Ukrainian-Lithuanian Linguo-Cultural Parallels and Differences in Ethnonymy and Related Lexical Units

Ac a Linguis ica Li huanica 2025, ol. 93, pp. 1–17 Con en s link / Tu inio nuo oda ISSN 2669-218X (online / elek oninis) Copy igh © 2025 Volodymy Ponoma enko. Published by he Ins i u e o he Li huanian Language. This is an Open Access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion Licence, which pe mi s un es ic ed use, dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal au ho and sou ce a e c edi ed. // Išleido Lie u ių kalbos ins i u as. Šis s aipsnis y a a i os p ieigos, pla inamas pagal „C ea i e Commons“ p isky imo licencijos sąlygas, leidžiančias ne ibo ai naudo i, pla in i i a ku i u inį be kokioje laikmenoje, nu odan au o ių i šal inį. Recei ed: / Gau a: 2025-10-20. Accep ed: / P iim a: 2025-11-07. 1 UKRAINIAN-LITHUANIAN LINGUO-CULTURAL PARALLELS AND DIFFERENCES IN ETHNONYMY AND RELATED LEXICAL UNITS Uk ainiečių i lie u ių kalbų ling okul ū inės pa alelės i ski umai e nonimijoje bei su ja susijusios leksikos iene uose VOLODYMYR PONOMARENKO O. O. Po ebnia Ins i u e o Linguis ics o he Na ional Academy o Sciences o Uk aine E-mail: inmo2006@uk .ne ORCID ID: h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0003-4106-5874 Fields o esea ch: compa a i e Indo-Eu opean lexicology, language con ac , e hnolinguis ics. h ps://doi.o g/10.35321/all93-07 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ABSTRACT The a icle o e s a compa a i e linguo-cul u al analysis o e hnonymic, and cho onymic, lexicon, as well as wo d combina ions con aining ela ed elemen s, in he Uk ainian and Li huanian languages, along wi h ac s om o he , p ima ily neighbou ing, languages o he Eu opean linguis ic and cul u al space. In pa icula , i deals wi h e ymology, which es i ies o bo h common Indo-Eu opean ( i s o all, Bal o-Sla ic) ea u es and his o ical di e ences. The s udy also explo es seman ic changes, such as he ans e o meaning in e hnic names, new meanings o eminine wo d o ms and diminu i es, and o he de i a i es. The ele an opics include, om he seman ic poin o iew, e hnici y, e e yday li e ealia, na u e, and mo e. Ph ases and igu a i e exp essions a e p esen ed, a signi ican pa o which belong o in e language uni e sals: di e en (also e minological) lexical uni s, co e ing such a eas as science, medicine, spo s, household equipmen and u ensils, ools and ins umen s, subs ances and ma e ials, and ood. Ph aseologies wi h e hnonymic componen s a e also examined. The s udy aims o demons a e ce ain common ea u es o Sla ic, Bal ic, and o he genealogically ela ed languages o he Eu opean linguis ic and cul u al a ea, as well as di e gences a ising om di e en language and cul u al con ac s. 2 KEYWORDS: e hnonyms, cho onyms, Uk ainian language, Li huanian language, e ymology, language con ac s, seman ic change, ph aseology. ANOTACIJA S aipsnyje pa eikiama lyginamoji ling okul ū inė uk ainiečių i lie u ių kalbų e noniminių, cho oniminių leksikos iene ų i žodžių junginių, u inčių susijusių elemen ų, analizė, aip pa i ak ai apie ki as, pi miausia kaimynines, Eu opos kalbinės bei kul ū inės e d ės kalbas. Visų pi ma nag inėjama e imologija, liudijan i iek bend us indoeu opiečių (pi miausia bal ų-sla ų) b uožus, iek is o inius ski umus. Ty ime nag inėjami i seman iniai pokyčiai, okie kaip p asmės pe kėlimas e nonimuose, naũjos mo e iškos giminės žodžių o mų i deminu y ų bei ki ų edinių éikšmės. Ak ualios emos seman iniu požiū iu apima e niškumą, kasdienio gy enimo ealijas, gam ą i ki a. Pa eikiamos azės i pe kel inės eikšm s iš aiškos, ku ių nemaža dalis p iklauso a pkalbinėms uni e salijoms: ski ingiems leksikos iene ams (be minė ų i e minologijos), apiman iems okias s i is kaip mokslas, medicina, spo as, namų apy okos i ki i eikmenys, į ankiai i ins umen ai, subs ancijos i medžiagos bei mais as. Taip pa nag inėjami i azeologizmai su e noniminiais komponen ais. Ty imo ikslas – pa ody i am ik us bend us sla ų, bal ų i ki ų gene iškai a imų Eu opos ling okul ū inio egiono kalbų b uožus bei ski umus, kylančius dėl ski ingų kalbinių i kul ū inių kon ak ų. ESMINIAI ŽODŽIAI: e nonimai, cho onimai, uk ainiečių kalba, lie u ių kalba, e imologija, kalbų kon ak ai, seman inė kai a, azeologija. 1. INTRODUCTION E hnonymic and cho onymic, lexicons make up dis inc ca ego ies in he ocabula y o mode n languages. I is an essen ial lexical laye , closely ela ed o his o ical and socio- cul u al aspec s o he exis ence o e hnic g oups and a eas, and o he people’s men ali y. Fo example, s udies on Sla ic e hnonyms ha e allowed esea che s o each meaning ul conclusions ega ding he e hnolinguis ic b anching o Indo-Eu opean languages (Ta anec 2013: 16). This has also p omp ed he need o a compa a i e s udy o e hnonymy, as well as cho onymy. Compa ing Bal ic and Sla ic language ma e ial holds special in e es . In ou opinion, i is app op ia e o inco po a e examples om o he languages, p ima ily neighbou ing ones, wi hin he Eu opean linguis ic and cul u al a ea, in he analysis. We’ll ocus on he names o Eu opean e hnic g oups, e hnonymic de i a i es, wo d combina ions wi h e hnonymic and close in essence cho onymic componen s, since (in a linguis ic and cul u al con ex ) no ional connec ion be ween e hnonyms and mos cho onyms seems o be ob ious, and also ph aseological uni s. The e o e, he objec i e o his esea ch is o desc ibe and compa e om a cul u al and his o ical e hnolinguis ic pe spec i e ac ual ma e ial o wo languages ha in he genealogical sense belong o di e en Indo-Eu opean g oups, namely Bal ic and Sla ic, as an example o a pa icula (albei ambiguous) “a eal and ypological simila i y” (Nepokupnyj 1964: 162). In his con ex , he co esponding lexical uni s o he Uk ainian and Li huanian languages appea o be indica i e om a linguo-cul u al poin o iew, e lec ing ce ain ea u es o e hnic men ali y, as well as consequences o language con ac s. The p ima y me hod used is compa a i e semasiological and, o some ex en , e hnolinguis ic analysis wi h a e e en ial app oach, aking in o conside a ion he seman ic and s ylis ic ambigui y o e hnonymic lexical uni s. 3 2. ETYMOLOGICAL REMARKS AND LEXICO-SEMANTIC ASPECTS 2.1. To ini ia e, weʼll go back o a well-known e ymological classi ica ion o e hnonyms, which p o ides o hei di ision in o wo main g oups: wo ds o ancien o igin “wi h los ini ial seman ics”, and “wi h e ymology ha has been p ese ed o acqui ed seconda ily” (Supe anskaja 1978: 83). The e o e, acco ding o his c i e ion, he Li huanians’ sel -name should be included in he i s g oup ( oge he wi h he names o La ians, Bela usians, Czechs, Macedonians, Slo enians, C oa s, No wegians, Danes, English, I alians, Spania ds, G eeks, as well as Hunga ians, Es onians, Finns), while he Uk ainians’ name en e s he (smalle ) second g oup (sel -names o Poles, Bulga ians, Se bs, Mon eneg ins, Icelande s, Swedes, Ge mans, Romanians, F ench, Po uguese, Albanians, Welsh, I ish, Sco s). I is wo h no ing ha among he nume ous e ymological e sions (known o us), conce ning he o igin o he name o Li huania and, acco dingly, Li huanians (Ponoma enko 2023: 24‒26), in ou opinion, he sugges ion o Simas Ka aliūnas (1995: 55, e c.), suppo ed by mode n esea che s (c . Dini, Subačius 2019: 104‒105), dese es special a en ion. Besides, he s udies o Uk ainian linguis s, i s o all Ana olij Nepokupnyj (1994: 290; 1998: 88 e c.; c . Skopnenko 2023: 32) es i y in i s a o . Uk . українці (Li h. uk ainiẽčiai) and Li h. lie ù iai (Uk . литовці) a e supposed o belong o ypical endonyms ep esen ing mos o he e hnic names, c . Uk . чехи, Li h. čèkai and Сz. Češi, Uk . болгари, Li h. bulgã ai and Bulg. българи, e c. In he Li huanian con ex , we should ake no e o he p esence o he (close o Uk ainian double ) o m uk a nai ‘Uk ainians’ and, acco dingly, he adjec i e uk a niškas ‘Uk ainian’, in addi ion o he “s anda d”, i.e. uk ainiẽčiai and uk ainiẽ iškas (LKŽe). The peculia ly Li huanian lénkai (Uk . поляки, Pol. Polacy, La . poļi) is hough o come om an (Eas e n) Sla ic backg ound (F aenkel 1962: 356; Smoczyński 2016: 896), being connec ed e ymologically wi h he Uk ainian his o icism лях (ЕSUМ III 343–344), as well as wi h bo owed names o con ac o igin in some non-Indo-Eu opean languages, like Hun. lengyelek and Gag. Lählä , belonging o he same e ymological nes . The able below is made on he basis o mode n lexicog aphic sou ces, and he p inciple o o de ing is mainly a eal. Table. Eu opean peoples: e hnic names E hnos Language Sel name Uk ainian name Li huanian name Uk ainians Uk ainian українці українці uk ainiečiai / uk ainai Bela usians Bela usian беларусы білоруси bal a usiai Russians Russian русские росіяни usai Bulga ians Bulga ian българи болгари bulga ai Macedonians Macedonian Македонци македонці makedoniečiai Se bs Se bian Срби (S bi) серби se bai 4 Mon eneg ins Mon eneg in Црногорци чорногорці juodkalniečiai Bosniaks Bosnian Bošnjaci босняки / боснійці bosniai C oa s C oa ian H a i хорвати k oa ai Slo enes Slo ene Slo enci словенці slo ėnai Czechs Czech Češi чехи čekai Slo aks Slo ak Slo áci словаки slo akai Poles Polish Polacy поляки lenkai Li huanians Li huanian lie u iai литовці lie u iai La ians La ian la ieši латиші / латвійці la iai Ge mans Ge man Deu sche німці okiečiai Du ch (people) Du ch Nede lande s нідерландці / голландці nyde landiečiai / olandai Flemish (people) Du ch Vlamingen фламандці lamandai English (people) English English англійці anglai Icelande s Icelandic Íslendinga ісландці islandai No wegians No wegian no dmenn норвежці no egai Danes Danish danske e данці / датчани danai Swedes Swedish s enska шведи š edai I ish (people) I ish Éi eannaigh ірландці ai iai Sco ish (people) / Sco s Sco ish Gaelic Albannaich шотландці ško ai Welsh Welsh Cym y валлійці alai / elsiečiai Romanians Romanian omâni румуни umunai I alians I alian i aliani італійці i alai F ench (people) F ench F ançais французи p ancūzai Walloons F ench Wallons валлони alonai Ca alans Ca alan Ca alans каталонці ka alonai Spania ds Spanish españoles іспанці ispanai Po uguese (people) Po uguese Po ugueses португальці po ugalai G eeks / Hellenes G eek Έλληνες греки g aikai Albanians Albanian shqip a албанці аlbanai Hunga ians / Magya s Hunga ian magya ok мадяри (угорці) eng ai Es onians Es onian ees lased естонці es ai Finns Finnish suomalaise фіни suomiai 2.2. One should also poin ou he seman ically peculia Uk . литвин, which has no equi alen in he Li huanian lexicon (excep o he su name Li inas). I is known ha his e hnic name is e lec ed in su names like Uk . Литвин, Литвиненко, Литвинчук, Bel. Літвінаў, e c. (Mo o a, Nepokupnyj 1989: 50–51; Laučiū ė 2004: 72–73), has been used his o ically no only o Li huanians, bu also o Bela usians and Uk ainians om he Polissia lands (SUM 499; SUM IV 494), and Rus. литвин could also e e o a Pole (Nepokupnyj 1994: 290). O he speci ic samples a e bo owings om Yiddish, such as Uk . литвак(и) and 5 Li h. l akai, c . Eng. Li aks (see F iedlande 1994: 243), his o icisms e e ed o Ashkenazi Jews who li ed in he Bal ic egion and neighbou ing Sla ic a eas. In he pas , collec i e names, such as Uk . литва, we e widely used applying o bo h Li huanians and Bela usians (ESUM III 245; c . H inčenko 1908: 363). In he las sou ce, we also ind he uniquely a ec iona e Uk . Литвонька. Conce ning Uk . литва in his o ical e ms, a well-known Uk ainian esea che o Bal o-Sla ic language ela ions eco ded he speci ic meaning o “ a eling ci cus people” (who came om he e i o y o he G and Duchy o Li huania), caused, in pa icula , by “e hnic in la ion” o he onym Литва, which was ex ended o a pa o La ians, Poles, Bela usians and Uk ainians (Nepokupnyj 1994: 288–291). Ano he his o ical meaning o Uk . литва (as well as Bel. літва and Pol. li wa) e e s o he designa ion o he g oom’s companions a he wedding, e lec ed in olk songs o he Uk ainians, Bela usians, and Poles (Nepokupnyj 1998: 88–104). The Eas e n Sla ic e hnonymic lexicon is cha ac e ised by he p esence o se e al pa ial synonyms, such as Uk . латиші ‘indigenous inhabi an s o La ia, he i ula na ionʼ and латвійці ‘ci izens o La iaʼ (Bel. латыши and латвийцы), c . Li h. lã iai and La . la ieši (a he same ime, pa ly synonymous names in he singula coexis in La ian: la ie is and, less equen ly, la is), as well as (on he one hand) Pol. Lo yši and (on he o he hand) Bulg. латвийци, Bosn. La ijci. The exonyms o Eu opean e hnic g oups in he wo compa ed languages gene ally ma ch he egis y, o example, Uk . албанці and Li h. albãnai (p obably o Caucasian o igin, c . Bel. албанцы, Pol. Albańczycy, La . albāņi, e c.). The di e ences can be seen in elling examples, such as Uk . німці (Bel. немцы, Pol. Niemcy, e c.) and Li h. ókiečiai, along wi h La . ācieši, espec i ely, o Sla ic (wi h some ese a ions) and, p esumably, Ge manic o igin. Howe e , i should be no ed ha he e a e al e na i e bo owed names, such as Li h. niẽmčius (Smoczyński 2016: 1119), pliùkas o ge mãnas (LKŽe). Uk . угорці (o Tu kic o igin) and he bo owed sel -name мадяри (Hun. magya ok) is ano he ins ance ha can be no iced, c . La . ungā i and (somewha obsole e and colloquial) maģā i, Bel. венгры and мадзьяры, Pol. Węg zy and Madzia zy/Madzia owie, while Li h. eñg ai is conside ed o be an ancien bo owing om Sla ic languages (c ., e.g., LSo b. Hungo y). Fu he mo e, Uk . фіни (o Scandina ian o igin, c . Pol. Finowie, Ge . Finnen and o he Sla ic and Ge manic names, as well as Hun. innek) di e s om Li h. súomiai (bo owed sel -name; c . Fin. suomalaise , La . somi, Es . soomlased). Ano he case in ol es acing o e hnonyms om o he languages, in pa icula Sla ic, in Bal ic and o he non-Sla ic languages, c . Uk . білоруси (Bel. беларусы, Pol. Biało usini, e c.) and Li h. bal a ùsiai, La . bal k ie i; one should also men ion he his o ical e hnic name gùdai, supposedly o Ge manic o igin (Ka aliūnas 2004: 146–150; c . Roback 1944: 104, whe e Ge . Gudde/Guddas ‘Pole, Li huanian o Russian’ is in e p e ed as “ob iously, a nickname o an Eas e n (no he n) Sla ”; c . Li h. dial. bál gudis ‘Bela usian’), o Uk . чорногорці (Se b. Црногорци, Bel. чарнагорцы, Pol. Cza nogó cy, e c.) and Li h. 6 juodkalniẽčiai (La . melnkalnieši, Rum. mun eneg enii, G . Μαυροβούνιοι o Tu . Ka adağlıla ). 3. SEMANTIC EXTENSION: COMPARATIVE PLAN Seman ic ans o ma ions a e a cha ac e is ic ea u e o e hnonyms due o conno a ions ha go beyond he limi s o he onomas ic sphe e. In his connec ion, we should men ion he heo y o And ej A. Beleckij, eliable Uk ainian linguis (Beleckij 1972: 190–191), who added a unc ion o indi idualisa ion o he concep o seman ics o p ope names, including e hnonyms. 3.1. Le us s a wi h igu a i e meanings o e hnonyms. Unde he condi ions o compa able non-closely ela ed languages, i is di icul o ace “pa adigma ic” pa allels ( he only excep ion is o his o icisms o in e na ional na u e, such as Uk . вандали o Li h. andãlai), since seman ic ex ension is in luenced by ex alinguis ic ac o s and is also con- nec ed o he p esence o e hnic s e eo ypes. Figu a i e meaning o ce ain e hnic names is a he cha ac e is ic o bo h (mainly colloquial) languages, e.g. Uk . турок (‘Tu kʼ) in he old egional meaning o “weedy pe son” o француз (‘F enchʼ): in some egions, a euphemis ic designa ion o a Jew, mos ly humo ous ( om he au ho ’s own obse a ions in he 60s and 70s o he las cen u y); c . Li h. ókie is ‘p o es an ʼ, u kas ‘non-Ch is ianʼ, e c. (Bu kus 1995: 223 e c.). 3.2. The e a e also simila examples somewha di e en in cha ac e , like Uk . (mode n) німець “Ge man-made mo o cycle” o швед(ка) “Swedish-s yle w ench”, he e we can s a e a kind o subs an i a ion o wo d combina ions wi h na ionali y adjec i es. In some ins ances, he meaning can be e minological: c . (bo owed om English) Uk . фін (a kind o spo s sailboa ) and Li h. inn (opposed o he e hnonym súomių). 3.3. Speci ic seman ic ans o ma ions equen ly apply o eminine wo d o ms o e h- nic names; in his ega d, ypical examples a e Uk . литовка (˂ Литва) iden i ying a kind o scy he, “ob iously, i e e s o he name o he a ea om which he scy he wi h a long s aigh holde sp ead” (ЕSUМ III 248; K egždys 2015: 150), as well as ano he i em (wi h he same name, om Pol. li ewka (SJP IV 172), inco po a ed in o a ious Eu opean languages): name o a uni o m (o jacke ) wo n du ing he Fi s Wo ld Wa . Uk . летовка, deno ing a a ie y o po a oes (ESUM III 227), is p esumably ela ed o Li huania. Ano he a ea is add essed in he case o Uk . шведка (шведська піч, li e ally: “Swedish s o e”) ‘b ick s o e o esiden ial p emises’, c . Li h. š èdiška ó kai ė. Such e ms o a a he cho onymic na u e associa ed wi h economic ac i i ies usually indica e ealia o igina ing in speci ic a eas, and hei names e lec hei geog aphical o igins. Fo example, hanks o he A abs, he Eu opeans go acquain ed a long ime ago wi h exo ic buckwhea and i s g ains: c . F . sa asin, I . g ano sa aceno. How- e e , some Sla ic and Bal ic names, in pa icula Uk . гречка, Bel. грэчка, Pol. g yka (also li ewka and a a ka, as well as Uk . татарка, c . he e hnic names like Uk . грекиня | гречанка, Bl . грэчанка, Pol. G eczynka), Li h. (o Sla ic o igin) g kis, g kiai (G i ėnienė e 7 al. 2022: 121), La . g iķi (c . Li h. g a kė, La . g ieķu) p esumably (since he p esence o he seme ‘G eekʼ is hypo he ical) poin o ano he way o he same cul u e o each o he e i o ies (c . also bo owed om Uk ainian Rum. h ișcă, c . g eakă, eminine e hnonym). The eminine gende o he wo d is explained in mos cases by he o iginal noun, which ell ou o use due o ellip ical sho ening o a wo d combina ion, as in he case wi h Uk . (collo- quial) болгарка (popula name o a g inding machine, i s ini ial samples a i ed in he 60s om Bulga ia); c . Az. bolqa ka, Uzb. bolga ka, e c.). When i comes o Li h. bulgá kė (slang name, opposed o he eminine e hnonym bulgã ė), men ioned in elec onic sou ces, i ’s mo e abou a seman ic acing. A he same ime, ealia like Uk . угорка (plum a ie y) o фінка (‘Finnish kni e’), in Li huanian a e called eng inė sly a, suomiškas peilis (Ibid.: 513, 530). In he con ex o he gi en examples, we can obse e ce ain “uni e saliza ion” o noun ph ases including cho onymic adjec i es. O he e ymological issues a e deba ed. Mo ing on o o he hema ic a eas, i is wo h men ioning, o example, a well-known dance gen e: (Eng.) polka. Acco ding o some e ymologis s (Václa Machek, Max Vasme , Pa el Che nych), i is o Czech o igin and i s name, used in mul iple languages, is no associa ed wi h e hnonymy, hus Pol. polka is de ined as “unclea ” in a mode n sou ce (Bańkowski 2000: 688). The e hnonymic connec ion is s a ed in he E ymological Dic iona y o he Uk ainian Language, acco ding o which Uk . полька (like some o he Sla ic names) “was bo owed, possibly ia Polish media ion, om Czech; Cz. polka is he esul o a seman ic modi ica ion o he e hnonym polka, besides, i is a “symbol o solida i y wi h Poland, which ough agains sa is opp ession” (ESUM IV 506). This is con i med o a ce ain ex en by he names aced in o he languages, including Li h. pòlka (DLKŽ1 606). The e is also a anspa en case wi h he names o polonaise, a musical gen e om Poland oo ed in Polish olklo e, in he 16 h cen u y, i became a cou dance in F ance and o he Eu opean coun ies; he e o e, he o iginal name was F ench, i.e. F . polonaise, bo owed in o he (including Sla ic) languages, and e en Polish i sel , c . Uk . полонез, Bel. паланэз, Pol. polonez, Li h. polonèzas. Ano he example o his ype is Uk . алеманда ‘F ench cou dance de i ed om Ge man oo s da ing back o he 16 h cen u y’ and Li h. alemándė as a so o calque. The in e es ex ends o composi es wi h o eign cho onyms, c . Uk . падеспань and Li h. padespãnas de i ed om F . pas d’Espagne, name o a ball oom dance inco po a ing Spanish elemen s ha has been known since he beginning o he 19 h cen u y. A he same ime, Uk . іспанський крок (F . pas espagnol) is one o he basic elemen s o ho se iding. 3.4. Diminu i e o ms ep esen a pa icula in e es . We can classi y hem as mo phologically and seman ically equi alen Uk . україночка and Li h. lie u ái ė ‘Li huanian gi l’ (Lybe is 2005: 391), bu signi ican seman ic di e ences can be de e mined, howe e , by compa ing, o ins ance, Uk . німчик and Li h. okie ùkas, which a e no only de oid o diminu i e o a ec iona e meaning: he i s wo d has a nega i e conno a ion (SUM V 425), while in he second case we can obse e se e al igu a i e meanings, in pa icula ‘ancien dance’ and ‘mush oom Rozi es cape a a’, which also encompasses o he “ olk” names: gudùkas 8 o u kas (LKŽe), c . some names in o he languages: Bel. турак, Se b. циганчић, C . сiganček o ciganin, Ge . Zigeune . No less in e es ing is he olklo ic use o Li h. okie ùkas / okiečiùkas e e ing o a de il, c . Pol. niemczyk (Roback 1944: 123). An example o plu alia an um is he popula name o a plan : Uk . литвинчики (H inčenko 1908: 363), o смілка литовська (La . Silene li huanica), c . Li h. lie ù inė nak žiedė, Pol. lepnica li ewska. G amma ical pa allelism and seman ic di e ences a es o he peculia i y o he his o ical e olu ion o mo phoseman ic means o di e en (al hough gene ically ela ed) languages. 3.5. Ano he pa o ela ional lexemes consis s o in e na ionalisms wi h his o ical “expe ience” (bo owed o mos languages, including Bal ic and Sla ic), e aining aces o cho onyms. Le us ecall, o ins ance, Uk . indigo and Li h. ind gas ( he e ymology is G eek), o he names o u quoise based on he seme ‘Tu kishʼ: c . Uk . (obsole e) туркус (Tymčenko 2003: 405), de i ed om F . u quoise (ESUM V 682), and Li h. u kis. Among he names o clo hes, we ind, o example, Uk . далматика and Li h. dalmã ika, c . F . dalma ique (NPL 1970: 284) o I . dalma ica (Zinga elli 2005: 494), coming om La in. Acco ding o a simila p inciple, a i icial e minological names o se e al chemical elemen s ha e been o med on a cho onymic basis, depending on he loca ion o disco e y: Uk . полоній, германій, францій, галій, рутеній and Li h. polònis, ge mãnis, áncis, gãlis, u ènis. I also seems expedien o men ion bo anical names wi h a his o ically condi ioned geog aphic na u e and ha o e lap wi h/come om some cho onymic wo d combina ions, such as Uk . персик and Li h. pe sikas ( his Chinese cul u e eached Eu ope ia Pe sia), c . La . pe siks, Pol. pie sik, e c. Zoonyms can be ep esen ed by names like Uk . індик, wi h seman ic equi alen s o simila i ies in many Eu opean languages: i can be compa ed o Pol. indyk, Bel. індык, F . dinde (based on he name poule d’Inde), I . gallo d’India, Tu . hindi; c . Li h. kalakù as (F aenkel 1962: 207). Mos names o his ype deno e b eeds o animals ela ed o ce ain coun ies o his o ical egions: c . Uk . далматин and Li h. dalma nas (La . dalmācie is; Pol. dalma yńczyk, C . dalma inac, Eng. Dalma ian, e c.). Some imes a name ela ed o ano he a ea o o igin sp eads, as in he case wi h F . spaniel ˂ OF . espaignol (NPL 1970: 284), c . Uk . спанієль and Li h. spaniẽlis, as well as Pol., Eng. spaniel, La . spaniels, e c. 3.6. Wo d combina ions and igu a i e exp essions can also be iden i ied as examples o me apho ical deonymiza ion o cho onymic idioms. Thema ic sec ions co e a ious sphe es o human ac i i y. 3.6.1. A signi ican pa o s able wo d combina ions belongs o he ca ego y o (in e ) language uni e sals. Many o hese ph ases ha e a his o ical (in pa icula , biblical) o igin. Nowadays hey a e used igu a i ely in many languages: c . Uk . єгипетська неволя, вавилонська вежа and Li h. Eg p o neláis ė, Bãbelio bókš as (G i ėnienė e al. 2022: 53). 3.6.2. I should be poin ed ou ha he e a e also in e na ional e minological names wi h componen s o a speci ic (close o e hnonymic o cho onymic) na u e: Uk . арабські числа and Li h. a ãbiški ska menys; Uk . турецьке сідло (ana omical e m) and Li h. u kiškas ba nas (in his case, he eason is jus ex e nal simila i y). 9 3.6.3. As i is known, an in e na ional sys em o La in names has been in oduced o sys ema ise bo anical names, and he e a e qui e a lo o samples wi h cho onymic componen s (wi h gene alised meanings) among hem ha pe ain o he plan ʼs o igin o ways o acquain - ing and assimila ion o a ious cul u es: c . Uk . пшениця польська (La . T i icum polonicum) and Li h. lénkinis k ie ỹs, Uk . китайський фінік and Li h. kniška da ùlė (c . La . Ķīnas da ele, Eng. Chinese da e), Uk . коноплі індійські (La . Cannabis indica) and Li h. iñdinė kanãpė, e c. Howe e , c oss-language compa ison can e eal di e en geog aphical e e ences o he name o he same cul u e ac oss languages, as well as demons a e a iabili y in e ms wi hin he same language: c . Uk . дуб австрійський (La . Que cus ce is) and Li h. u kiškas žuolas, c . Pol. dąb bu gundzki, La . Aus ijas ozols, Eng. Aus ian / Tu kish oak, F . Chêne lomba d / de Bou gogne / de Tu quie): his species is ound in Sou h-Wes e n Eu ope and Asia Mino . One o he pa icula ly e ealing se ies is ep esen ed by names like Uk . ( a ian ) грецький горіх and Li h. g a kinis ešu as (G i ėnienė e al. 2022: 117); simila names a e used in Romanian and o he languages, while, o example, in I ish he same nu is called “Gallic”, i can also be called “Ge manic” (as in Finnish, indica ing a u he mig a ion o an Asian cul u e owa ds he no he n di ec ion). The mos used Uk ainian name o his nu is волоський, which comes om Uk . волох ‘Romanian’, c . Pol. o zech włoski, li e ally “I alian walnu ”. So a , “na ional” seman ic con en in gene ic names o his kind may be blu ed. The same e e s o names-ph ases wi h cho onymic e e ences used o iden i y animal b eeds: c . Uk . перський кіт and Li h. pe sų ka , La . Pe sijas kaķis, Pol. ko pe ski, e c., Uk . німецька вівчарка and Li h. ókiečių a ganis (c . Bel. нямецкая аўчарка, Pol. owcza ek niemiecki, La . ācu ai u suns, Eng. Ge man shephe d) o Uk . німецький дог and Li h. ókiečių dògas (c . Ge . Deu sсhe Dogge, Bel. нямецкі дог, Pol. dog niemiecki, La . ācu dogs, e c.). 3.6.4. Na u al phenomena a e also e lec ed in some simila wo d combina ions. Li h. iñdiška ãsa a is he calque o Eng. Indian summe ; he e is no well- ounded explana ion o he “e hnic” o igin o his name, bo owed o copied in o he Eu opean languages (c ., e.g., Ge . Indian Summe o Sl . Indiansko pole je), pe haps i is an imp ession o he wea he expe ienced by Eu opeans in Indian lands. Mos Sla ic languages (as well as he Bal ic) ha e hei own exp essions, bo h wi h ano he e hnonymic componen (c . Bulg. циганско лято) and wi hou i : c . Uk . бабине літо and Li h. bóbų ãsa a (LKŽe). 3.6.5. Mos o he in e na ional medical ocabula y wi h cho onymic elemen s is comp ised o disease names: c . Uk . мальтійська (гібралтарська) гарячка (b ucellosis, o Medi e anean o igin) and Li h. Mál os ka š ligė o Uk . іспанський грип and Li h. ispãniškasis g pas, c . Uk . (colloquial) іспанка (SUM 408), e c. 3.6.6. Le us also explo e he spo s and ec ea ion sphe es. Se e minological exp essions can some imes eplace adi ional names in o he languages. Fo example, in mos o hem, “G eco-Roman” is he e m ( a he e hnical) used o desc ibe he classical s yle o spo s w es ling: c . Uk . греко-римська боротьба ( o me ly класична боротьба and Li h. g a kų- om nų im ỹnės, e c. 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