Kontekstinė substantyvizacija aukštųjų mokyklų ir profesinio mokymo įstaigų interneto svetainėse

LINA RUTKIENĖ Institute of the Lithuanian Language ORCID id: orcid.org/0000-0001-6661-3115 Research area: terminology. DOI: doi.org/10.35321/all91-11 CONTEXTUAL SUBSTANTIVIZATION ON THE WEBSITES OF HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS Contextual Substantivisation on the Websites of Higher Education and Vocational Training Institutions ABSTRACT Based on empirical material collected from the websites of 25 Lithuanian educational institutions—higher education institutions (universities and colleges) and vocational schools—the article examines issues of contextual substantivization. After discussing the characteristics of other parts of speech used substantivally, it reviews the general tendencies of contextual substantivization in the selected sources and analyzes the examples collected. The thematic groups of words and word combinations performing the function of nouns on websites are identified, and their expression is discussed. Since only adjectives and participles are used substantivally on the websites examined, the article analyzes contextual substantivization solely on the basis of these parts of speech and the verb form. At the end of the article, the reasons for contextual substantivization on the websites of higher education institutions and vocational schools are discussed. KEYWORDS: adjective, noun, substantival use, ellipsis, economy of language, contextual substantivization, word combination. 264 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica XCI Kontekstinė substantyvizacija aukštųjų mokyklų ir profesinio mokymo įstaigų interneto svetainėse ANNOTATION The article addresses the questions of contextual substantivisation based on empirical material collected from the websites of 25 Lithuanian educational institutions – higher education institutions (universities, colleges) and vocational schools. After discussing the concepts of contextual substantivisation and words used in a substantive position, the general trends of contextual substantivisation in the selected sources are reviewed, and the collected examples are analyzed. The thematic groups of words used in a substantive position are identified, and their expression is discussed. Since only adjectives and participles are substantivized on the websites analyzed, the article focuses on contextual substantivisation based solely on this part of speech and verb form. At the end of the article, the reasons for contextual substantivisation in the analyzed websites are discussed. KEYWORDS: adjective, noun, usage in a substantive position, ellipsis, language economy, contextual substantivisation, words collocation. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS Substantivization, or nominalization1, is a twofold phenomenon: it may be associated with word formation—when a substantivized word is formed according to derivational patterns by applying morphological or morphonological operations; it may also be a gradual, lengthy process—when an attributive word combination initially exists, then changes for certain reasons, specifically the meaning of the non-nominal word (attribute) changes, and finally the complete substantivization of the word defining the noun occurs. Stefan Höfler calls the first case direct substantivization and the second substantivization through ellipsis (Höfler 2020: 181–186). One of the problems in the study of substantivization is related to the diachronic view of this phenomenon: substantivization is often examined precisely as a diachronic process, only its endpoint is visible, and it is recorded in dictionaries by presenting the substantivized word as a noun. For example, words such as kuli amoji, mie­gamasis are recorded in dictionaries as nouns; that is, we see the endpoint of substantivization. Thus, the process of substantivization is not always clear; it is often impossible to say whether a substantivized word arose through a gradual process or was formed on the basis of analogous examples. 1 Lithuanian linguists’ works use both the term substantivization and the term nominalization. This article adopts the term substantivization; however, when discussing individual authors’ positions, the term nominalization is also used in order to preserve the correctness of literal quotation and paraphrase. The term nominalization is also necessary when referring to the processual nature of the phenomenon under examination. Straipsniai / Articles 265 LINA RUTKIENĖ This study attempts to view substantivization from a synchronic perspective: its aim is to investigate cases of usage in order to assess the substantivization process currently under way. To achieve this aim, the relevant theory is first discussed, with particular attention devoted to contextual substantivization as one variety of substantivization. In order to assess the general tendencies of contextual substantivization in the selected sources, the thematic groups of words from other parts of speech used substantivally are identified and their expression is analyzed. Another objective is to discuss the reasons for contextual substantivization. The omission of a noun and the substantival use of other parts of speech are particularly noticeable on the internet—not only in discussion forums and other spaces where colloquial language is used, but also on the websites of state institutions, in the media, and in advertising (e.g., “Fire in an Apartment Building,” “Where Are the New Ones?”, see also Fig. 1). Thus, popular institutional websites and journalistic portals provide a favorable field for research. Seriously? We examined misinformation about the Olympic ones: stay alert! FIG. 1. Examples of substantival adjective use (the Olympic ones, the higher school) (delfi.lt, 2024–08–16; kurstoti.lt, 2024–06–05) The websites of Lithuanian educational institutions—higher education institutions (universities and colleges²) and vocational schools—were selected as the source of empirical material for this article. They are relevant and frequently visited because they are an important means of providing information about the beginning of a professional path, connecting pupils, their parents, and teachers. A great deal of text is still used on these websites, and we expect them to provide responsibly ² Higher education institutions are of two types: universities and colleges. “A college is a higher education institution in which non-university studies predominate, applied scientific research and/or applied scientific activity or professional art are developed. The name of a college may not contain the words ‘university’ or ‘academy’ (Law on Higher Education of the Republic of Lithuania 2020).” 266 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica XCI Kontekstinė substantyvizacija aukštųjų mokyklų ir profesinio mokymo įstaigų interneto svetainėse prepared content and correct language. The language of the websites in question is strongly oriented toward the addressee—a young person with diverse needs that the school seeks to meet. The study was conducted from February to May 2024. Since the information is changing, the data may currently be different. In total, 25 websites of higher education institutions and vocational education institutions were reviewed. In selecting websites for the study, an effort was made to ensure that the higher education institutions and vocational schools represented various profiles and different regions of Lithuania. The main method applied in the article is analytical-descriptive. Using this method, the empirical data collected are systematized and analyzed, and the results are generalized. By analyzing more specific cases of words used substantivally, this method attempts to present a general picture of contextual substantivization on the websites of higher education institutions and vocational schools. Morphological analysis is combined with the analytical-descriptive method. The categorical meanings of parts of speech and their forms are important for establishing specific lexical meanings and for classifying words used substantivally into thematic groups. 1. CONTEXTUAL SUBSTANTIVIZATION AS ONE OF THE VARIETIES OF SUBSTANTIVIZATION Substantivization, one of the types of transposition, is the conversion of words from other parts of speech into nouns. It is an old, changing semantic and grammatical phenomenon, one of the forms of linguistic syncretism. In Lithuanian, according to Kazimieras Gaivenis and Stasys Keinys, substantivization is particularly characteristic of adjectives and numerals, as well as participles (Gaivenis, Keinys 1990: 41). The relation of the result of substantivization3—the substantivized word—to the aforementioned syncretism has been discussed by the Czech linguist Gabriela Lenartová (2017). The term syncretism, which entered linguistics from the fields of philosophy and art through transtermination, began to be used in linguistics by Lui Jelmslev and is understood as the neutralization of oppositions and the merging of functions and meanings. Thus, according to G. Lenartová, the characteristics of syncretism are as follows: 1. A substantivized word loses its attributive function and comes to denote an object with a certain characteristic—one 3 In linguistic works, the result of substantivization is designated in different ways. In foreign literature, the term substantivized can be found (this one-word term is precise and convenient to use). In Lithuanian authors’ articles, in addition to the most commonly used word combination substantivized word (or with the specific part of speech indicated), the word combination substantivized word (adjective, participle) also occurs (see Malakauskas 1987, and also Palionis 1961). Straipsniai / Articles 267 LINA RUTKIENĖ the word encompasses the meanings of two parts of speech; 2. It acquires the morphological characteristics of a noun: some substantivized words are associated with only one gender, while others retain the same gender characteristics as adjectives or participles (Lenartová 2017). In Lithuanian linguistics, substantivization is examined both in discussions of word formation and in morphology. Aldona Paulauskienė regards substantivization (the linguist uses the term nominalization) as a phenomenon of functional word formation (Paulauskienė 1994: 43–46). When substantivization is analyzed as a morphological phenomenon, certain degrees of nominalization are distinguished; however, this subsection is usually explored by studying the substantivization of specific parts of speech rather than substantivization in general. In the Grammar of the Lithuanian Language (LKG 1965), two principal degrees of substantivization of adjectives are distinguished: independent substantivized adjectives (used as independent nouns) and non-independent substantivized adjectives (“depending on the context, they may have the function and meaning of a noun and may serve as attributes, like adjectives” (LKG 1965: 532). Simple adjectives are also mentioned which may perform the function of a noun in context, but are not to be considered substantivized. “In the context, the modified word is greatly lacking; it is understood, cf. Only the strong reach freedom [people]” (LKG 1965: 532). However, Pranas Skardžius calls even adjectives used substantivally in context and performing “the duties of nouns” substantivized (Skardžius 1996 [1943]: 558). In his monograph Adjectives with the Suffix –inis, Pranas Kniūkšta distinguishes four degrees of adjective nominalization (Kniūkšta 1976). Stasys Keinys uses not the term degree of nominalization but the term stages of nominalization and distinguishes two stages: to become partly nominalized means to acquire the characteristics of a noun without yet becoming a noun, whereas to become fully nominalized means to pass finally into the noun class. Full nominalization is a completed process. In addition, St. Keinys notes that Lithuanian terms are more convenient than international ones because they can express different stages of the same process (Keinys 2005 [1973]: 380). However, for examining contextual substantivization, the broad-meaning term substantivization is, presumably, more convenient, since the Lithuanian term nominalization is more closely associated with processuality and continuity over time. When discussing contextual substantivization—in a synchronic study—it would presumably be more appropriate, for words of Lithuanian origin, to choose the word substantivization rather than nominalization, because in most cases words occupying the noun position in context are not undergoing nominalization but are merely used substantivally. In general, the contextual omission of a noun may raise doubts as to whether this phenomenon can be attributed to substantivization at all. Ramunė Vaskelaitė, who studied the assessment of pronominal participles with dependent words in works of a prescriptive nature and in works disseminating the norm 268 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica XCI Kontekstinė substantyvizacija aukštųjų mokyklų ir profesinio mokymo įstaigų interneto svetainėse on language usage, concludes that “the relationship between substantival use and nominalization” is unclear (Vaskelaitė 2019: 25). Nevertheless, drawing on P. Kniūkšta’s theory of degrees of nominalization and the other insights presented below, this article will nevertheless regard the substantival use of words from other parts of speech as one variety of substantivization. P. Kniūkšta calls “such derivatives with the suffix –inis that are ordinarily used as adjectives but are used substantivally” occasional substantivized adjectives and assigns them to the third degree4 group of –inis-suffix adjectives undergoing nominalization5. P. Skardžius emphasizes that “the function and meaning of an individual word depend very much on its contextual environment, on the sentence as a whole” (Skardžius 1996 [1943]: 559). The fact that words from other parts of speech used in the noun position can be regarded as cases of contextual substantivization is shown by their acquiring, like permanently substantivized words, a noun meaning in the sentence and performing syntactic functions of a noun. However, they retain the categorical characteristics of a noun only in that context. Words from other parts of speech are used substantivally in a particular context because of ellipsis, that is, the omission of a noun, and their nominal meaning is understood from the context. Syntax is particularly important for contextual substantivization—in this case, syntax creates the conditions for the morphological process. The concept of ellipsis is generally associated with syntax. When a noun is omitted, the dependent component of the attributive word combination takes over the functions of the head component expressed by the noun. In G. Lenartová’s view, the omission of a noun may be applied when the object denoted by the noun is well known. “The noun is being thought of, but it is not pronounced” (Lenartová 2017). 4 The degree number is indicated according to the sequence provided by P. Kniūkšta. 5 A. Paulauskienė discusses such cases when speaking about the substantival use of adjectives (Paulauskienė 1994: 39). Straipsniai / Articles 269 LINA RUTKIENĖ 2. RESULTS OF THE EMPIRICAL STUDY OF CONTEXTUAL SUBSTANTIVIZATION ON THE WEBSITES OF LITHUANIAN HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS 2.1. General Information about the Study In total, 149 cases of contextual substantivization were found on the websites of Lithuanian higher education institutions and vocational education institutions visited in February–May 2024; of these, 76 were non-repeating words from other parts of speech used substantivally. Contextual substantivization is least widespread in the language of higher education institution websites and most widespread in the language of vocational school websites. Various parts of speech tend to undergo nominalization in Lithuanian. As A. Paulauskienė writes, “pronominal forms of adjectives and participles, derivatives with the suffixes -inis, -ė (malkinė), -ienė (bulvienė), -ėtis (varškėtis), compounds and prefixed words (juodadarbis, beprotis, begalvis) can become nouns, because the meaning and grammatical structure of all of them is suitable for performing noun functions” (Paulauskienė 1983: 43). The study showed that only adjectives and participles are used substantivally on the websites of higher education institutions and vocational schools; therefore, the article below examines contextual substantivization on the basis of these forms. It should be noted that it is not always possible to determine whether substantivization is contextual. For example, nepilnametis may be either an adjective or a noun; thus, although the form is identical, it is not entirely clear whether, for example, in the sentence “Minors (under 16 years of age) submit an application for admission to the ninth grade together with their father/mother or guardian,” the word nepilnametis could be considered to be used substantivally. The uncertainty is reinforced by the fact that the same derivational patterns are often used to form compound adjectives and nouns. Given the general tendency of the websites of the institutions in question to omit the noun asmuo, one could also consider contextual substantivization. Nevertheless, such unclear cases were rejected. At the beginning of the study, it was expected that most cases of contextual substantival use would occur in article texts, but the study showed that these cases predominate in website headings and subheadings. It should be said that websites exhibit not only contextual substantivization—they also use fully substantivized pronominal adjectives and participles, e.g., the blind, the disabled, the adult; in this case, substantivization has already taken place, and these are terms, 270 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica XCI Kontekstinė substantyvizacija aukštųjų mokyklų ir profesinio mokymo įstaigų interneto svetainėse recorded in terminographic resources (e.g., the Bank of Terms of the Republic of Lithuania). In other words, these are permanently substantivized words. Some of them also occur in institutional names, e.g.: Lithuanian Center for the Education of the Deaf and Hard of Hearing, Lithuanian Center for the Education of the Blind and Visually Impaired, Department for the Affairs of the Disabled. It should be noted that in the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Education (Jovaiša 2007), published in 2007, only one substantivized word (a participle) functioning as an educational term was found—tiriamasis. Although this dictionary provides terms related to people’s health conditions, e.g., kurčn eb ylystė, names for people according to their health condition are not provided as terms. It should be noted that permanently substantivized words may undergo contextual desubstantivization: for example, on the website of Vilnius College of Technologies and Design (VDK), after clicking the heading For the Disabled, we find the subheading Support for Disabled Students. In general, contextual substantivization is a characteristic feature of the language of most of the school websites studied and corresponds to the general tendency of language—namely, that in non-specialized language, words denoting people and other living things most often move into the noun category. Moreover, as stated in The Grammar of Contemporary Lithuanian in discussing pronominal adjectives, there is a particular “tendency to use masculine plural forms substantivally when they denote a defined group of people” (DLKG 2005: 176). As the empirical material shows, this statement applies not only to the pronominal forms collected from websites and used substantivally, but also to ordinary adjectives and participles. Substantivized words in these thematic groups usually retain both masculine and feminine forms; however, all words used substantivally on websites collected for this study are masculine6. It should be noted that different forms of the same word denote entirely different concepts: final (← final examinations) – graduating (← graduating persons), entrance (← entrance examinations) – applicants (← applicant persons). Some words used substantivally have become linguistic templates on the websites of the educational institutions studied. For example, the dative of the participle occupying the noun position, for applicants (-ones), is found on almost all websites. At some universities only, apparently for the desired reasons, this template is replaced by another formulation, e.g., admission. Certainly, the quantitative criterion raises the question of whether this example can be classified as contextual substantivization. On the basis of usage tendencies, one could speak of a narrow context—that is, the website of one institution—and a broad context—that is, the majority of ⁶ For the sake of accuracy, it should be said that, when preparing the article for publication, some data were checked. It was found that the website of Vilnius University currently [accessed 2024-10-05], alongside masculine forms, also presents feminine forms, e.g., for applicants (feminine). Straipsniai / Articles 271 LINA RUTKIENĖ websites in that field. Thus, such substantivally used words recurring on the websites of several educational institutions would be examples of contextual substantivization in the aforementioned broad context. The meaning of a substantivally used adjective and participle changes in two directions: on the one hand, it becomes narrower and more specific than the meaning of an ordinary adjective and participle. For example, the aforementioned participle learning denotes not a characteristic typical of many living objects (a baby learning to walk, a puppy learning to serve, etc.), but identifies one specific object—a person who is learning. However, essentially, the lexical meaning is not changed. On the other hand, meaning consists not only of the adjective’s or participle’s existing meaning but also of the context into which they are incorporated—meaning expands. In addition to its dictionary meaning, the linguistic unit acquires new features. The meaning of a substantivally used adjective and participle also includes the meaning of a noun—the object (a person or other entity) and its action, characteristic, condition, or state are combined. Thus, by denoting both a referent and a distinctive characteristic typical of it, such a substantivally used word acquires a substantial semantic load. Thus, substantivization is also semantic condensation. This semantic condensation is particularly relevant to headings and subheadings (see section 2.3 for more details). 2.2. Thematic Groups and Expression of Words Used Substantivally As mentioned, in the language of the websites of higher education institutions and vocational schools, contextual substantivization is most closely associated with names of persons. This is understandable because a person is the main subject and object of the field of education. At the same time, it is also the principal concept on which a more detailed worldview of this field is constructed and on the basis of which further differentiation and nomination of concepts are carried out. Thus, it may be assumed that on the websites of higher education institutions and vocational education institutions, most words from other parts of speech occupying the noun position arise without using the noun person (see Fig. 2). This noun is one of the key words on the websites examined. Moreover, the examples show that in all cases the words used substantivally are masculine participles and adjectives, which may be a formal indication that they incorporate the component person. Thus, the main thematic group of the words used substantivally is names of persons (it comprises 91 percent of all words or word combinations used in the noun position). Four subgroups can be distinguished within this thematic group; they depend not only on lexical meaning but also on the characteristics of the part of speech and form. The distribution of quantitative data is presented in Fig. 3. 272 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica XCI Kontekstinė substantyvizacija aukštųjų mokyklų ir profesinio mokymo įstaigų interneto svetainėse FIG. 2. Example of contextual substantivization (BTMC, 2024-05-06) FIG. 3. Distribution of quantitative data among the subgroups of the thematic group of names of persons (AP—names of persons) (data from February–May 2024) 1. Names of persons according to an action performed (less frequently, not performed). This action is marked by active present and past simple participles formed from verbs denoting an active action (dependent on the agent’s conscious efforts)7. This is the largest subgroup: the arriving person KFG, VDK, the learner LSMU (“Modules for learners in grades I–II of general education gymnasiums (grades 9–10)” AP RC), the learner VTVP, the participant 7 For more on the classificatory meanings of verbs, see LKG 1971; Servaitė 1984. Straipsniai / Articles 273 LINA RUTKIENĖ PMC, the worker VSRC, the seeker [of a vocation] ŠĮKS (“For those seeking a vocation and applying”), the creator VTVP, the learner [of all prices] MRU, not studying LSMU, the one not seeking [to acquire] VAVM (“Vocational education program for those not seeking to acquire secondary education” VAVM), the transfer applicant VSRC, the one seeking ISM, APRC (“For those seeking professional heights” ISM), the applicant VVK, KK, LMTA, LJŽKA, VDA, VU, VKPM (“Relevant information for applicants” KK), the applicant KTMC, VKK, VTVP (“Registration of applicants will take place from 3 June to 5 August 2024” KMPMC); the graduate LSMU (“For those who have completed the 8th grade”), the graduate VU (“Those who have completed these studies acquire the professional qualification of a physician or dentist” LSMU), the one who has acquired [education] LMTA (“Programs for those who have acquired secondary education” VAVM), the one who has been admitted VK⁸, the one who has not acquired [education] APRC, the one who has studied VKK (“Information for students” VKK). As mentioned, the participle stojantis, as well as its pronominal form stojantysis, stands out from all the others in terms of frequency of use—it was observed on all websites. The quantitative criterion might perhaps allow us to speak of this noun-like word’s transition into a group of words with a higher degree of substantivization—that is, its tendency to become a noun. On the other hand, such frequent use also shows that the terminology of the education field lacks a designation for the concept associated with a person’s admission to a higher education institution, and the pronominal-form participle stojantysis could become a codified term in the education field. As mentioned, the participles discussed, used as nouns, have arisen from the attributes of attributive word combinations. It is customary to assert that attributive participles “denote the properties of things. In this position, the nominal features of participles become particularly prominent” (Ambrazas 1979: 29). Once an attributive participle takes on the meaning and functions of a noun, the meaning of an attribute’s property becomes less relevant—the active participles used as nouns and based on verbs denoting an action become closer to nouns derived from verbs, cf.: ieškantis, ieškantysis – ieškotojas. 2. The second thematic subgroup—names of persons according to an evaluative feature. These words, used as nouns, indicate that persons stand out from others through certain characteristics and competencies. The members of this subgroup are diverse in expression. The present-tense active participle turintis, derived from a stative verb, always has what is known as a necessary complement in context (Sližienė’s term; for more, see Sližienė 1980)—without this complement, the participle does not form a semantic unit: turintis kvalifikaciją DTVM, turintis piešimo / tapybos / kompozicijos pagrindus VDK, turintys individualių poreikių PMC, neturintis galimybės pateikti prašymą VKPM. In this case, it is the entire object word combination, not the participle alone, that acquires a contextual noun-like meaning. Other units in this subgroup: ⁸ Vilnius College, see https://www.viko.lt. 274 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica XCI Kontekstinė substantyvizacija aukštųjų mokyklų ir profesinio mokymo įstaigų interneto svetainėse pažengęs VDK (“Sewing and Construction for Advanced Learners” VDK), pradedantysis VDK (“Sewing and Construction Courses for Beginners” VDK), expressed by participles derived from active-action verbs, and geriausias VSRC (“Honored the Best” VSRC), expressed by a qualitative adjective. The third, small subgroup includes names of persons according to a certain need, denoted by present-tense active participles derived from mental-state verbs and used as nouns. In the noun position, they do not occur alone—they form a semantic unit with a necessary complement (a governed word—a noun or an infinitive): pageidaujantis bendrabučio / registruotis VK, MRU, norintis mokytis / įgyti / keisti / tobulinti and others KEG, VSRC, VVK, KSU (“Those wishing to enter the study programmes conducted by Vilnius College of Business in a higher year must submit the necessary documents”⁹ VVK). Another subgroup can be distinguished—names of persons according to an action performed on them by others. This subgroup consists of passive participles used as nouns (less frequently, participles with dependent words). On several websites, for example ISM and VTVP, the noun-like pakviestasis is used (“Electronic contracts are concluded with those invited” ISM), or the word combination pakviestasis mokytis KTMC, VTVP. The largest number of names of persons according to an action performed on them by others, expressed by passive participles used as nouns, was found on the website of the Vilnius St. Joseph Seminary, e.g.: įvelkamieji ŠJKS (“all the seminarians living there [at the seminary] were dressed in cassocks” ŠJKS), pašventintieji ŠJKS, pašvęstieji ŠJKS. When discussing participles used as nouns, the classificatory meanings of the verbs from which they are derived were not indicated by chance. The examples discussed suggest the following regularity: when a participle used as a noun is derived from a verb with a stative meaning, as mentioned, it usually acquires the meaning of a noun in context not alone, but together with its so-called necessary complement (governed word). A necessary complement is generally not required for adjectives used as nouns and for participles derived from active-action verbs. As the examples show, non-pronominal participles predominate. Pronominal forms, which are more inclined to become nouns, are relatively rare. According to Adelė Valeckienė, who studied the substantivization of pronominal adjectives, the substantivization of pronominal and non-pronominal forms is unequal: with ordinary adjectives, the absence of a noun is felt more strongly. “Thus, pronominal adjectives, by denoting definite things and being able to distinguish them, become nouns more quickly and have a higher degree of substantivization than ordinary adjectives” ⁹ The language of the examples has not been corrected. Straipsniai / Articles 275 LINA RUTKIENĖ (Valeckienė 1957: 243). Pronominal adjectives “along with the property also express the bearer of the property; the modified word is entirely unnecessary alongside substantivized pronominal adjectives” (LKG 1965: 532). These observations also apply to participles in this case. The words discussed, denoting names of persons and used in the noun position, have formed from word combinations of the non-specialized language—not from compound terms. Understandably, many terms from the education field also function on the websites of educational institutions. However, the material collected contained few examples (9 percent) that would indicate a tendency to use the dependent components of compound terms as nouns. Regarding the noun-like use of dependent components of terms, one could distinguish the thematic group of names of forms of acquiring and testing knowledge—courses and examinations. This group would comprise the following members: baigiamieji VDK, parengiamieji VDK, stojamieji VTDK (“Entrance examinations for the field of media art studies (applied photography) are conducted” VTDK)¹⁰; tarpiniai PMC, valstybiniai VU. The last thematic group has only two members—names of school types: aukštoji VK, profesinė VSRC (“For those wishing to study at their gymnasium and at a vocational school at the same time VSRC”). The study results show that on the websites of educational institutions, participles are most inclined to occupy the noun position—both alone and with a dependent word (see Fig. 4). It should be added that, according to the study data, unlike permanently substantivized words, words used as nouns only in a certain context almost never themselves have an attributive component. ¹⁰ The transition of adjectival participles into another part-of-speech category is a topic requiring a separate study. Although it has recently received more attention (see Markevičius 2012; Kudirka 2021), considerable uncertainty remains. For example, in terms such as baigiamieji egzaminai, stojamieji egzaminai, can we see an accomplished adjectivization, or can we nevertheless speak only of the adjectival character of a participle? Kazimieras Gaivenis analyzes terms of this type as consisting of a passive participle and a noun (Gaivenis 2014 [1968]). The name of the disease smaugiamoji, according to the terminologist, is a substantivized participle (Gaivenis 2014 [1966]); the scholar does not speak of adjectivization. St. Keinys, however, considers the dependent component jungiamosios medžiagos, jungiamosios, to be an adjective (“Moreover, the term jungiamosios medžiagos has a tradition of use in Lithuanian painting terminology. It was used (with the ordinary, not pronominal adjective) by the prominent Lithuanian artist P. Kalpokas in his ‘Textbook of Painting Techniques’” (Keinys 2005 [1972]: 387)). 276 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica XCI Kontekstinė substantyvizacija aukštųjų mokyklų ir profesinio mokymo įstaigų interneto svetainėse Fig. 4. Distribution of the expression of units used as nouns, percent (data from February–May 2024) 2.3. Causes of contextual substantivization The principle of language economy should probably be regarded as an indisputable cause of contextual substantivization. Recent language studies devote considerable attention to this principle (e.g., Vincentini 2003; Bedričhová 2006; Mingyou 2017, etc.). It is noteworthy that foreign linguists also mention similar cases of contextual substantivization found on websites. For example, Rishat Zhurkenovich Saurbayev and co-authors, among other examples of language economy, provide one analogous to those discussed in the article: finalas ← final examinations. The authors state that the principle of language economy is universal and is one of the main causes of changes in all languages” (Saurbayev et al. 2021: 430–432). One way of realizing the principle of language economy is ellipsis, which, as noted, also gives rise to the noun-like use of words belonging to other parts of speech. In the communication process, a shorter variant is chosen to save time (and in some cases space, e.g., in headings). The author of a text writes the words necessary to achieve the communicative result and omits those that can be inferred from the context—in this case, the aforementioned semantic condensation is particularly significant. On websites, naturally, it is also important to convey as much relevant information as possible within a limited time. The websites of the educational institutions under discussion are dominated by the journalistic style, which, in addition to an informative function, is characterized by performing an impact function. One way of realizing the impact function is the use of language close to the addressee. “Ellipsis indicates a connection Straipsniai / Articles 277 LINA RUTKIENĖ with colloquial language,” states Ona Petrenienė (2011: 89). Thus, it may be assumed that ellipsis helps website creators achieve their goal—to show that school representatives (the authors of website texts) identify with young people, adopt their language, and understand them. At the school to which they are invited to apply, they will find a familiar environment. When evaluating website texts, one cannot ignore the visual material. It is precisely in website images that what is omitted in the constructions discussed can be seen—that is, the person(s) (see Fig. 5). FIG. 5. Photographs of persons—as compensation for the omitted noun denoting a person (DTVM, 2024–05–29) The main object of the illustrative material in this case seems to compensate for part of the written text—the noun denoting a person. Thus, the context of contextual substantivization is not only written material but also visual material. The fact that active participles most often denote persons on the websites of higher education institutions and vocational education institutions can be explained by the specificity of the form itself: the active form of a participle presupposes alongside it an implied agent capable of performing the action—a living being; thus, this feature is already fixed in the semantics of the active form of the participle itself. The empirical material shows that some present-tense participles used as nouns are synonymous with nouns denoting persons according to a property, state, or performance of an action: cf. besimokantis – moksleivis, mokinys, kuriantis – kūrėjas, studijuojantis – studentas. The question arises why the authors of the texts do not choose to use a noun (term) that would better correspond to the principle of language economy. This, too, may be associated with the semantics of the present-tense form of the active participle. The tense forms of participles are connected with a change of state. Nouns 278 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica XCI Kontekstinė substantyvizacija aukštųjų mokyklų ir profesinio mokymo įstaigų interneto svetainėse express a permanent feature. Stojantis, besimokantis, norintis bendraučio—features characterizing a person as long as they are in such a state (i.e., for example, stojantis until they are admitted). These features are limited by the time expressed through the present-tense form. Active participles create a corresponding worldview of educational institutions—dynamism and change of states. It was observed that many words and word combinations used as nouns on the websites of educational institutions contain a seme of deficiency. For example, in the phrase ieškantiems pašaukino, we infer a hint that the person has not found their vocation and that, upon entering the institution, they will find that vocation. In the phrase neįgijusiems pagrindinio išsilavinimo, we can discern a promise that the person will acquire that education at the institution. Norintis bendraučio bendrauti gaus etc. In order to remove this deficiency, the addressee must perform the specified actions11. CONCLUSIONS 1. Contextual substantivization is one of the linguistic features of the websites of Lithuanian higher education and vocational schools. Words belonging to other parts of speech most often perform the function of a noun in headings and subheadings. The majority (91 percent) of these words have formed from word combinations of the non-specialized language—cases of noun-like use of dependent components of compound terms are much rarer (9 percent). Since the principal subject and object of the education field is the person, contextual substantivization on the websites examined is most closely associated with names of persons. Most words and word combinations appear in the noun position without the noun asmuo. 2. On the websites of higher education and vocational schools, words and word combinations used as nouns can be divided into three thematic groups: names of persons (91 percent), names of forms of acquiring and testing knowledge (7 percent), and names of school types (2 percent). The largest thematic group—that of names of persons—consists of four subgroups: names of persons according to an action performed (less frequently, not performed), names of persons according to an evaluative feature, names of persons according to a certain need, and names of persons according to an action performed by others. 3. On the websites examined, only adjectives and participles are used as nouns—the adoption of the noun functions by other parts of speech (verb forms) is not characteristic. 11 The material presented on the websites of higher education and vocational schools often resembles the increasingly popular solution journalism (for more, see Murray, Stroud 2019): after presenting a problem, a way of solving it is indicated, a kind of instruction is written down (cf. stojančiojo žingsniai VSRC), and then positive information is provided: the life of a person who has solved the problem becomes better. Straipsniai / Articles 279 LINA RUTKIENĖ adoption of noun functions by other parts of speech is not characteristic on the websites of educational institutions. Participles account for more than 90 percent of all cases of contextual substantivization found. The study showed that not only a single word but also a word combination forming one semantic unit may occupy the noun position. According to the study data, the so-called necessary complement (governed word) is required for the formation of a semantic unit when the participle is derived from a verb with a stative meaning. 4. The principle of language economy should be regarded as the main cause of contextual substantivization. One way of realizing the principle of language economy is ellipsis, which, as noted, gives rise to noun-like usage. In addition, the specificity of the journalistic style and the characteristics of the participle form are also important. A word or word combination used as a noun often helps realize the impact function and actualize dynamism and changes of state—important features of the worldview of educational institutions. AUKŠTŲJŲ IR PROFESINIŲ MOKYKLŲ INTERNETO SVETAINĖSE DAIKTAVARDIŠKAI VARTOJamŲ ŽODŽIŲ IR ŽODŽIŲ JUNGINIŲ SĄRAŠAS Having defended a bachelor’s thesis LJŽKA; those who attended the celebration LJŽKA; the one who arrived VDK, those who arrived KEG, the one arriving VDK; having graduated BTMS, LSMU, the one who graduated BTMC, VU, LSMU; those who finished school DTVM, having completed a study programme KK, having completed studies LJŽKA, having graduated from college VK; final VSRC; those interested in studies VDK; those undergoing treatment LJŽKA; the learner APRC, VSRC, the one learning KIEG, VTVP; participants PMC; those thinking about the officer profession LJŽKA; those who received a place KK; the best VSRC, the very best VSRC, VAVM; those seeking a vocation ŠJKS; having acquired an education LMTA, VAVM; the registered one PMC; the wise VKPM; those admitted in 2021 VK; those being dressed ŠJKS (“all the clerics living there [in the seminary] were dressed in cassocks” ŠĮKS); those intending to study KK; those creating VTVP; those creating Lithuania VAVM; those supervising BTMC; those waiting VDK; those who know the language ISM; those paying the full price VK; motivated LJŽKA; those who are not afraid LJŽKA; those who did not acquire an education APRC, VKPM; those not admitted VK; the hard of hearing VU; those not fitting in ISM, those restless ISM; those not seeking to acquire an education VAVM; the non-student LSMU; those without an opportunity VKPM, those without an email address KK; those wishing VAVM; those wishing to reside in a dormitory VU, those wishing to study KIEG, VSRC, KEG, those wishing to acquire an education VSRC, those wishing to enter LJŽKA, VVK, those wishing to receive a scholarship VDK, those wishing 280 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica XCI Contextual substancyvizacija on the websites of higher education institutions and vocational education institutions to change or improve their qualifications VSRC, those wishing to observe defenses VDK, those wishing to study LJŽKA, LJŽKA, those wishing to find out KK, those wishing to participate in the weekly ŠJKS, those wishing to become officers LJŽKA; those disposed to discover KTU, those disposed to lead KTU, those disposed to change KTU; those who decided to pursue a specialty VAVM; those who discontinued their studies VK; those wishing to register MRU; the one invited ISM, VDK; the one invited to study KTMC, VTVP, those invited KEG; those touched by the horrors of war ŠJKS; preparatory VDK; determined to proceed ISM; those consecrated ŠJKS; those dedicated ŠJKS; affected by trauma VD, KK; advanced, those who have advanced VDK; those transferring VSRC; those abusing alcohol VDK; those planning a career KTMC; the beginner PMC, VDK; those applying for a scholarship VDK, those applying for funded places VU; those swearing an oath LJŽKA; vocational VSRC; those standing in formation LJŽKA; those who are ill LJŽKA; those seeking an education APRC, those seeking more ISM; the drowning one LJŽKA; the strongest VAVM; entrance VDK; those entering KK, ILK, VVK, LMTA, BTMC, KTU, MRU, ŠPMC, VDA, VKPM, VSRC, the one entering KTMC, VSRC VTVP, VDK, KEG, VDK, those entering ISM, LJŽKA, VKPM; one who studied VKK, those studying KK, VU; those who concluded agreements VSRC; interested parties VKPM; those gathered LJŽKA, ŠJKS; those recognizing the significance LJŽKA; intermediate PMC; those with an education PMC, BTMC, DTVM, those with a qualification KEG, VTVP, those with a disability VTVP, those with problems VDK, KK; those who filled out an application VK; those who registered VAVM; state VU; older ISM. ŠALTINIAI APRC – Aukštaitijos profesinio rengimo centras. Prieiga internete: https://www.auks-taitijosprc.lt/. BTMC – Biržų technologijų ir mokymo centras. Prieiga internete: https://www.btvmc.lt/. DTVM – Daugų technologijos ir verslo mokykla. Prieiga internete: https://www.dtvm.lt/. https://www.delfi.lt/. https://www.kursto­ti.lt/. ISM – Prieiga internete: https://www.ism.lt/. Jovaiša Leonas 2007: Enciklopedinis edukologijos žodynas, Vilnius: Gimtasis žodis. KEG – Klaipėdos Ernesto Galvanausko profesinio mokymo centras. Prieiga internete: https://www.gpmc.lt/. KK – Kauno kolegija. Prieiga internete: https://www.kaunokolegija.lt/. Straipsniai / Articles 281 LINA RUTKIENĖ KMPMC – Karaliaus Mindaugo profesinio mokymo centras. Prieiga internete: https://www.kaupa.lt/. KSU – Kazimiero Simanavičiaus universitetas. Prieiga internete: https://ksu.lt/. KTMC – Klaipėdos technologijų mokymo centras. Prieiga internete: https://ktmc.lt/. Lietuvos Respublikos terminų bankas. Prieiga internete: https://terminai.vlkk.lt/. LIŽKA – Lietuvos Jono Žemaičio karo akademija. Prieiga internete: https://www.lka.lt/. LMTA – Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro akademija. Prieiga internete: https://lmta.lt/lt/. LSMU – Lietuvos sveikatos mokslų universitetas. Prieiga internete: https://lsmu.lt/. MRU – Mykolo Romerio universitetas. Prieiga internete: https://www.mruni.eu/. PMC – Panevėžio mokymo centras. Prieiga internete: https://www.paneveziomc.lt/. ŠJKS – Švento Juozapo kunigų seminarija. Prieiga internete: https://www.seminarija.lt/. VAVM – Vilniaus automechanikos ir verslo mokykla. Prieiga internete: https://vavm.lt/. VDA – Vilniaus dailės akademija. Prieiga internete: https://www.vda.lt/. VDK – Vilniaus dizaino kolegija. Prieiga internete: https://dizainokolegija.lt/. VK – Vilniaus kolegija. Prieiga internete: https://www.viko.lt/. VKK – Vilniaus kooperacijos kolegija. Prieiga internete: https://www.vkk.lt/. VKPM – Vilniaus komunalinių paslaugų mokykla. 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Vaskelaitė Ramunė 2019: Įvardžiuotiniai dalyviai su priklausomais žodžiais: kodifikuotoji norma ir jos neaiškumai. – Bendrinė kalba 92. Prieiga internete: https://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba/article/view/366. Vicentini Alessandra 2003: The Economy Principle in Language: Notes and Observations from Early Modern English Grammars. – Mots Palabras Words 3, 37–57. 284 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica XCI Kontekstinė substantyvizacija aukštųjų mokyklų ir profesinio mokymo įstaigų interneto svetainėse Contextual Substantivisation on the Websites of Higher Education and Vocational Training Institutions SUMMARY Based on examples collected from the websites of 25 Lithuanian higher education and vocational training institutions, the article takes a synchronic perspective to examine the questions of contextual substantivisation. A total of 149 cases of contextual substantivisation were found on the websites of these educational institutions, of which 76 were unique words used in a substantive position. These words or phrases are from other parts of speech used as nouns in a specific context due to ellipsis, i.e., the omission of a noun, with their nominal meaning understood from the context. The study revealed that contextual substantivisation is a linguistic feature of the websites of Lithuanian higher education and vocational training institutions. Words used in a substantive position are most commonly used in headings and subheadings, with most of them formed from common language word combinations; cases of substantivized use of secondary components in compound terms are much rarer. Since the main subject and object in the field of education is a person, contextual substantivisation on the browsed websites is mostly related to the names of persons. The majority of the words used in a substantive position arise from the omission of the noun “person”. On the websites of higher education and vocational training institutions, words used in a substantive position are used in tris thematic groups: names of persons (91%), names of school types (2%), and names of knowledge acquisition and assessment forms (7%). The largest thematic group, consisting of names of persons, is divided into four subgroups: names of persons based on the action performed (or, less commonly, not performed), names of persons based on the assessed feature, names of persons based on a specific need, and names of persons based on what has been done to them. On the browsed websites, only adjectives and participles are substantivized, whereas other parts of speech (verb forms) do not typically take on the function of a noun on the websites of educational institutions. Participles make up over 90% of all identified instances of contextual substantivisation. According to the research, a word used in a substantive position can be not only a single word but also a combination of words that forms a single semantic unit. The data show that the so-called necessary companion (a governed word) is required to form a semantic unit when the participle is derived from a verb indicating a state. The principle of linguistic economy is considered the main reason for contextual substantivisation. One way this principle is realized is through ellipsis, which, as mentioned before, leads to the formation of words used in a substantive position. People are often seen in the images on educational institutions’ websites, thus, the main object of the illustration Straipsniai / Articles 285 LINA RUTKIENĖ in a way compensates for the written text part – the person in the position of a noun. Besides, the specifics of the so-called publicistic writing and the characteristics of participial forms are also important factors. Words used in a substantive position often help fulfil the function of impact and emphasize dynamism and changes in states, which are important features of the worldview reflected by educational institutions. Įteikta 2024 m. rugsėjo 16 d. LINA RUTKIENĖ Lietuvių kalbos institutas Petro Vileišio g. 5, LT–10308 Vilnius, Lietuva lina.rutkienė@lki.lt 286 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica XCI