Baltic Layer in the Hydronymy of the Dnieper River Region

Ac a Linguis ica Li huanica 2026, ol. 94, pp. 1–19 Con en s link / Tu inio nuo oda ISSN 2669-218X (online / elek oninis) Copy igh © 2026 Alexande I. Iliadi. Published by he Ins i u e o he Li huanian Language. This is an Open Access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion Licence, which pe mi s un es ic ed use, dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal au ho and sou ce a e c edi ed. // Išleido Lie u ių kalbos ins i u as. Šis s aipsnis y a a i os p ieigos, pla inamas pagal „C ea i e Commons“ p isky imo licencijos sąlygas, leidžiančias ne ibo ai naudo i, pla in i i a ku i u inį be kokioje laikmenoje, nu odan au o ių i šal inį. Recei ed: / Gau a: 2026-05-05. Accep ed: / P iim a: 2026-05-14. 1 BALTIC LAYER IN THE HYDRONYMY OF THE DNIEPER RIVER REGION Bal ų kalbų sluoksnis Dniep o upės egiono hid onimijoje ALEXANDER I. ILIADI The S a e Ins i u ion “Sou h Uk ainian Na ional Pedagogical Uni e si y named a e K. D. Ushinsky” E-mail: alexand [email protected] ORCID ID: h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0001-5078-8316 Fields o esea ch: e ymology, compa a i e-his o ical linguis ics, gene al and ypological linguis ics. h ps://doi.o g/10.35321/all94-05 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ANNOTATION The esea ch aims o iden i y he Bal ic language he i age in he hyd onymy o he Dniepe egion. In pa icula , i dwells on he econs uc ion o he Bal ic lexical s a um, he exis ence o which is no a odds wi h he his o ical and a chaeological da a o he a eas unde analysis. The esea ch has esul ed in he econs uc ion o 50 lexemes ha a e belie ed o be pa o he ocabula y o he Old Bal s. Such a conclusion is subs an ia ed by he e ymology o he e iewed wa e names, explained by he ocabula y o he Eas and Wes Bal ic languages. Lexical econs uc ion is possible due o compliance wi h some condi ions o he e ymological p ocedu e: 1) highligh ing he s ages o Bal ic hyd onymy Sla iza ion wi h he desc ip ion o he phone ic and mo phological p ocesses, which accompanied he adap a ion; 2) sepa a ing Sla onic de i a ional ex ension as a mean o adap a ion o Bal ic wo ds in a o eign language en i onmen ; 3) de e mina ion o he ela ionship be ween he econs uc ed “Dniepe ” Bal isms and he a chaic ocabula y o he Eas and Wes Bal ic languages. Compliance wi h hese condi ions esul ed in (a) he singling ou o se e al ypes o pa allels linking Old Bal ic hyd onyms in he Dniepe a ea wi h he oponymy o he di e en Bal ic Languages; (b) he assump ion o possible P o o-Li huanian a ilia ion o he mos nume ous g oup o Bal ic lexical elics. KEYWORDS: e ymology, econs uc ion, p o o ype, e lex, he Bal ic languages, hyd onym, a ea. ANOTACIJA Ty imo ikslas – išski i bal ų kalbų pa eldą Dniep o egiono hid onimijoje. Vykdan y imą ypa ingas dėmesys ski iamas bal ų leksikos sluoksnio ekons ukcijai, ku io egzis a imas a i inka analizuojamų ie o ių is o ijos i a cheologijos duomenis. Ty imo ezul a as – 50 ekons uo ų leksemų, ku ios, kaip y a manoma, susijusios su senuoju bal ų žodynu. Šią iš adą pag indžia apž elg ų anden a džių e imologija, paaiškin a emian is y ų i aka ų bal ų kalbų žodynu. Leksikos ekons ukcija įmanoma laikan is kai ku ių e imologinės p ocedū os sąlygų: 1) iš yškinan bal ų hid onimijos sla inimo e apus, ap ašan one inius i mo ologinius p ocesus, lydėjusius adap aciją; 2) išski ian sla ų kalbos iš es inių o mų papli imą kaip bal ų žodžių p isi aikymo s e imos kalbos aplinkoje būdą; 3) nus a an ekons uo ų Dniep o egiono bal izmų i a chajiško y ų i aka ų bal ų kalbų žodyno są yšį. Šių sąlygų laikymasis lėmė (a) kelių ipų pa alelių, siejančių senuosius bal ų hid onimus Dniep o s i yje su ski ingų bal ų kalbų oponimija, išsky imą; (b) p ielaidą, kad gausiausia bal ų leksikos elik ų g upė gali bū i p iski a p olie u ių a mių pa eldui. ESMINIAI ŽODŽIAI: e imologija, ekons ukcija, p o o ipas, e leksas, bal ų kalbos, hid onimas, s i is. 2 1. INTRODUCTION: THE BALTIC HERITAGE IN THE HYDRONYMY OF THE DNIEPER REGION The Bal s who dwelled on he e i o y o he Dniepe basin in he second hal o he i s millennium BC (Vi kūnas, Zabiela 2017: 34–36, wi h he li e a u e), le he e no only he ma e ial aces in he o m o many a chaeological objec s, bu also a language subs a e in he local geog aphical nomencla u e. The mos signi ican expe ience in s udying his p oblem is p esen ed by he academicians Vladimi N. Topo o and Oleg N. T ubače ’s in es iga ions (Topo o , T ubače 1962) as well as in he wo ks by Ana olij P. Nepokupnyj (1981) and I ina M. Železniak (1987). Howe e , since hei publica ion, new sou ces ha e become a ailable o comple e he exis ing lis o Bal ic lexemes in he oponymy o he Dniepe Ri e egion. Un o una ely, his ma e ial has no ye been p ope ly assessed as e idence o he p eli e a e his o y o he Bal ic languages hus a . The eason is ha o a long ime he complex p oblem o Sla onic-Bal ic language con ac s in he Dniepe basin and econs uc ion o he ocabula y o he old Bal ic dialec s on his e i o y by da a o he oponymy has emained on he pe iphe y o he Indo-Eu opean compa a i e-his o ical linguis ics, whence comes he lag in i s de elopmen (unlike, o example, he ac i e sea ch o he old Bal ic hyd onymy in he Russian No hwes ). I is signi ican ha he p oblem o Bal ic-Sla onic language in e ac ion in he Dniepe , Don, Oka, Vis ula basins e c. is o ally passed o e in silence in one o he ecen majo wo k on he his o y o he Eas Bal ic languages by da a o hei con ac s (Jakob 2024), al hough a simila app oach o s udying P ussian-Ge man language ela ions and Old P ussian oponymy as a sou ce o he econs uc ion o he lexemes, los in he appella i e ocabula y, has long been p ac iced in he Bal ic linguis ic s udies (Topo o 1975; 1979; 1980; 1984; 1990; Blažienė 2023). Taking his in o accoun , any esea ch ocused on illing he gaps in s udying he Bal ic s a um in he Dniepe Ri e egion hyd onymy seems o be ele an . 2. PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVES The pu pose o he p oposed s udy is o single ou he Bal ic he i age in he hyd onymy o some ibu a ies o he Dniepe , namely – he Desna, P ipya , Psel, Te e e i e s, he low o which pa ly ou lines he bounda ies o Bal ic a chaeological cul u e a eas. The p econdi ions o his a e: 1) he hyd onyms o he Uppe and pa ly Middle Dniepe egion, he genesis o which has al eady been iden i ied in he wo ks o ou p edecesso s; 2) a la ge g oup he geog aphical names, which ea ly we e no in oduced in o scien i ic use ( o example, hey a e absen in he special esea ch by I. M. Železniak (1987); hey ha e no Sla onic e ymology, howe e show a s ong simila i y o he appella i e ocabula y and oponymy o he Bal ic languages. The s a ed pu pose is achie ed by sol ing se e al asks: – The e ymological analysis o he Dniepe Ri e a ea hyd onyms, which, on a numbe o o mal ea u es, en a i ely can be gene ically co ela ed wi h Bal ic ocabula y; – The econs uc ion o he Old Bal ic lexemes, sa ed in he Sla onic hyd onymy; – The de e mina ion o he phone ic and mo phological egula i ies ha accompanied he Sla iza ion o Bal ic hyd onymy a di e en imes; – The de e mina ion o he place o he econs uc ed lexemes in he a chaic dialec al ocabula y o he Bal ic languages. We p opose a numbe o e ymologies ha in oduce new da a on he language aces le by he Old Bal s in o he scien i ic use o Bal ic his o ical linguis ics, in he oponymy o he Dniepe a ea. I is abou he econs uc ion o he lexical elics o he language o he Bal ic popula ion, who li ed on he coas o he Desna, P ipya , Psel and Te e e i e s and hei ibu a ies (see he necessa y li e a u e abou Bal ic a chaeological aces in he basins o hese i e s in: Topo o , T ubače 1962; Železniak 1987: 93, 107–109). Acco dingly, he objec o he s udy is a numbe o wa e names, localised in he basins o he men ioned i e s. 3 The Bal ic genesis is iden i ied o : a) The Dniepe hyd onyms, which we e no gi en a en ion in he compa a i e- his o ical Sla onic and Bal ic linguis ics; b) The lexemes, which we e p e iously explained based on he da a o o he languages. 3. MATERIAL AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Today, we ha e a ai ly ex ensi e lis o Bal ic lexemes in he oponymy o he Dniepe egion; howe e , in ou iew, i can be signi ican ly expanded h ough he new da a. The esea ch basis is o med by oponymes, p esumably o Bal ic genesis, aken om his o ical documen s (geog aphical desc ip ions), he ma e ials o dialec ological and onomas ic expedi ions (OA), and he sou ces o he onomas ic ocabula y o he Sla onic and Bal ic languages. These oponyms, in hei phonomo phological cha ac e is ics, a e close o, o e ymologically iden ical wi h, Bal ic onomas ic and appella i e ocabula y. In o he wo ds, hey a e explained solely on he basis o he Bal ic language ma e ial, which is cha ac e ised by a pa icula o m o oo s and a ixes. Some me hodological p e equisi es o e ymology and econs uc ion o Bal ic p o o ypes. Acco ding o V. N. Topo o and O. N. T ubače , “<…> he e a e a numbe o indica o s, which [gene ically] may be bo h Bal ic as well as Sla onic o he same ex en . In his case, only he speci ic analysis, co e ing bo h he oo pa as well as he e y p inciple o he name, helps iden i y he old sou ce o his hyd onym” (Topo o , T ubače 1962: 159). This conclusion is ele an o he p oposed s udy. In his con ex , hyd onyms wi h common “Bal o-Sla onic” oo s and o man s a e no conside ed in he s udy, gi en he complexi y o iden i ying hei Bal ic a ilia ion. Con e sely, we accep o conside a ion he composi es wi h a se o componen s (s ems) which a e ypical o Bal ic hyd onymy, and also su ixal de i a i es om he oo s, a es ed in he Bal ic, bu no ound in he Sla onic languages. The “ ypicali y” and “a es a ion” a e con i med by da a om he compa ison wi h Bal ic ocabula y. 3.1. Bal ic e ymology is de ined o : – The hyd onyms-composi es and he su ixal hyd onyms, which ha e he ull- lexeme equi alen s a leas in one o he Bal ic languages; – The hyd onyms-composi es, which do no ha e he ull-lexeme coun e pa s in Bal ic ocabula y, bu such analogues a e ound sepa a ely o each pa o he econs uc ed hyd onymic composi e; – The su ixal hyd onyms, which do no ha e he lexical iden i ies in Bal ic ocabula y; howe e , he e a e hei equi alen s wi h a ian de i a ional mo phology. So, he Bal ic o igin o he names is likely, he e ymological composi ion o which is elucida ed exclusi ely by appealing o Bal ic-language ma e ial. Each case o he gene ic co espondence be ween he econs uc ed Bal ic lexeme and he his o ically a es ed oponyms and appella i e lexemes o he Bal ic languages is e i ied by echniques o compa a i e-his o ical linguis ics. The me hods used in he p oposed s udy a e as ollows: e ymological and compa a i e-his o ical (in pa icula , he ollowing echniques a e ele an o es ablishing he gene ic iden i y o he compa ed o ms, de e mining he ela i e ch onology o language phenomena, and econs uc ing p o o ypes). 3.2. The ch onological aspec s o he econs uc ion o Bal ic hyd onymy in he Dniepe a ea. The acquain ance o he Sla s wi h Bal ic hyd onymy was no a one- ime e en , whence is he a ia ion in he e lec ion o Bal ic sounds and g oup phonemes du ing he Sla iza ion o he wa e names. 4 3.2.1. The cases o ea ly Sla iza ion a e p esen ed by he o ms wi h he ollowing de elopmen . 3.2.1.1. Vocalism Bal . *a > Sla . *o: *Rasapē > Росопа; Bal . *ā > Sla . *a: *Mānas > Ман; Bal . *e > Sla . *e: *Up[a]leiā > Воплея; Bal . *u > Sla . *ъ (> [ø]): *Gu -ap- > *Гърапъ > Грап; *I upē > *Иръпа > Ирпа. A simila si ua ion is obse ed in he su ixes, c . de i a i es wi h *-uā. Bal . anlau *u- was e lec ed as * ъ- in he Old Sla onic language: he owel *ъ- could no s and a he beginning o he wo d, he e o e -p o hesis appea ed be o e *ъ, c . *Up[a]leiā > *Vъpleja > Воплея; Bal . *ū > Sla . *y: *K ūmas > Крымъ; *Mūkā > Мыка; Bal . *i > Sla . *ь (> [е], [ø] depending on he posi ion): *Gi dis > *Жьрдь > Жердь; *Pikils- > *Пьчьлсъ > *Пчелсъ e c. The si ua ion is simila in he su ixes, whe e *ь < *i los in a weak posi ion, c . examples wi h -i -, -in-. The ini ial Bal . *i- in Sla onic speech go j-p o hesis because o he impossibili y o he ini ial *ь- < *i- he e, c . *I upē > *Jь ъpa > Ирпа; Bal . *ī > Sla . *i: *Aldažīg- > Ладожига; *ī ia-aduā > Виревíдва; Bal . *a > Sla . *u: *Aušu ā > Ушвá; Bal . *ei > Sla . *i: *Eis a ā > Истровка; *Leiž-e as > Лизер(ъ)т; *eišada - > Вúсодова; Bal . *ei > * > Sla . *ě: *Sē inas o *Sē inā > Сѣтное. I is abou Sla iza ion o phone ically de eloped o ms, whe e P o o-Bal . diph hong *ei has al eady u ned in o na ow * . In his way his diph hong de eloped in Eas Bal ic speech, whe e * hen was con e ed o he diph hong ie, c . a simila la e de elopmen ė > ie in Samogi ian dialec (Zinke ičius 1980: 77). The same ea u e is a es ed in Bal ic bo owings in Russian dialec s (Anikin 2005); Bal . *an > Sla . *ǫ (> [u]): *Palangā > *Palǫga > Палужа; Bal . *in > Sla . *ę (> [’a]): *Išminč- > Смячъ-рѣчка (= *Смѧчь). 3.2.1.2. Consonan ism and clus e s Bal . *k, *g be o e *e, *ē, *i > Sla . *č, *ž: *Ne ēke - > Невечера; *Kibi - > Чибра; *Pikils- > *Пьчьлсъ; * e s-akis > Вересочь; *Degē > Дежа; *Gē ē > Жерева; *Gi dis > Жердь; Bal . *š > Sla . *š: *Ša a ā o *Še ā ā > Шáрова; Bal . *ž > Sla . *z: *Leiže as > Лизерт; Bal . * > Sla . * : * a -apē > Воропа; Bal . *š > Sla . *s : *Še a- > Свѣто-; Bal . *ia > Sla . *e: *ī ia-adu ā > Виревíдва. 3.2.1.3. G oupophonemes Bal . Ta T > Sla . To oT: *Da galis > Дороголь; *Nemaldu ā > Немолодва; Bal . Te T > Sla . Te eT: * e s-akis > Вересóч; *Gē ē > Жерева; Bal . *ald- > Sla . *lad-: *Aldažīg- > Ладожига; *Aldin- > Ладинка. 3.2.2. Examples o la e Sla iza ion. Some Dniepe hyd onyms ha e o ms ha a e phone ically close o hei Old Bal ic p o o ype (wi h *a, *u, *i, *a , Te T). These wa e names we e Sla icized a a la e epoch, when he co esponding phone ic p ocesses (see abo e) had been comple ed in Sla onic languages. C .: Bal . *a > Sla . a: *Še a-balin- o *Še a-alinē > Свѣтовалное; Bal . *u > Sla . u: *Dulupē > Дулюпа. Simila ly is in he su ixes -u -/-uč-, -u i-, c . *Rad-u iā o *Rad-u is > Радýта e c.; Bal . *i > Sla . i: *Žižmā > Сизма (in he ea ly Sla iza ion i would be expec ed *Сьзма > *Сезма wi h ocaliza ion o ь > е); Bal . *a - > Sla . a -: *A a-pal is > Артополот; 5 Bal . Te T > Sla . Te T: *e den- > Вéрдин; Bal . Ta T > Sla . Ta T: *Ža denā > Жарденя (in he ea ly adop ing i would be expec ed *Жереденя o else *Зороденя wi h aken in o accoun he comple e e ymological iden i y o Eas Bal . *ža das : Sla . *zò dъ, c .: De ksen 2015: 513); Bal . *ž, *š > Sla . z, s: *Leiže as > Лизерт; *Išminč- > Смячъ-рѣчка; *Ušnā > Юсенка. This also includes he o ms wi h he shi o “hissing consonan → whis ling consonan ” and he u he dissimila ion on oicing/ oicelessness (*Žižmā > Сизма), and he o ms wi h he lack o esul s o he 1s pala alisa ion o ela consonan s, c . *Kem-ūlis > Кемúль. In his las example, he ende ing o *ū as Sla . *y [ы] ins ead o he expec ed у [u] (like *Кемуль) in case o la e Sla iza ion is caused by he in luence o he s uc u al analogy o Sla onic oponymy wi h he ou come -ыль widely ep esen ed in he Dniepe Ri e basin, c . Войтыль (SHU 1979: 549), Горбыль, Бадиль (Che nigo egion), Кордиль, Бургиль (Sumy egion) e c. (OA). The phone ic adap a ion o Bal ic oponymy in Sla onic speech was accompanied by a ew mo e p ocesses. Aphae esis (*a-, *i-), c .: *Ala nā > Ларна; *Išminč- > Смячъ-рѣчка. P o hesis: (j-) *Ēnā ā > Єнава; *Ušnā > *Юсьна. Epen hesis: *Eis a ā > Истровка. The sound [ ] appea ed in he Sla icized o m o he hyd onym as he posi ional inse , c .: *os o ъ > *os o ъ, срам > диал. страм, Сретение > диал. Стретение. Nex , we will poin ou he example wi h l-epen he icum in *Ta piiā > Торóпля. 3.3. The mo phological aspec s o he econs uc ion o Bal ic hyd onymy in he Dniepe a ea. The econs uc ion o any Bal ic lexeme, sa ed in he hyd onymy, is made by aking in o accoun he ac o o i s de i a ional and g amma ical adap a ion in he Sla onic language. Consequen ly, in some cases, we can es o e he p imo dial o m o he Bal ic name unde he ollowing condi ions: а) when sepa a ing Sla onic de i a ional “laye ing” om he hyd onym, o example, o su ix -k- (Истров-ка, Ладин-ка, Рон-ка, Юсен-ка), -ец- (Могуп-ецъ); b) when aking in o accoun he esul s o e hinking he mo phology o Bal ic lexeme in he spi i o Sla onic de i a ional mo phemics, c . Bal . su . subs . -in-, -n- > Sla . su . adj. -ьn-; Bal . -uā > Sla . -ъ a, -ь a (a e sizzling consonan ); -aā, -ā ā > -o a, -a a, -ūlis > -ylь (-ыль), -mā > -(ь)ma. I is di icul o di e en ia e be ween he Dniepe hyd onyms wi h he o man s -aā and -ā ā, because in Sla onic use hey we e included bo h in he ca ego y o geog aphical names wi h -a a as well as -o a due o he p ocess o analogy. F om he e, and he condi ional cha ac e o he econs uc ion o he su ixal pa o some subs a e Bal ic lexemes. In some cases, Sla iza ion o Bal ic hyd onyms was accompanied by he pe cep ion o i s singula o m as plu al, c . sing. *[A]uslā > plu . Вýсла, -сел. He e, i is wo h ecalling conside a ions by V. N. Topo o and O. N. T ubače om he abo e-quo ed in es iga ion: “Gene ally, when sea ching o he aces o Bal ic hyd onyms, i mus be aken in o accoun ha hey may be disguised ou o all ecogni ion in Sla onic o m. This seconda y o m in i s u n is included in a numbe o ex e nally close Sla onic names, c ea ing a whole chain o he ansi ional hyb id o ms, conce ning which i is di icul o say whe e Bal ic ends and Sla onic o m begins” (Topo o , T ubače 1962: 159). This hesis is well illus a ed by he ma e ial se ou below, c ., o example, he ans o ma ion o Bal . * el-i-al- as Вуливáло, Веливела, Веливала, Вуливело, Вуливала, Валивала; * ida-lakis as Выдолочь, Видоличь, Видолочь, Wi olicz. The mo phological adap a ion o Bal ic ocabula y in Sla onic use was made by changing Bal ic g amma ical indica o s wi h hei gene ic analogues. The ac o s de e mining his p ocess a e: 6 1) In ui i e unde s anding o na i e speake s o he a ini y o bo h con ac ing languages, namely: app oxima ely he same p inciple o opposi ion o masculine and eminine gende (Bal . -as masc. VS -ā em. = Sla . -ъ masc. VS -a em.), gene ic ela ion be ween he sys ems o o man s in bo h languages; 2) The condi ion o Bal o-Sla onic bilingualism in a ce ain e a (such is assumed o he Uppe Dniepe e i o y; Topo o , T ubače 1962: 161, 162). The examples o he phone ic and mo phological subs i u ions in he Bal ic hyd onyms a e gi en below: ā-s ems (c . P o o-Li h. N. sg. *- ; Zinke ičius 1980: 189): *Eis -aā > Истровка; Ša -aā o *Še -ā ā > Шáрова; *Ušnā > Юсенка; ā-s ems (Bal . iā-s ems, so ype o ā-s ems; Endzelīns 1971: 141): *Ta piiā – Торóпля. This also includes he ype wi h *-ē (Bal . (i)ē-s ems; ibid.: 146), c . Li h. s ems wi h -ė): *Ras-apē > Росопа; *a -apē > Воропа wi h Wes Bal . *apiā, c . Old P uss. ape; *Dul-upē > Дулюпа; *I -upē > Ирпа (*Иръпа) wi h Eas Bal . *upē; *Degē > Дежа. The indica o -ē in iew o he ac ha i was impossible in he nomina i e o Sla onic Feminina was eplaced by -a. The e a e mo e complex cases, in which Sla . lexion -a could eplace Bal . *-iā as well as -is, c .: Велькуча = *ilku iā ( hen -ч- is na u al om j) o * ilku is (wi h a la e le elling by analogy o he ou come o oponyms wi h -ча, c . Вербча, Славча); Радýта = *Rad-u iā o *Rad-u is. The assump ion o bo h o ms is due o he p esence o se e al a ian s o his o man in he Bal ic languages. ( )ŏ-s ems (Bal . N. sg. *-a-s): *K ūmas > Крымъ; *Leiž-e as (~ Li h. e as) > Лизерт; *Ragas > Рогъ; *Mānas > Ман; ĭ-s ems (Bal . i-s ems): *A a-pal is (~ Li h. Pál is) > Артополоть; *Kem-ūlis > Кемúль; * e s-akis > Вересочь; * ida-lakis > Вúдолоч. The g amma ical indica o o he de i a i es wi h su . -(i)n- is impossible o de e mine due o comp ehension o hese names as he adjec i es, whose g amma ical gende in he Sla onic languages a ied depending on ag eemen wi h one o he o he opog aphical e m. C . Сѣтное ( he lake) behind which a e *Sē -inas o *Sē -inā. 4. BALTIC LEXICAL RELICS IN THE HYDRONYMY OF THE DNIEPER RIVER REGION 4.1. The Desna Basin *Al-a nā Ларна: «С. Лотоки при рч. Ларнѣ (притокъ Палужи)», he beginning o he 18 h cen u y (Laza e skij 1888: 366). The hyd onym keeps Bal . *Al-a nā “Flowing a na”, dis o ed in Sla onic e bal use (aphae esis). Rega ding he composi ion o he wo d c .: Li h. Alỹs – he lake, Al-ùpė, Al-upė, A- akas, La . Ala – he i e s ~ Li h. alė i ‘ o low’, ‘ o ickle’, ‘ o d ip’ (Vanagas 1981: 38) & La . Ā ni, Ā nis, Li h. (de i a i e) A nėnų km., Old P uss. A now, 1322 < {*a n-}, Th ac. Ἄρνη, Καλ-αρνα – oponyms (Topo o 1975: 104). The componen *a n-, appa en ly, belongs o he ype o “Old Indo-Eu opean” wa e names, being a PIE de i a i e wi h su . -n- om he oo *e -/*o - ‘se in mo ion, exci e’ (see: K ahe 1964: 45–46: A n-). The seman ics o *a n- is econs uc ed as ‘s eaming wa e ’ (Woudhuizen 2020: 49, wi h e e ence o Jü gen Udolph). *Alda-žīg- (?) Ладожига, 1786 – he i e in Che nigo icege ency (Ša onskij 1851: 215) = *Alda-žīg- (?), c . Li h. Ald kis, A dos ~ Th ac. Alda-, Dacian alda ‘humid place, swamp’) & Žỹgis (Vanagas 1981: 38, 402). *Ald-in- Ладинка: «С. Ладинка, при р. Ладинкѣ», 1765 (Che nigo egimen ; Laza e skij 1866: 38) = *Ald-in- ~ La . Àldiņi – hyd onym ~ Li h. Aldonà (Topo o 1979: 24: *eld-). 7 *A a-pal is Артополóт – name o se e al i e s: he le ib. o he Mnoga, he igh ib. o he Lysogo , he le ib. o he Sula, he le ib. o he Dniepe (Артополоть, 1785, 1852; SHU 1979: 24, Артополотъ, 1786; Ša onskij 1851: 525, 580–581); he le ib. o he Sula and he Dniepe (Артополотъ, XVI, Артаполотъ, 1769 e c. (SHU 1979: 24). Mode n science has wo e ymologies o he hyd onym. Now hey bo h need e ision, p ima ily in phone ics. 1. The I anian e sion, o which he au ho s o he s udies on he Dniepe hyd onymy appella e unc i ically. I is abou he e he p imo dial *Артапород = I an. *A a-po d ~ Alan. αρδ ‘God’ and Osse . o d ‘big i e ’ (S yžak 1963: 83–84). Howe e , his e ymology does no explain he easons o sa ing he ini ial *a -, which was subjec ed o me a hesis * o -/* a - (c . *o ky a > рокита, ракита) in Sla onic speech. Mo eo e , he mo i a ion behind he name “The God’s Ri e ” is doub ul. 2. The Sla onic e ymology implies eading he hyd onym as *Vъ o-pol ъ > *Вартополот > Артополот. P o o-Sla . *pol -, well p esen ed in Sla onic oponymy, is gene ically o ien ed o PIE *pel- ‘wide, b oad’ (Kazlo a 2000: 167–169, 170). The e sion is a gued by appealing o p obable aphae esis o в-. Howe e , i s ly, no only he sound в- is d opped in he dialec s, bu also к- and х-, he e o e, o he same ex en , he p imo dial p o o ypes *Kъ o-pol ъ and *Xъ o-pol ъ a e bo h likely. Secondly, в- d ops only be o e he nex labial owel, bu no be o e а. Thi dly, he Eas Sla onic e lex o P o o-Sla . * ь - (* ь ě i) always has e bu no a like in *варт- ( he e is only Belo uss. вярцець wi h ’а < е). An a emp o subs an ia e he a ian *Vъ o- by appealing o Pol. wa ‘wa e body’ does no con ince, because he Polish wo d is he e lex o P o o-Sla . * ь ъ wi h he no mal de elopmen *ь > a be o e he ha d . We would sugges ea ing Артополот as an elemen o Bal ic s a um in he Dniepe oponymy, i. e., as Bal . *A a-pal is “Close/nigh s eam”. C . Li h. a ùs ‘close, nigh’, a ‘nea , beside, nex o’ & La . pal s, pal e ‘puddle’, ‘ ain low’, and also econs uc ed Li h. *pal is, and hyd onym Pál is – name o he i e and lake (Smoczyński 2019: 1178–1179). See also (De ksen 2015: 61–62). P ese a ion o *a - in Sla onic use wi hou he expec ed he e me a hesis o Bal . *a - > Sla . *o - > * o - o * a - may be explained by he la e Sla iza ion o Bal ic hyd onym, which ook place in he pe iod when his phone ic p ocess had been comple ed in he Sla onic languages. Pleophony in he second componen a ose no phone ically because he hyd onym in iew o *a - p ese a ion was Sla ized la e , bu due o he analogy o Sla onic oponyms wi h he s em Полот-. P e iously, he Bal ic e ymology was se ou in gene al e ms in Alexande I. Iliadi (2025: 3). *Auš-uā Ушвá, -ú (Ушва, XIX) – he i e , a ibu a y o he Sejm, he le ib. o he Desna, he le ib. o he Dniepe (SHU 1979: 582) < *Ушьва = *Auš-uā – he de i a i e wi h he o man -uā om *[a]ušē ( ide in a). *Da g-alis Дороголь – he lake: «висше на усте чрезъ Десну реку <…> да по озеро Дороголь» (GS 1901: 256) = Bal . *Da g-alis, c . wi h a ian su ixa ion *Da g-el- > Li h. Dá gelė – hyd onym ~ da gùs ‘inclemen ’, ‘disgus ing, bad’ (Vanagas 1981: 80), da gà ‘ ainy wea he ’, dial. ‘ e ing’ (De ksen 2015: 115–116). Toponymisa ion o he appella i es wi h su . -el-, -al- (Li h. -elis (-ė), -alis); one o he meanings o bo h su ixes in he Bal ic languages is he meaning ‘ca ie o p ope y, a ibu e’ (Amb azas 2000: 176–177). The i e names wi h -alė, -alis cons i u e one o he mos nume ous ca ego ies in Li huanian hyd onymy, see: (Vanagas 1981: 80). 8 *Dul-upē Дулюпа – he i e : «Д. Ильбовь, на р. Дулюпѣ» (Laza e skij 1866: 422, 428) = *Dul-upē. C . Li h. Dùlpis < *Dul-upis, Dul-upỹs ~ Li h. dùlas, La . duls ‘g ey, ligh g ey, yellowish’ (Vanagas 1981: 96), and also d lia a (ibid.: 95). The second pa con ains Eas Bal . (Li h., La .) *upē < *up-iiā ‘ i e ’, ‘ low, s eam’ ← ‘ i e mou h’ (Smoczyński 2019: 1982). *Eis -aā Истровка: «Х. Истровка, на р. Истровкѣ» (Laza e skij 1866: 420), Is a ka, Íстрівка – he i e , le ib. o he Sno , igh ib. o he Desna, le ib. o he Dniepe (SHU 1979: 224) = P o o-Li h. *Eis -aā, c . Li h. Éis a a ~ Éis a (Vanagas 1970: 102: Éis -a a; Vanagas1981: 132). The o man -aā (< -o-ā; Zinke ičius 1987: 14; Amb azas 2000: 50) is singled ou in many Bal ic hyd onyms, pa o which is he ancien de i a i es (Vanagas 1970: 101). *Gi dis, *Gi d-e- (?) «до Жердеви къ Днепру <…>» – he i e in he Desna basin (Kie coun y in Kie go e no a e), a ian Жердь, -и (SNMKG 2005: 45, 241), «до реки Жерди», Że dź (SHU 1979: 195), Жéрдя (Że dź, Жердь) – he i e , igh ib. o he Zhi ak, igh ib. o he Go yn, igh ib. o he P ipya , igh ib. o he Dniepe , «с. Грибовая при впадении рч. Жерди въ р. Горынь», c . Жердя – illage in Cheme o e sky dis ic o Khmelny skyi egion (SHU 1979: 195) < *Жьрдь. I is possible o p ese e Bal . lexeme *gi dis, *gi d-e-, c . Li h. Gi dė – meadow ~ g dy i ‘ o wa e ’, gi dupė ‘ he i e , om which you can d ink’ (Vanagas 1981: 116), Gi dỹs – local name, Old P uss. Gi dewi higen (*gi d-e -i -) (Topo o 1979: 243). The a ian econs uc ion o he Bal . p o o ype is due o a lack o cla i y o he hyd onymic ou come: whe he -ев- e lec s he e ymological Bal . -e- o is i a Sla onic g amma ical ans o ma ion o Bal . *gi dis by he ype o ū-s ems (s em o he oblique cases is -ъ - > -ов-, dial. -ев-)? *I -upē Ирпа: «С. Сачковичи при р. Ирпѣ» (Laza e skij 1866: 692), Ірпá – he i e , he igh ib. o he Sno , he igh ib. o he Desna, he le ib. o he Dniepe (SHU 1979: 223). I is possible he Sla iza ion o Bal . *I -upē > *Иръпа > Ирпа (like Ръжавєць > Uk . Иржавецъ, c . «над рѣчкою Иржавцемъ», he beginning o he XVIII; Miako in 1896: 36). C . in Aleksand as Vanagas (1981: 131): Li h. I -upė is p obably ela ed o Li h. i ‘ o all, d op’, ‘ o all apa , desin eg a e’, ‘ o spoil’, ‘disappea , go missing’, ‘mush up, soak’. C . also de i a i e Li h. i is ‘abyss, bo omless abyss’, ‘maels om’ (Smoczyński 2019: 566). *Iš-minč- Смячъ-рѣчка, 1714 – he i e , he igh ib. o he Sno , he igh ib. o he Desna (DDH 1993: 229), Смячь, Смяч (KRU 1957: 94, 99, 183) = *iš-minč-, c . Li h. Mnčia – he i e name wi h an e ymologically ambiguous s em (mink-, men -?), see, o example, in A. Vanagas (1981: 216–217). *Kib-i - Чибра (Чибра, 1729–1730) – he i e ( illage Kh ipo ka o Go odnyansky dis ic in Che nigo egion; SHU 1979: 608). This hyd onym ep oduces Bal . *Kib-i - ~ Li h. k bi as ‘a small d y b anch’ (o his appella i e see: Smoczyński 2019: 706). In e ms o mo i a ion c . Ветка, Бабина Вєтка – he le . o he Dniepe (SHU 1979: 26) ~ ветка ‘b anch’ as ‘place, whe e he i e is di ided in a ms’. *La -aā Лотáва – he i e ( illage Shabalino o Ko opsky dis ic in Che nigo egion; Лотава, 1765–1769) (SHU 1979: 327; in Topo o 1990: 125): “needs u he esea ch”) = *La -aā, c . Li h. La a à ~ la - *‘ o low’ (Vanagas 1981: 182; Topo o 1990: 124, 125). The eason o he p ese a ion o sho su ixal *a in Sla onic use is he inclusion o his 9 hyd onym in he s uc u al ype o geog aphical names wi h -a a, c . *Dǫb a a, *Lǫka a, *Mo a a e c. *Leiž-e as Лізерт, 1977 – he lake ( illage Veliky Shchimel o Shcho sky dis ic in Che nigo egion; OA), mo e accu a ely is Лизерт = Bal . *Leiž-e as. In e ms o composi ion c .: Li h. Liež s – he lake ~ liẽž i ‘wash o (abou he i e , wa e )’; Li h. E ėja – he i e ~ La . ē e ‘wide place on he lake, whe e a e no islands ne eby’, Li h. e as ‘wide’, ‘b oad, ex ensi e’ (Vanagas 1981: 47, 190). Abou he an iqui y o e - see: (F aenkel 1962: 15; Ka ulis 1992: 271; LIV 2001 [1998]: 404; Smoczyński 2019: 395). The lack o pleophony in he second pa is puzzling (should be *Лизерет). I is no excluded ea ly con e gence wi h Sla onic geog aphical ocabula y and oponymy wi h * ъ -, c . * ъ ъ, *na- ъ ъ ‘ op’, ‘ op o he moun ain’ (ESSJ XXIII 21–22). Tha is Лизерт < *Лизерътъ? *Mag-upē *Могуп (as a pa o demin. Могупецъ, 1786 – he lake, connec ed o he i e Desna in Che nigo icege ency; Ša onskij 1851: 216) = *Mag-upē, c . La . Maģ-upe – hyd onym ~ La . maģs ‘small, li le’ (Vanagas 1981: 201). *Mānas Ман (Man) – he i e , he igh ib. o he Moshnia, he igh ib. o he Dniepe (SHU 1979: 351) = *Mānas, c . Li h. Món-a-balė, La . Māņ-upī e wi h he s em mon- < *mān- ~ La . manō, -ā e ‘ o low, un’ (Vanagas 1981: 219–220). *Ne-ēke - (?) Невечера, 1760 – ac (on he i e S a y Sejm in Che nigo egimen ; Laza e skij 1866: 224) = *Ne-ēke - (?) ~ Li h. Vėkė, Vėko kalnas ~ La . ēcis ‘such place, whe e ishmen lea e hei b eak as ’, Li h. eke ė i ‘ o plough wi h une en u ows’, ẽke as ‘ke ėpla, plow’ (Vanagas 1981: 370). *Ne-mald-uā Немолодва: «Д. Нижняя Злобинка при р. Немолодвѣ», «С. Дымово (куреня Дымовскаго) при рѣчкѣ Немолодвѣ», bu also ( wice) «<…> р. Немолодѣ» (Laza e skij 1866: 596, 609, 615) = *Ne-mald-uā, c . Li h. maldas ‘ eed’ and hyd onym Mald-upis (Vanagas 1981: 202). The ū-s ems, wi h which his hyd onym was iden i ied in Sla onic use, o en lose hei ma ke , whence is he second a ian wi h he loss o [в]. Abou Bal ic hyd onymy wi h su . -uā see: (Vanagas 1970: 211–214). *Pal-angā Палужа: «Д. Кибирщина при р. Палужи», «на рѣкѣ Полужѣ», «на рѣкѣ Палужѣ» (Laza e skij 1866: 747, 761). The name o mally co esponds o he Sla onic geog aphical e m палуж, c . Belo uss. dial. пáлуж ‘place nea meadow’, ‘meadow nea he i e ’, c . also he i e name Пáлуж – ibu a y o he Besed Ri e in he sys em o he Sozh ~ пáлуж ‘place nea meadow’ (Jaškin 2005: 485). Howe e , i is no excluded ha he ea men o his hyd onym as Bal . *Palang-, c . Li h. Palangà – wa e name along wi h he su ixless Li h. Palà – hyd onym ~ La . palas, paļas ‘ma shy sho e o he lake’, pali ‘ lood, low ide, lowage; wa e o e lowing i s banks in sp ing o au umn’ (Vanagas 1970: 91–92: Pal-angà; Vanagas 1981: 241). Abou he appella i e and oponymic de i a i es wi h his su ix, see (Endzelīns 1971: 119; Amb azas 2000: 149, 150, 151). Bal . *Palangā in Sla onic e bal use could be iden i ied wi h he de i a i es wi h p e . *pa- om *lǫgъ, *lǫž- ‘meadow’, i. e. as *Палѫга and hen – *Палѫжа > Палужа. A di e en iew (wi hou speci ics) is p esen ed in: (Topo o , T ubače 1962: 202 and abo e). *Pik-ils- (?) Пчилсъ, 1786 – he lake ha is joined by a s ai wi h he lake Выръ (Ša onskij 1851: 216, 217). Maybe, i is a w i e e o in *Пчелсъ = *Pik-ils- (c . mode n Звíздил alongside wi h his o ical Звизделъ; SHU 1979: 210). The name is no en i ely clea . Rega ding he 16 mo phemes. In hese e ms, he oponyms-composi es wi h Bal ic lexemes o he i e , s eam as he second pa a e e y indica i e, c . *Dul-upē, *I -upē, *Mag-upē, *Gu -ap-, *Ras-apē, * a -apē. The same goes o names wi h o he hyd og aphic e ms as he i s o second componen s, c . *Al-a nā, *Še a-balin- o *Še a-alinē, * e s-akis, * eiš-a-da - e c. Apa om pu ely s uc u al ea u es, hese compounds di e om Sla onic hyd onyms in he model o naming, c . “Flowing a na”, “Ligh pond”, “S eam om he swamp/lake” o “Flow wi h maels om”, “Flowing da a”, e c. As o he su ixal de i a i es, hen in cases o o mal simila i y be ween Bal ic and Sla onic o man s, Bal ic genesis o he geog aphical name is de e mined due o he o iginali y o he oo mo pheme exac ly o he Bal ic epe oi e o oo s, c . *Ab-aā, *Eis -aā, *La -aā, *Ša -aā o *Še -ā ā, *Sē -inas o *Sē -inā, *Ža d-enā, *Kem-ūlis. 6.2. E ymological analysis o he hyd onymy in he men ioned a eas gi es g ounds o he econs uc ion o i y elic Bal ic lexemes o di e en s uc u es. The de ails o hei mo phology a e mo e o less cla i ied when sepa a ing Sla onic de i a ional ex ension as a means o hei adap a ion in a o eign language en i onmen . 6.3. The adap a ion o Bal ic hyd onymy in he old dialec s o he Dniepe Sla s passed h ough wo condi ional s ages. Judging by he esul s o he phone ic assimila ion o he bal isms by Sla s, he i s coincides wi h he age o some impo an p ocesses, wi h he ebuilding o he phone ic s uc u e o Sla onic wo d and also changes in consonan ism and ocalism. The second e e s o he ime when all hese p ocesses we e comple ed; he e o e, Bal ic oponymy was Sla ized wi h minimal changes, wi h he excep ion o cases o he anlau ans o ma ion (aphae esis, p o hesis) and olk-e ymological e hinking o he s uc u e. 6.4. Mos o he econs uc ed Bal ic lexemes ha e s uc u al-e ymological equi alen s only in he Li huanian ocabula y, in he absence he eo in he La ian and Old P ussian languages. Howe e , he e is e e y eason o suppose he in oduc ion o new Old P ussian and La ian indings may a ec he ini ial conclusion o he speci ici y o lexical pa allels men ioned abo e. 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