, and d) ‘abstract reasoning unrelated to practice and experience’. Each meaning is discussed separately below. a) ‘Trade intended to make an easy profit’. The examples found show that one may speculate in currency, shares, property, land, sugar (see examples 6–9), and so on. In the examples, speculation is used together with such nouns (such realities) as corruption and smuggling (see examples 1–2); speculation is a consequence of rising prices (see example 3), and so on. The examples show that efforts are made to avoid speculation and that money is wasted when speculating (see examples 7 and 8), and so on. Thus, on the basis of the examples (cf. 1–3 and others), it can be stated that speculation, as a reality, may carry a negative evaluation. One reason for this evaluation is apparently that in the USSR speculation was regarded as an economic crime. (1) 4 years ago I was released and returned to Lithuania, and I saw that people here had changed greatly: most had improved their living standards and become wealthy; corruption and speculation flourished all around, and everyone’s thoughts revolved solely around the ruble. (DLKT) (2) He said that with the head of Lithuania he had discussed the problems of smuggling alcoholic beverages and speculation in them in Lithuania. (DLKT) (3) He rejects the opinion that the increase in grain prices is merely a consequence of speculation. (DLKT) (4) In the short term, the depreciation of the dollar has no effect on supply and demand, but it affects speculation and investment in oil futures markets. (DLKT) (5) The Commission was not presented with facts showing that speculation in credit resources had been carried out, although the conditions clearly exist. (DLKT) (6) It is believed that the largest currency speculation of all time was carried out by George Soros (George Soros). (Google) (7) They wasted money on hopeless speculation in shares and property. (DLKT) (8) Today, at its meeting, the Cabinet approved the draft amendment prepared by the Ministry of Agriculture concerning the conditions for acquiring agricultural land, introducing additional safeguards to prevent speculation in land. (Google) (9) [...] they publicly stated that Minister J. Purickis himself had organized speculation in sugar, saccharin, and cocaine, and demanded that criminal proceedings be brought against him. (DLKT) Some examples show that speculation is an activity in which something is bought or sold in the expectation of profiting from short-term price fluctuations and of making a profit in the near future; in other words, it is not long-term investment, e.g.: Straipsniai / Articles 173 ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ (10) When we talk about spekuliaciją, we mean buying or selling a financial asset when we believe that its price will rise or fall in the not-too-distant future. (Google) (11) Speculation is riskier than investing in practice because it attempts to take advantage of short-term price fluctuations. (Google) b) ‘Guessing, speculating; considering; making assumptions’, for example, speculation about the increase in natural-gas prices, a possible dismissal, better company results, and so on: (12) The liberal also rejected speculations that natural-gas prices would rise if Gazprom did not obtain the right to control Lietuvos dujos. (DLKT) (13) Every guess is merely a guess, a private speculation. (DLKT) (14) Now, presumably, the speculation about his possible dismissal will subside […]. (DLKT) (15) In the markets, speculation intensified that companies’ first-quarter results would be better than forecast. (DLKT) (16) There is talk of speculation that this is the result of the influence of the President’s old team. (DLKT) (17) Speculations that Lithuania could host this year’s World Ice Hockey Championship together with Latvia are unfounded. (Google) (18) Quite interesting speculations emerged about the future “GeFroce GTX 20” series, which will consist of updated “Pascal” chips, or in other words, “Pascal Refresh.” (Google) It should be noted that the noun speculation, used in sense a) ‘trade aimed at making easy profits’, by analogy with to trade governs the instrumental case of the content object (see examples 5–7 and others), whereas used in sense b) ‘a guess, conjecture; consideration; making assumptions’, it governs the construction with about the content object and, taking into account the valency of to guess, to consider and the examples cited in the article, a subordinate clause constituent and so on. c) ‘The conscious use of someone (or something) for selfish purposes’; for example, one may speculate in the name of an inspector, on the subject of a son, with grammar, laws, and so on, cf.: (19) It is expected that after this campaign, speculations at least in the name of the local inspector will certainly decrease. (DLKT) (20) I am resigning because I no longer wish to create grounds for speculations and interpretations concerning my son, although the court’s decision in his case, as I had always believed, was favorable to him. (DLKT) (21) Writing personal names in documents in a non-Lithuanian form is speculation with grammar, laws, and the actual situation. (Google) (22) Through various speculations, the child is instilled with habits of working excessively. (DLKT) 174 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXIX Žodžių spekuliacija, spekuliantas ir spekuliuoti reikšmių pokyčiai d) ‘Abstract reasoning unrelated to practice and experience’. Few such examples were found, mostly with the collocation philosophical speculation, e.g.: (23) With these contexts in mind, it can be said, from the perspective of synchrony rather than history, that the Greek tool of thinking about the beyond – speculation – apparently cannot be pure at all. (DLKT) (24) Religions were replaced by philosophical speculations, incorporating elements of newly discovered religions as well. (Google) (25) Both in mystery cults and in Gnostic and some philosophical speculations, monotheistic tendencies began to emerge. (DLKT) (26) His own spirit’s distinctiveness was also to blame: although broad and penetrating, it was not inclined to delve deeply into philosophical or dogmatic speculations. (DLKT) (27) Philosophical speculation in Judaism had never completely faded, but beginning in the 14th century it smoldered within an ever-smaller circle until it flared up again in the 18th century with the European Enlightenment [...]. (DLKT) (28) In a word, where philosophical speculations end, a field of precise solutions opens up to mathematicians. (DLKT) As can be seen, in usage, as in dictionaries, the noun speculation is recorded with meanings related to trade and abstract reasoning. Usage also records new meanings, widespread as a result of language contact and undefined in dictionaries, cf. ‘the conscious use of something (someone) for selfish purposes’ (probably a semantic calque from Russian) and 2) ‘guessing, conjecture; consideration; making assumptions’ (probably a semantic calque from English). The latter meaning is, however, semantically close to the philosophical meaning recorded in Lithuanian and Russian dictionaries, cf. ‘abstract reasoning unrelated to practice and experience’. It is worth noting that the noun speculation, used in the meaning ‘guessing, conjecture; consideration; making assumptions’, has Lithuanian equivalents, namely the same ones used to define the meaning—guessing, conjecture, consideration, making assumptions, or the like. Straipsniai / Articles 175 ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ 2. NOUN SPECULATOR, -ESS 2.1. Definitions of the noun speculator, -ess in Lithuanian, English, and Russian dictionaries In Lithuanian dictionaries, the noun speculator, -ess is given one meaning (see Table 5), cf.: ‘someone engaged in speculation’ (LKŽe). DLKŽe specifies what kind of speculation is involved—speculation in goods or valuables. In defining the meaning of speculator, -ess, TŽŽ refers to meanings 1 and 2 in the entry for speculation: ‘the purchase of goods, securities, or currencies in the expectation of reselling them and profiting from the anticipated price difference’ and ‘in the USSR—the buying up and selling of goods at higher prices, prohibited by law’. Thus, according to TŽŽ, speculator, -ess is ‘one who engages in speculation in goods, securities, or currencies’ and ‘one who engages in the buying up and selling of goods at higher prices, an activity prohibited by law (USSR)’. TABLE 5. Definitions of the noun speculator, -ess²³ in Lithuanian dictionaries DICTIONARY DEFINITIONS LKŽe someone engaged in speculation DLKŽe someone engaged in speculation in goods or valuables TŽŽ [German Spekulant < lot.] a person engaged in speculation (1, 2) The following presents how the noun speculator, -ess is defined in English dictionaries (see Table 6). TABLE 6. Definitions of the noun speculator, -ess (English speculator) in English dictionaries DICTIONARY DEFINITIONS OXFORD the headword (English speculator) is present, but it refers to the verb speculate (to speculate) CAMBRIDGE²⁴ a person who buys goods, property, money, etc., expecting to sell them profitably ²³ SŽė yra sinonimas verteiva. ²⁴ Angl. speculator a person who buys goods, property, money, etc. in the hope of selling them at a profit 176 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXIX Žodžių spekuliacija, spekuliantas ir spekuliuoti reikšmių pokyčiai DICTIONARY DEFINITIONS COLLINS25 a person who speculates in finance American English variant 1. a person engaged in commercial or financial speculation 2. a person who buys tickets in advance, for example, to games or theater performances that may be in demand, in order to resell them later at a higher price 3. a person engaged in abstract reasoning MERRIAM- WEBSTER26 one who speculates: a) a person who thinks or conjectures, especially idly or casually, about what is unknown or unclear b) a person who invests relatively riskily in something (e.g., stocks or real estate), hoping to obtain a large short-term profit from market fluctuations In English-language dictionaries, the definitions of the noun speculator vary. The CAMBRIDGE, MERRIAM-WEBSTER, and COLLINS dictionaries record a meaning of speculator related to trade. In the latter dictionary (American English variant), a second definition of speculator is provided, which is quite specific; cf.: ‘a person who buys tickets in advance, for example, to games or theater performances that may be in demand, in order to resell them later at a higher price’. It may be suspected that this meaning is given separately because it defines illegal activity that is apparently intended to be curbed. The COLLINS and MERRIAM-WEBSTER dictionaries also record a meaning related to guessing, conjecturing, and abstract reasoning. In Russian-language dictionaries, as can be seen from Table 7, the noun speculator is recorded with two meanings each. 25 Angl. speculator is a person who speculates financially. In American English: 1. a person who is engaged in commercial or financial speculation; 2. a person who makes advance purchases of tickets, as to games; or theatrical performances, that are likely to be in demand, for resale later at a higher price; 3. a person who is devoted to mental speculation. 26 Angl. speculator someone who speculates: such as a: a person who thinks or guesses especially in an idle or casual way about something that is unknown or uncertain; b: a person who makes a relatively risky investment in something (such as stocks or real estate) in the hope of making a large short-term profit from market fluctuations. Straipsniai / Articles 177 ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ TABLE 7. Definitions of the noun speculator (Russian спекулянт) in Russian-language dictionaries DICTIONARY DEFINITIONS MAKS²⁷ 1. a person engaged in speculation (1 meaning) > speculation 1. the purchase and sale of goods at higher prices for profit 2. figurative: one who bases their plans and calculations on something, tries to exploit something for selfish purposes SEM²⁸ 1. a person engaged in the illegal purchase and resale of goods for profit 2. a businessperson engaged in speculation in exchange-traded stocks (specialized) TSOŠ²⁹ 1. a person engaged in speculation¹ (sense 2) > speculation 2. buying and selling assets, securities, and goods for profit 2. a businessperson engaged in speculation in exchange-traded stocks (sense 1) (specialized) > speculation 1. buying and selling securities (stocks, bonds) and currency in order to profit from the difference between the purchase and sale prices (exchange rates) Russian-language dictionaries most often provide meanings of speculator related to trade—buying and selling goods, assets, securities, and so on. The definition of speculator in the SEM dictionary highlights a feature not mentioned by the other Russian-language dictionaries: ‘the illegal purchase and sale of goods’. Only the MAKS dictionary records the meaning of speculator as ‘one who bases their plans and calculations on something, attempts to use something for selfish purposes’. 2.2. Use of the noun speculator Based on examples found in DLKT and Google, two meanings of the noun speculator can be distinguished: a) ‘a person engaged in buying and selling goods, assets, and securities in order to make an easy profit’ and b) ‘a businessperson engaged in speculation in exchange-traded stocks’. Each meaning is discussed separately below. 27 Ru. спекулянт 1. One who engages in speculation¹ (sense 1). 2. figurative: One who bases their plans and calculations on something, attempts to use something for selfish purposes. 28 Ru. спекулянт 1. A person engaged in the illegal purchase and resale of something for profit. 2. An entrepreneur engaged in exchange speculation (specialized). 29 Ru. спекулянт 1. A person engaged in speculation¹ (sense 2). 2. A dealer engaged in exchange speculation (sense 1) (specialized). 178 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXIX Žodžių spekuliacija, spekuliantas ir spekuliuoti reikšmių pokyčiai a) ‘A person engaged in trade, buying and selling property and valuables in order to make an easy profit’, e.g.: (1) The banks have taken advantage of the mistakes and intend to worsen lending conditions for real-estate speculators, who buy several homes and expect to earn a substantial amount later by selling them at a higher price. (Google) (2) I have never had a more beautiful suit than the one for which we bought blue wool fabric from the Riga weaving mill that autumn from a speculator on Daukanto Street [...]. (DLKT) (3) The market speculator wins, and often pays no taxes at all. (DLKT) (4) Funds were sought in all sorts of ways—by collecting taxes and levies, imposing fines, confiscating and selling speculators’ goods. (DLKT) As can be seen from the examples (cf. 3, 4), a speculator may also carry a negative evaluation. There are examples mentioning a speculator who was fought against during the Soviet period, e.g.: (5) The businesspeople of independent Lithuania emerged from speculators—that is precisely what businesspeople were called during the Soviet period, and they were fiercely opposed. (Google) (6) There lived a man who sold a car or two, and he was sentenced as a speculator. (DLKT) b) ‘A trader engaged in stock-market speculation’, e.g.: (7) Investors and speculators differ in that investors invest for the long term, whereas speculators trade in shares much more frequently in order to profit in the short term from short-term fluctuations in share values. (Google) (8) Some speculators who trade shares every day amass fortunes from such work or at least make a living. (Google) (9) It cannot be denied that speculators play an important role on the stock exchange. (Google) (10) According to A. Rimkus, during trading the price of “Lisco” shares fluctuated from 3 to 3.30 litas, and this provided a fairly good opportunity for stock-exchange speculators. (DLKT) However, there are examples in which it is difficult to distinguish these two meanings without context, e.g.: (11) Speculator—a person who, taking advantage of fluctuations in the price and value of assets (financial or physical), seeks quick profit. (Google) (12) Speculators generally focus on short-term investing. (Google) (13) Speculators assume financial risk, carefully monitor changes, and respond to them quickly. (Google) Straipsniai / Articles 179 ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ (14) Due to the aggressive pursuit of quick profits, the concept of “speculator” often has negative connotations. (Google) (15) In fact, speculators are probably the most professional investors, best attuned to the pulse of the market. (DLKT) The examples provided show that a speculator seeks quick profits by taking advantage of price fluctuations (see example 11), generally focuses on short-term investing (see example 12), assumes financial risk (see example 13), and so on. The summarized semantic features of the noun speculator are presented in the figure. FIG. Semantic features of the noun speculator 3. VERB SPEKULIUOTI 3.1. Definitions of the verb spekuliuoti in Lithuanian, English, and Russian dictionaries and the corpus In Lithuanian dictionaries (LKŽe, DLKŽ₈e, TŽŽ) and the corpus (ND), the definitions of the verb to speculate vary (see Table 8). 180 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXIX Žodžių spekuliacija, spekuliantas ir spekuliuoti reikšmių pokyčiai TABLE 8. Definitions of the verb spekuliuoti in Lithuanian dictionaries and the corpus DICTIONARY DEFINITIONS LKŽe 1. to trade in order to make an easy profit; to buy up goods and sell them at higher prices 2. prk. to consciously use something for selfish purposes DLKŽ8to engage in, to be involved in speculation TŽŽ to engage in, to be involved in speculation ND to guess, speculate; consider; make assumptions As can be seen, in DLKŽ8e and TŽŽ, the meaning of the verb spekuliuoti is defined rather abstractly, cf. ‘to engage in, to be involved in speculation’. From such a definition, it is not entirely clear which meaning(s) of spekuliacijos (there are three each in both DLKŽ8e and TŽŽ) is/are intended. Although, from the verbs used in the definition—to engage in, to be involved in—it may be suspected that all the meanings of the word spekuliacija given in both dictionaries are intended. In LKŽe, in addition to the meaning related to trade, another meaning is provided—‘to consciously use something for selfish purposes’, for example: Your son behaves like some little gentleman: he lies, insults people, and speculates using his father’s name rš30. It should be recalled that such a meaning of the noun spekuliacija is recorded in Russian dictionaries (MAKS and TSOŽ) (see subsection 1.1 for more details); Lithuanian dictionaries do not provide such a meaning for the noun. ND records a new meaning of spekuliuoti that is widespread in usage: ‘to guess, speculate; consider; make assumptions’ (see also subsection 1.2, on the usage of the noun spekuliacija), for example: At the beginning of the pandemic, it was speculated that seasonal weather fluctuations could affect the spread of COVID-19; it was considered that the virus might spread more easily in cooler, drier weather and spread less during the warmer, more humid time of year. Could these perhaps be people fleeing the Lukashenko regime? There is much speculation about this, but since 2020 only 418 Belarusians in total have submitted asylum applications in Lithuania. Of these applications, only about half (206) were approved. It can be speculated that the practical need for asylum is not particularly great; what matters to a person is simply being admitted to the country. The following presents how the verb spekuliuoti is defined in English dictionaries (see Table 9). 30 LKŽe provides only one example, and that one is from written language. Straipsniai / Articles 181 ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ TABLE 9. Definitions of the verb speculate (English speculate) in English dictionaries DICTIONARY DEFINITIONS OXFORD31 1. form an opinion about something without knowing all the details or facts 2. buy goods, real estate, shares, etc., hoping to make a profit while risking losing money CAMBRIDGE32 1. guess possible answers to a question when there is not enough information to be certain 2. buy and sell, hoping that the value of the goods purchased will increase and that they can be sold at a higher price in order to make a profit COLLINS33 1. speculate about the nature or identity of something, or about what may happen 2. sell at a higher price and make money MERRIAM- WEBSTER34 intransitive 1. a) consider a particular subject b) review something superficially or casually and often without results 2. assume business risk in the hope of making a profit transitive 1. believe that something is true based on insufficient evidence 2. be interested in or doubt As can be seen from Table 9, the verb speculate has two meanings in English dictionaries. In all the dictionaries examined, the first definition given is related to forming an opinion, guessing, theorizing, considering, or the like without sufficient evidence or information, for example: Everyone speculated about who the stranger was (OXFORD). Journalists speculate about whether interest rates will be reduced 31 Angl. speculate 1. [intransitive, transitive] to form an opinion about something without knowing all the details or facts; 2. to buy goods, property, shares, etc., hoping to make a profit when you sell them, but with the risk of losing money. 32 Angl. speculate to guess possible answers to a question when you do not have enough information to be certain; to buy and sell in the hope that the value of what you buy will increase and that it can then be sold at a higher price in order to make a profit. 33 Angl. speculate 1. If you speculate about something, you make guesses about its nature or identity, or about what might happen; 2. If someone speculates financially, they buy property, stocks, or shares, in the hope of being able to sell them again at a higher price and make a profit. 34 Angl. speculate intransitive verb 1. a: to meditate on or ponder a subject; b: to review something idly or casually and often inconclusively; 2: to assume a business risk in hope of gain; especially: to make a relatively risky investment in something (such as stocks or real estate) in the hope of making a large short-term profit from market fluctuations; transitive verb 1: to take to be true on the basis of insufficient evidence; 2: to be curious or doubtful about. 182 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXIX Žodžių spekuliacija, spekuliantas ir spekuliuoti reikšmių pokyčiai norms (CAMBRIDGE). Project critics speculate how many hospitals could be built in their place (COLLINS). We do not know what happened; we can only speculate (MERRIAM-WEBSTER)³⁵. The examples provided clearly show that in such cases the verbs spėti ‘to try to state correctly without knowing’ (DLKŽ⁸e), svarstyti ‘to assess the available data in order to draw conclusions’ (DLKŽ⁸e), or the word combination daryti prielaidą (‘to assume’) would also be suitable when translating into Lithuanian. Second, in the English dictionaries examined, the definition of the verb spekuliuoti is related to trade, i.e. buying and selling goods, real estate, stocks, etc., in the hope of making a profit while risking losing money, for example: He likes to speculate on the stock market (OXFORD). He made his money speculating on the London gold and silver markets (CAMBRIDGE). Large farmers are moving in to speculate on rising land prices (COLLINS)³⁶. The definitions of the meanings of the verb spekuliuoti in Russian dictionaries are presented in Table 10. In the Russian dictionaries examined, the verb spekuliuoti most often has three meanings. The first two meanings (in the SEM and TSOŠ dictionaries) are related to trade; only the object of the first meaning is specifically stock-exchange operations. The third meaning (the second in the MAKS dictionary) is related to the deliberate use of something (or someone) for selfish purposes, for example: To exploit temporary difficulties, someone else’s hardships, someone else’s misfortune (SEM). To exploit someone’s pity or kindness (SEM)³⁷. Analysis of the definitions of the verb spekuliuoti in Lithuanian, English, and Russian dictionaries shows that differences in definitions exist not only between dictionaries but also within the same word family; for example, LKŽe records the meaning spekuliuoti ‘to deliberately use something for selfish purposes’, whereas this meaning is not provided in the lexicographic entry for spekuliacijos. In one of the definitions of spekuliacijos, LKŽe mentions ‘the purchase of goods prohibited by law and their resale at higher prices’, whereas this meaning is not recorded in the lexicographic entry for spekuliuoti, and so on. Such a presentation of meanings in dictionaries was apparently determined by usage (in earlier periods) and/or by certain principles of dictionary writing. ³⁵ Angl. They were all speculating as to the identity of the stranger (OXFORD). Journalists are speculating about whether interest rates will be cut (CAMBRIDGE). Critics of the project speculate about how many hospitals could be built instead (COLLINS). We don‘t know what happened – we can only speculate (MERRIAM-WEBSTER). ³⁶ Angl. He likes to speculate on the stock market (OXFORD). He made his money speculating on the London gold and silver markets (CAMBRIDGE). Big farmers are moving in, in order to speculate with rising land prices (COLLINS). ³⁷ Ru. To exploit temporary difficulties, someone else’s hardships, someone else’s misfortune. To exploit someone’s pity or kindness. Straipsniai / Articles 183 ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ TABLE 10. Definitions of the verb spekuliuoti (Ru. спекулировать) in Russian dictionaries DICTIONARY DEFINITIONS MAKS38 1. to buy and resell for profit 2. to plan something, to use something for selfish purposes SEM39 1. the buying and selling of securities traded on the stock exchange in order to make a profit (from the difference between the purchase and sale prices) 2. to buy and resell for profit 3. to deliberately use something for selfish purposes TSOŠ40 1. to speculate on stock exchanges 2. to buy up and resell for profit 3. to deliberately use something for one’s own purposes (derog.) 3.2. Use of the verb spekuliuoti The examples found in DLKT and Google show that the verb spekuliuoti has three meanings: a) ‘to trade in order to make an easy profit’, b) ‘to deliberately use something for selfish purposes’, and c) ‘to guess, speculate; consider; make assumptions’. Each meaning is discussed in greater detail below. a) ‘To trade in order to make an easy profit’. As the examples show, one may speculate on currency exchange rates (see example 1), raw materials (see example 2), in currency markets (see example 4), bitcoins (see example 5), and so on. Speculation is undertaken for profit, while risking the loss of money, e.g.: (1) They can be used not only to reduce risk, but also to speculate, i.e. to try to earn money by taking advantage of fluctuations in exchange rates. (DLKT) 38 Ru. спекулировать 1. To engage in speculation¹ (in meaning 1). 2. figurative. To base one’s plans and calculations on something, to use something for selfish purposes. 39 Ru. спекулировать 1. To engage in the buying and selling of securities on the stock exchange for profit (from the difference between the purchase and sale prices) (specialized). 2. To engage in hoarding and resale for profit. 3. figurative. To deliberately use something for one’s own selfish purposes (disapproving). 40 Ru. спекулировать 1. To engage in stock-market speculation¹ (in meaning 1) (specialized). 2. To engage in speculation¹ (in meaning 2), hoarding, and resale for profit. 3. figurative. To deliberately use something for one’s own purposes (disapproving). 184 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXIX Žodžių spekuliacija, spekuliantas ir spekuliuoti reikšmių pokyčiai (2) On the other hand, investing in the raw materials themselves is also impractical – because of storage and transportation costs, it would be considerably more expensive to speculate in them. (DLKT) (3) Although specialists advise against experimenting in a passive market, the players claim that they do not avoid speculating. (DLKT) (4) In 1992, speculating in the currency market, he bet on the German mark against the English pound sterling and, reportedly, earned about a billion dollars. (Google) (5) In other words, bitcoins can be speculated on in order to make a profit, while risking the loss of investments. (Google) Examples associated with a reality characteristic of the Soviet period also occur—buying up and selling goods prohibited by law, e.g.: (6) I feel sorry for the pensioners, who bent their backs all their lives in state employment and did not understand that they would have gained more if they had speculated under the Soviets. (DLKT) Some examples show the differences between trading and speculation, and between lending and speculation, cf.: (7) Land becomes a commodity; it can be traded and speculated in. (DLKT) (8) We do not speculate abroad; rather, we lend money to local consumers. (DLKT) b) ‘To consciously use something for selfish purposes.’ The examples (see 9–15) show that speculation may involve a name, news, ideas, a claim, values, patriotism, a tragedy, and so on: (9) The swindler returned to the shop after the bank whose name he had speculated in had closed for the day. (DLKT) (10) Real-estate specialists acknowledge that there is already speculation about the news that the euro will not be introduced and that opportunities are emerging to negotiate the prices of old-construction apartments. (DLKT) (11) I cannot stand people who try to speculate specifically with ideas of progress and try to exploit gullibility. (DLKT) (12) There is speculation about the claim that society does not want such a tax, although it would amount to only four litas per family and socially supported persons would not have to pay it. (DLKT) (13) More precisely, they did not choose it themselves; they were replaced by some vile forces of the world, which speculate with the values of our nation and destroy its vitality. (DLKT) (14) But is it possible to speculate with the players’ patriotism when the club management fails to fulfill its contractual obligations? (Google) Straipsniai / Articles 185 ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ (15) This is just another provocative public-relations action by this person, in which, by speculating on the tragedy of Ukraine, an attempt is made to raise the ratings of the individual and of the thoroughly discredited Freedom Party. (Google) c) ‘To guess, speculate; consider; make assumptions’, e.g.: (16) Although many speculated that we would fail to sign the border treaty, to the anger of all the ill-wishers, this did not happen. (DLKT) (17) Two elections allow one only theoretically to speculate about fleeting flashes of change. (DLKT) (18) In currency markets, it is speculated that the finance ministers of European countries will state at the G7 meeting that the Japanese yen is too weak. (DLKT) (19) It seems to me that the state should first get to know emigration better, so that we would have more data rather than merely speculate. (DLKT) (20) However, this does not prevent rabbis from placing particular emphasis in their teaching on the World to Come and even speculating about its nature. (DLKT) (21) J. Šiugždinienė does not yet dare to speculate about what reasons could have determined the particularly poor results of this year’s mathematics examination. (Google) (22) It is too early to speculate about new sanctions packages. What has already been implemented is being continuously monitored, and we see that the sanctions are being circumvented. (Google) Some examples (see 17, 20, 22) show that the verb speculate takes over the government of guess, speculate, consider, i.e. speculate about what? (see also section 1.2). CONCLUSIONS 1. Examination of the definitions of the meanings of the words speculation, speculator and speculate in selected general (explanatory) and specialized dictionaries of Lithuanian, English, and Russian revealed that: 1) definitions of meanings related to trading (in goods, real estate, valuables, securities, etc.) for profit are recorded in all dictionaries; 2) definitions of meanings related to the conscious use of something (someone) for selfish purposes are presented in almost all Russian dictionaries and in one Lithuanian dictionary (LKŽe speculate), while 3) definitions of meanings related to guessing, speculation, consideration, and making assumptions are recorded only in English dictionaries and one Lithuanian source (ND). Other Lithuanian and Russian dictionaries record 186 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXIX Žodžių spekuliacija, spekuliantas ir spekuliuoti reikšmių pokyčiai a philosophically related meaning semantically close to the aforementioned meaning, associated with abstract reasoning not linked to practice and experience. 2. The study sought to identify the principal features selected in defining the meanings of the words examined. It emerged that the recording of features varies most in defining the meaning related to trade. A comparison of the features mentioned in the definitions related to trade for the words examined in the dictionaries of the three languages shows that the clearest and most representative are the following: trade, easy profit, risk, an anticipated difference in prices (exchange rates), higher prices, and, in speaking of a reality characteristic of the Soviet period, activity prohibited by law. 3. Current usage of the words examined in written Lithuanian shows changes in their meanings—new meanings that have spread through language contact and are not presented in Lithuanian dictionaries are recorded, e.g.: speculation ‘the conscious use of something (someone) for selfish purposes’ (probably a semantic loan from Russian) and ‘guessing, speculation; consideration; making assumptions’ (probably a semantic loan from English). Thus, usage shows that 1) the noun speculation is used in the following meanings: ‘trade aimed at easy profit’, ‘guessing, speculation; consideration; making assumptions’, ‘the conscious use of something (someone) for selfish purposes’, and ‘abstract reasoning not linked to practice and experience’; 2) the noun speculator means ‘a person engaged in buying and selling goods, property, or valuables in order to make an easy profit’ and ‘a businessperson engaged in stock-exchange speculation’; 3) the verb speculate means ‘to trade in order to make an easy profit’, ‘to consciously use something for selfish purposes’, and ‘to guess, speculate; consider; make assumptions’. 4. In view of the foregoing, the lexicographic entries for the words examined should be revised in Lithuanian dictionaries. SOURCES AND LITERATURE BLKŽ – Dictionary of the Standard Lithuanian Language, part 2: Headword list, editorial board D. Liutkevičienė, G. Naktinienė, R. Petrokienė, D. Svetikienė, K. Vosyl ytė, J. Zabarskaitė, editor-in-chief D. Liutkevičienė, Vilnius: Institute of the Lithuanian Language, 2014. DOI: doi.org/10.35321/blkž. CAMBRIDGE – Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, e. variantas. Prieiga internete: https://dictionary.cambridge.org. COLLINS – Collins English Dictionary, e. variantas. Prieiga internete: http://www.collinsdictionary.com. DLKT – Corpus of the Contemporary Lithuanian Language. Available online: http://tekstynas.vdu.lt/tekstynas/. Straipsniai / Articles 187 ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ DLKŽe – Dictionary of the Contemporary Lithuanian Language, editor-in-chief St. Keinys, 8th (6th electronic / online) edition, updated version, Vilnius: Institute of the Lithuanian Language, 2021. Available online: https://ekalba.lki.lt/dabartines-lietuviu-kalbos-zodynas. DOI: doi.org/10.35321/dlkz. Gudavičius Aloyzas 2009: Ethnolinguistics: The Nation in Language, Šiauliai: Šiauliai University Press. Gudavičius Aloyzas 2013: The Semantic Structure of the Word from the Perspective of Nomination. – Philology 18, 70–85. Available online: https://talpykla.elaba.lt/elaba-fedora/objects/elaba:6098350/datastreams/MAIN/content. Jakaitienė Evalda 1986: On Semantic Motivation as a Criterion of Codification. – Linguistics 37(1), 102–105. LKŽe – Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language 1–20 (1941–2002), editorial board G. Naktinienė, J. Paulauskas, R. Petrokienė, V. Vitkauskas, J. Zabarskaitė, editor-in-chief G. Naktinienė, electronic version, Vilnius: Institute of the Lithuanian Language, 2008 (updated version, 2018). Available online: https://ekalba.lt/lietuviu-kalbos-zodynas/. MAKS – Dictionary of the Russian Language [Slovarʹ russkogo jazyka], electronic version. Available online: http://slovari.ru/search.aspx?s=0&p=3068. MERRIAM-WEBSTER – Merriam-Webster Dictionary and Thesaurus, e. variantas. Prieiga internete: https://www.merriam-webster.com. Miliūnaitė Rita 2022: Variegated and New Phenomena of the Lithuanian Language at the Beginning of the 21st Century: Systematics and Directions of Change, Vilnius, Institute of the Lithuanian Language. ND – Miliūnaitė Rita, Aleksaitė Agnė. Database of Neologisms of the Lithuanian Language [Continuously updated online reference work since 2011], comp. R. Miliūnaitė, Vilnius: Institute of the Lithuanian Language. Available online: https://ekalba.lki.lt/naujazodziai. OXFORD – Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries, e. variantas. Prieiga internete: https://languages.oup.com. Rutkovska Kristina, Smetona Marius, Smetonienė Irena 2017: Values in the Lithuanian Worldview, Vilnius: Academic Publishing. SEM – Russian Semantic Dictionary [Russkij semantičeskij slovarʹ], electronic version. Available online: http://slovari.ru/search.aspx?s=0&p=3068. SŽe – Lyberis Antanas. Dictionary of Lithuanian Synonyms, 2nd revised edition, Vilnius: Institute of the Lithuanian Language, 2002, electronic version, 2015. Available online: https://ekalba.lt/sinonimu-zodynas/. 188 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXIX Žodžių spekuliacija, spekuliantas ir spekuliuoti reikšmių pokyčiai TSOŠ – Ожегов Сергей И., Шведова Наталия Ю. [Ožegov Sergei I., Švedova Natalija Jū.] Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language [Tolkovyj slovar’ russkogo jazyka], electronic version. Available online: http://slovari.ru/search.aspx?s=0&p=3068. TŽŽ – Dictionary of International Words, ed. D. Svetikienė, Vilnius: Alma littera, 2013. VLEe – Universal Lithuanian Encyclopedia, electronic version, Vilnius: Science and Encyclopaedia Publishing Centre, 2001–2020. Available online: https://www.vle.lt. Google – Search engine Google, used to browse internet texts. Available online: https://www.google.lt. Changes in Meanings of Words speculation, speculator, and speculate SUMMARY At first glance, the words speculation, speculator, and speculate may appear straightforward and easily comprehensible. However, a more in-depth analysis of their usage prompts numerous inquiries regarding shifts in their meanings. Thus, this article focuses on examining the meanings of the words speculation, speculator, and speculate. The research aims to discern alterations in the meanings of these words by drawing upon both general and specialized dictionaries as well as the assessment of their current usage within the Lithuanian written language. The exploration of the definitions of the words speculation, speculator, and speculate across selected general and specialized Lithuanian, English, and Russian dictionaries, alongside an examination of their current usage in the Lithuanian written language, has unveiled the emergence of new meanings. These novel interpretations, absent in Lithuanian dictionaries, have proliferated. For instance, speculation now connotes ‘conscious use of something (or someone) for selfish purposes’, a semantic value likely borrowed from the Russian language, and ‘to guess, to suppose, to consider, to presume’, a semantic value likely adopted from the English language. Submitted on 6 November 2023 ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ Institute of the Lithuanian Language, 5 Petro Vileišio St., LT–10308 Vilnius, Lithuania [email protected] Straipsniai / Articles 189