Dust Lifting Through Surface Albedo Changes at Jezero Crater, Mars

1. Introduction The Martian atmosphere interacts with the surface, redistributing dust and sand particles (Kahre etal.,2017). Small particles are lifted by convective vortices and by strong wind gusts, and are subsequently transported before settling again (Basu etal.,2004; Kahre etal.,2006; Newman etal.,2002a,2002b; Vicente-Retortillo etal.,2018). The redistribution of small particles modifies the surface albedo (Reiss etal.,2010; Szwast etal.,2006; Wells etal.,1984). Abstract We identify temporal variations in surface albedo at Jezero crater using first-of-their-kind high-cadence in-situ measurements of reflected shortwave radiation during the first 350 sols of the Mars 2020 mission. Simultaneous Mars Environmental Dynamics Analyzer (MEDA) measurements of pressure, radiative fluxes, winds, and sky brightness indicate that these albedo changes are caused by dust devils under typical conditions and by a dust storm at Ls∼155°. The 17% decrease in albedo caused by the dust storm is one order of magnitude larger than the most apparent changes caused during quiescent periods by dust devils. Spectral reflectance measurements from Mastcam-Z images before and after the storm indicate that the decrease in albedo is mainly caused by dust removal. The occurrence of albedo changes is affected by the intensity and proximity of the convective vortex, and the availability and mobility of small particles at the surface. The probability of observing an albedo change increases with the magnitude of the pressure drop (ΔP): changes were detected in 3.5%, 43%, and 100% of the dust devils with ΔP<2.5Pa, ΔP>2.5Pa and ΔP>4.5Pa, respectively. Albedo changes were associated with peak wind speeds above 15m·s −1. We discuss dust removal estimates, the observed surface temperature changes coincident with albedo changes, and implications for solar-powered missions. These results show synergies between multiple instruments (MEDA, Mastcam-Z, Navcam, and the Supercam microphone) that improve our understanding of aeolian processes on Mars. Plain Language Summary Small particles at the surface of Mars are lifted and transported through interactions with the atmosphere, modifying the fraction of solar radiation reflected by the surface (albedo). We analyzed the first albedo measurements acquired at 1Hz and other environmental variables measured at Jezero crater, concluding that albedo changes are caused by dust devils under typical conditions and by a dust storm. The darkening of the surface induced by the storm is around 10 times larger than that caused in the absence of a storm by dust devils. Surface images indicate that this darkening is caused by dust removal. Only a fraction of the dust devils cause an albedo change, depending on their intensity, size and trajectory, and on the features of the small particles at the surface. The combined analysis of environmental variables, images and microphone recordings acquired by the Mars 2020 mission improve our understanding of the processes involved in the lifting and transport of small particles. VICENTE-RETORTILLO ETAL. © 2023. The Authors. This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs License, which permits use and distribution in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited, the use is non-commercial and no modifications or adaptations are made. Dust Lifting Through Surface Albedo Changes at Jezero Crater, Mars A. Vicente-Retortillo1,2 , G. M. Martínez2,3 , M. T. Lemmon4 , R. Hueso5 , J. R. Johnson6 , R. Sullivan7 , C. E. Newman8 , E. Sebastián1, D. Toledo9 , V. Apéstigue9 , I. Arruego9 , A. Munguira5 , A. Sánchez-Lavega5 , N. Murdoch10 , M. Gillier10, A. Stott10 , L. Mora-Sotomayor1 , T. Bertrand11 , L. K. Tamppari12 , M. de la Torre Juárez12 , and J.-A. Rodríguez-Manfredi1 1Centro de Astrobiología (INTA-CSIC), Madrid, Spain, 2University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA, 3Lunar and Planetary Institute, USRA, Houston, TX, USA, 4Space Science Institute, Boulder, CO, USA, 5Física Aplicada, Escuela de Ingeniería, Universidad del País Vasco (UPV/EHU), Bilbao, Spain, 6Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, Laurel, MD, USA, 7CCAPS, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA, 8Aeolis Research, Chandler, AZ, USA, 9Instituto Nacional de Técnica Aeroespacial (INTA), Madrid, Spain, 10Institut Supérieur de l'Aéronautique et de l'Espace (ISAE-SUPAERO), Université de Toulouse, Toulouse, France, 11LESIA, Paris Observatory, Meudon, France, 12Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA Key Points: • We identify surface albedo changes using Mars 2020 first-of-their-kind high-cadence in situ measurements of reflected solar radiation • The most remarkable albedo changes observed within seconds outside dust storm conditions were caused by dust devils • A multi-instrument analysis showed that the dust storm reduced surface albedo by more than 15%, primarily caused by dust removal Supporting Information: Supporting Information may be found in the online version of this article. Correspondence to: A. Vicente-Retortillo, [email protected] Citation: Vicente-Retortillo, A., Martínez, G. M., Lemmon, M. T., Hueso, R., Johnson, J. R., Sullivan, R., etal. (2023). Dust lifting through surface albedo changes at Jezero Crater, Mars. Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets, 128, e2022JE007672. https://doi.org/10.1029/2022JE007672 Received 14 NOV 2022 Accepted 12 MAR 2023 10.1029/2022JE007672 Special Section: The Mars Perseverance Rover Jezero Crater Floor Campaign RESEARCH ARTICLE 1 of 18 Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets VICENTE-RETORTILLO ETAL. 10.1029/2022JE007672 2 of 18 Since February 2021, the environmental conditions at Jezero crater (18.44°N, 77.45°E) have been monitored by the Mars Environmental Dynamics Analyzer (MEDA), the suite of meteorological sensors onboard the Mars 2020 Perseverance rover (Farley etal.,2020; Rodriguez-Manfredi etal.,2021). Simultaneous measurements from the Thermal and Infrared Sensor (TIRS), the Radiation and Dust Sensor (RDS), the Pressure Sensor and the Wind Sensor allow the study of dust lifting at the Martian surface by analyzing an unprecedented data set, including high frequency measurements (1–2Hz) of surface broadband albedo and temperature, wind speed and direction, downwelling radiation, sky radiance, and pressure. In addition, Mastcam-Z (Bell etal.,2021) and Navcam (Maki etal.,2020) images allow quantitative estimations of the spectral reflectance of the surface and provide additional visual context of the rover surroundings. Finally, recordings of the Supercam microphone (Maurice etal.,2021) provide additional information on winds during some periods for which MEDA winds are not available. Surface albedo changes have typically been analyzed using satellite measurements (Cantor etal.,2006; Fenton etal.,2016; Geissler etal.,2016; Reiss etal.,2016; Szwast etal.,2006; Wellington & Bell,2020; Whelley & Greeley,2008). These studies provide relevant information about the temporal and spatial variability of dust lifting processes. However, satellite observations generally lack contemporaneous near-surface environmental measurements and have a low temporal coverage at a given location. Albedo has also been studied using images acquired by landed missions (Baker etal.,2021; Bell etal.,2008; Charalambous etal.,2021; Greeley etal.,2005; Rice etal.,2018). Such images provide a good contextual view of the terrain but would require vast amounts of power and data storage if taken every second. Hence, albedo studies from imaging typically focus on spatial variations (rovers) or temporal variations within various sols (landers). The combination for the first time of high-frequency and simultaneous albedo and environmental MEDA measurements allows for unambiguous attribution of the atmospheric events inducing the albedo changes; in addition, environmental variables coincide temporally and spatially with these events, providing the pressure and wind conditions during the albedo change, which are useful for setting thresholds in numerical models; moreover, our multi-instrument approach includes an analysis of temporal variations in surface spectral reflectance from Mastcam-Z images, allowing to assess whether the albedo change is caused by dust removal or by redistribution of coarser grain sand. Jezero crater was affected by a large regional dust storm between sols 313 and 318 of the mission (Ls∼155°; 5–10 January 2022; Malin & Cantor,2022), which caused a significant change in environmental conditions. The rover remained at the same location between sols 287 and 328, providing a unique opportunity to study the surface albedo and temperature before, during, and after the storm. Section2 describes the Mars 2020 instruments that provided the measurements for this work and the methodology to analyze the albedo changes. Sections3 and4 are devoted to the surface albedo changes under typical conditions and during a dust storm, respectively. In Section5, we provide an overall discussion covering dust lifting thresholds, dust removal estimations, simultaneous surface temperature variations and implications for solar-powered missions. Section6 summarizes the main results. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Mars 2020 Instruments Used in This Work We used four MEDA sensors in this study, as described above. TIRS (Sebastián etal.,2020,2021) comprises five channels which measure downward (IR1) and upward (IR4) longwave (6.5–30μm) radiative fluxes, atmosphere temperature (IR2), reflected shortwave (0.3–3μm) radiation (IR3), and surface temperature (IR5). Channels IR3, IR4, and IR5 cover a surface area of about 3m 2 located less than 4m from the RTG to avoid thermal contamination (Pérez-Izquierdo etal.,2018; Rodríguez-Manfredi etal.,2021). These channels have a field of view (FOV) of ±20° in the horizontal and ±10° in the vertical, with a pointing elevation of ±35°. FigureS1 illustrates the TIRS FOV. The RDS has two sets of eight photodiodes. The TOP photodiodes point toward the zenith and include a detector (TOP7) with a hemispheric FOV that measures downwelling shortwave radiation between 190 and 1,100nm (Apéstigue etal.,2022; Rodríguez-Manfredi etal.,2021). The second set of photodiodes (LAT) point at an elevation of 20° (or 35° for LAT8), pointing at azimuth angles separated 45° (note that LAT1 is blind and is used to characterize the degradation due to the radiation environment); approximately, LAT1, LAT 3, LAT5, and LAT7 point toward the front, left, rear and right of the rover, respectively; the pointing directions of the lateral channels are illustrated in Apéstigue etal.(2022), Newman etal.(2022), and Toledo etal.(2023). The 21699100, 2023, 4, Downloaded from https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2022JE007672 by Universidad del Pais Vasco, Wiley Online Library on [15/05/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets VICENTE-RETORTILLO ETAL. 10.1029/2022JE007672 3 of 18 wind sensor consists of two booms at about 1.5m above the ground, separated by 120° in azimuth to mitigate the effects of hardware interfering with the flow (Rodríguez-Manfredi etal.,2021). These variables are complemented by measurements with the pressure sensor (Harri etal.,2014). MEDA albedo measurements were complemented by images acquired by the Mastcam-Z and Navcam cameras. Mastcam-Z is a stereo imaging system that uses a pair of CCD cameras with superimposed red, green, and blue filtered microlenses arranged in a Bayer pattern (Bell etal.,2021). The two Navcams (navigation cameras) acquire color stereo images of the surface with a 96°×73° FOV (Maki etal.,2020). The Supercam microphone records air pressure fluctuations with a sampling rate up to 100,000Hz at a height of ∼2.1m above the Martian surface (Maurice etal.,2021). The microphone can be considered as a high frequency wind speed sensor because the intensity of the microphone signal in the 20Hz to 1kHz bandwidth is strongly correlated with the wind speed (Chide etal.,2021; Maurice etal.,2021). 2.2. Detection of Albedo Changes and Dust Devil Encounters We use the ratio between TIRS IR3 and RDS TOP7 measurements as a proxy for surface albedo (note that the values do not correspond to the actual albedo because TIRS and RDS measure in different spectral bands, but it is valid for our purpose of analyzing relative temporal variations; actual albedo values accounting for the difference in bands are shown in Martínez etal.,2023). We have applied two different methods to detect albedo changes. The first relies on sol-to-sol comparisons of albedo values at different local times centered at noon. The main advantage of this method is that it allows the detection of albedo changes even if the albedo change took place while the albedo was not being measured (during nighttime or when MEDA is powered off). When the rover drives are frequent, sol-to-sol comparisons at a given location are scarce, not allowing the detection of surface albedo temporal changes. MEDA measurements show the passage of numerous convective vortices close to the rover, which are detected as pressure drops (Hueso etal.,2023; Newman etal.,2022). Some of these drops are accompanied by a decrease in downward shortwave radiation and changes in sky brightness, indicating that the convective vortex contains significant dust, which must have been lifted previously from the surface, and is therefore a dust devil. The second method to detect albedo changes relies on the analysis of simultaneous measurements of pressure, radiation, sky brightness, and wind to identify the dust devils that are more likely to have affected the closest surroundings of the rover and compare the albedo in the surface portion covered by TIRS before and after the passage of each of these dust devils. In order to estimate the albedo change with this second method, we perform the following steps. First, we select the measurement session corresponding to each of these dust devils. Then, we calculate two 2nd-degree polynomial fits, one for the measurements at the beginning of the session and 1minute before the pressure drop induced by the dust devil, and another one for the measurements between 1minute after the pressure drop and the end of the session. The selection of a 2nd-degree polynomial allows a good fit to the albedo observations, which show a marked parabolical diurnal evolution (Martínez etal.,2023). Then, we assess the occurrence of an albedo change by calculating two values: The difference between the measurements acquired between 1 and 5min before and after the pressure drop and the polynomial fits obtained from the measurements after and before the pressure drop, respectively. Then, we visually inspect the measurements and the fits and determine the most reliable value (when the number of measurements between the pressure drop and any of the extremes of the session is small, the polynomial obtained with those measurements may not fit well the remaining of the session; this also applies when there is rover motion during the session). If both values are reliable, we follow a conservative approach and select the one showing a smaller albedo change. Since we are analyzing relative variations within minutes, the uncertainty of the albedo change is estimated from the standard deviation of the differences between the measurements and the fits, which is 0.10%–0.15%. In some cases when the dust devil passage occurred close to the extremes of the session or to rover motion or under conditions of high variability in radiation measurements, the assessment of the albedo change was not conclusive (N.C.). Finally, we list the unambiguous albedo changes, defined as those exceeding 0.5%. This threshold has been selected to maximize the confidence in the detected changes, since it is above three times larger than the estimated uncertainty in the albedo change, and therefore the distributions of the individual (1Hz) measurements before and after the albedo change are unambiguously distinguishable; a lower threshold could lead to the inclusion of false positives, and a higher threshold could lead to the lack of identification of subtle actual albedo changes. 21699100, 2023, 4, Downloaded from https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2022JE007672 by Universidad del Pais Vasco, Wiley Online Library on [15/05/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets VICENTE-RETORTILLO ETAL. 10.1029/2022JE007672 4 of 18 2.3. Analysis of Surface Albedo From Mastcam-Z Observations MEDA measurements are extremely useful for the study of the environmental conditions that can cause a surface albedo change. However, they do not provide information on whether the albedo change was caused by dust removal or by redistribution of coarser sands. In order to address this question, we use Mastcam-Z observations. These observations allow the identification of albedo changes by comparing images of the same target acquired under very similar conditions. In addition, they provide information on the spectral reflectance using the blue, green and red Bayer filters, characterized by effective wavelengths of 480, 544, and 630nm (respectively) and half-width at half-maximum values between 41 and 46nm (Bell etal.,2021; Merusi etal.,2022). From these three reflectance values it is possible to calculate the green Bayer filter band depth in a way analogous to Jacob etal.(2020): BD 𝑔𝑔=1− ( 𝑅𝑅 ∗ 544 ∕ ( 0.573 ⋅𝑅𝑅 ∗ 480 +0.427 ⋅𝑅𝑅 ∗ 630)) (1) R* is the relative reflectance, which is the radiance factor (the ratio between the scene radiance and the total solar irradiance) divided by the solar incidence angle (Reid etal.,1999; Rice etal.,2022). This spectral parameter is related to a ferric iron absorption band which is typically present in dusty surfaces (e.g., Farrand etal.,2006; Johnson, Grundy, etal.,2006; Morris etal.,2000; Rice etal.,2022). Hence, temporal changes in dust cover at the surface can be monitored using a combination of variations in the green Bayer filter band depth images and overall visible changes in surface spectral and spatial properties. 3. Surface Albedo Changes in the Absence of Dust Storms In this section, we study the surface albedo changes detected during the first 350 sols of the Mars 2020 mission, excluding sols 313 to 318, when the rover was affected by a dust storm (Section4). During the period outside the dust storm, sol-to-sol comparisons of albedo values have allowed the detection of several unambiguous surface albedo changes. Most of the changes in the TIRS IR3 to RDS TOP7 ratio were caused by a change in the rover position or by the motion of the robotic arm or the remote sensing mast. However, some of these changes were not explained by these factors, indicating actual albedo changes in the region observed by TIRS. Analysis of albedo measurements revealed that surface changes occurred suddenly (within a few seconds) and were persistent. Figure1 shows an example of an albedo change on sol 57 (other albedo changes are listed in Table1). The top left panel shows the albedo measurements on sol 57 (red); the comparison with nearby sols (55 and 59) shows an unambiguous decrease in albedo. The panel on the right shows the environmental variables for the 2minutes surrounding the pressure minimum of the dust devil that caused the change in albedo: the dust devil, characterized by a pressure drop above 2.5Pa (a), induced a reduction in surface brightness attributed to dust removal that is indicated by the relative differences between the downward (blue) and reflected (green) shortwave fluxes (b) after the dust devil encounter; the pressure drop is coincident with simultaneous changes in sky brightness detected by various lateral channels (c), which primarily indicate increased scattering from a briefly dusty region of atmosphere, and with a peak in wind speed (d), indicating that the dust devil surrounded the rover; (e) shows the decrease in surface temperature and the increase in downwelling longwave radiation, attributed to the lofting of small particles by the convective vortex. The bottom left panel corresponds to a Navcam image showing the TIRS FOV at that location. We note that all of a sudden and persistent albedo changes showed similar simultaneous pressure drops, indicating that they were caused by dust devils. This suggests that albedo changes caused by wind gusts are less frequent during the period covering the first 350 sols of the mission outside the dust storm. Although none of the unambiguous albedo changes in the surface observed by TIRS occurred in the absence of a dust devil, a distant gust lifting event was observed at Jezero on sol 117 (Newman etal.,2022). We have detected more than 80 dust devils (some of them corresponding to the dust storm period) for which environmental variables suggest that they surrounded the rover or at least passed at a distance small enough to be detected simultaneously in pressure and various LAT channels (like in Figures1a and1c). We analyzed the surface albedo around these events, concluding that 12 of them showed unambiguous (>0.5%) albedo changes. Table1 summarizes the features of the selected dust devils that could induce changes in surface albedo based on their proximity to the rover; terrain properties are also included (Martínez etal.,2023). The change of each variable is calculated as the maximum difference within 30s of the pressure minimum between observations and a fit obtained using a moving median with a temporal window of 2minutes. The magnitude of the changes and of the processed maximum wind speeds could be interpreted as a lower bound. In the case of wind speed, processed data (archived in the NASA Planetary Data System as DER_WS files) at any moment are obtained from the 21699100, 2023, 4, Downloaded from https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2022JE007672 by Universidad del Pais Vasco, Wiley Online Library on [15/05/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets VICENTE-RETORTILLO ETAL. 10.1029/2022JE007672 5 of 18 boom that most closely points into the incoming winds (the one less affected by the rover) and after the removal of wind speed variations above 5m/s within one second (Newman etal.,2022). The selection of 5m/s can be justified by analyzing the measured wind speed changes within 1s from both booms (measurements from both booms are archived as CAL_WS files), obtaining a three-sigma value of 4m/s from a distribution of around 10 million measurements. The removal of these strong variations in wind speed causes some gaps in the data set; we have represented the wind measurements for each dust devil, and we have specified the cases for which gaps are contiguous to the maximum wind speed. Wind speed measurements are included until the dust storm, when sand grain impacts during this period of increased aeolian activity damaged the MEDA wind sensor. As shown in Table1, the albedo changes induced by dust devils are between 0.5% and 2.1%. All of the unambiguous changes correspond to a decrease in albedo; the implications of this behavior are further discussed in Sections4 and5. A common feature of the dust devils that caused an albedo change is their intensity, indicated by pressure drops and wind speeds above average. The majority of the dust devils causing albedo changes showed pressure drops greater than 2.5Pa (indicating that these were strong events; Newman etal.,2022) and peak wind speeds above 15m/s. In addition, most of these dust devils lifted large amounts of dust, leading to decreases in downwelling solar radiation of typically around 10% but up to 25%. However, there are various dust devils with similar features that have not caused a clear change in albedo. This will be discussed further in Section5. 4. Surface Albedo Changes During the Dust Storm During the first week of 2022, a large regional dust storm moved north from southern mid-latitudes, crossed the equator and affected the Jezero crater (Malin & Cantor,2022). During this storm, dust opacities at 880nm Figure 1. (top left) Surface albedo between 10:45 and 11:15 LTST on sols 55 (gray), 57 (red), and 59 (black) of the Mars 2020 mission. There is a sudden albedo change on sol 57, which is caused by a dust devil. (Bottom left) Navcam image showing the Thermal and Infrared Sensor (TIRS) field of view (FOV) and its surroundings at the rover's location between sols 52 and 65 (see FigureS1 for additional details on the TIRS FOV at selected locations). Details in Table2. (right) Environmental variables measured by Mars Environmental Dynamics Analyzer during the passage of the dust devil that caused the albedo change: (a) pressure; (b) shortwave downward (blue) and reflected (green) radiation; (c) normalized measurements of the RDS lateral channels 2, 3, 7, and 8; the rover was heading toward the South, implying that the channels are approximately pointing toward the Southeast, East, West and Southwest, respectively; (d) wind speed; (e) downward longwave radiation (blue) and surface temperature (green). The reader is referred to the text for the interpretation of these panels. 21699100, 2023, 4, Downloaded from https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2022JE007672 by Universidad del Pais Vasco, Wiley Online Library on [15/05/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets VICENTE-RETORTILLO ETAL. 10.1029/2022JE007672 6 of 18 Table 1 Features of the Selected Dust Devils That Could Induce Changes in Surface Albedo Based on Their Proximity to the Rover Sol LTST ΔAlbedo (%) ΔP (Pa) ΔDSW (%) ΔT (K) WS (m/s) Albedo at noon TI (tiu) 32 13.85 <|−0.5| −0.7 −0.1 −0.6 – – – 34 12.5 <|−0.5| −2.0 −0.9 <|−0.2| – – – 37 14.23 <|−0.5| −1.2 −1.0 −0.3 >18.3 0.12 310 37 14.47 <|−0.5| −0.6 −0.2 <|−0.2| 14.2 0.12 310 45 11.56 <|−0.5| −0.4 −1.0 <|−0.2| – 0.12 310 45 12.98 <|−0.5| −0.4 −4.9 −0.3 >15.8 0.12 310 48 13.74 <|−0.5| −0.4 −0.6 <|−0.2| 8.6 – – 57 10.98 −1.5 −2.8 −13.9 −1.1 15.9 0.12 350 57 12.65 <|−0.5| −3.4 −13.1 −0.3 >18.0 0.12 350 61 12.66 <|−0.5| −1.5 −0.4 <|−0.2| 11.8 0.12 350 71 12.96 <|−0.5| −0.7 −1.3 <|−0.2| 13.6 – – 81 12.94 <|−0.5| −1.3 −2.2 <|−0.2| 11.0 0.12 315 82 12.08 −2.1 −5.6 −12.7 −1.8 19.0 0.12 320 84 10.78 <|−0.5| −3.4 −2.4 −0.7 18.4 – – 85 15.58 <|−0.5| −2.2 −1.2 <|−0.2| 15.3 0.12 365 89 14.97 N.C. −2.8 −2.9 −0.3 – 0.13 700 99 15.27 <|−0.5| −2.3 −1.7 <|−0.2| – – – 106 13.01 N.C. −2.1 −2.8 −0.3 18.9 0.13 180 106 13.03 N.C. −0.6 −2.7 <|−0.2| 9.8 0.13 180 110 14.54 <|−0.5| −3.1 −1.6 <|−0.2| >13.4 – – 111 13.63 <|−0.5| −0.6 −0.7 <|−0.2| 15.9 0.13 290 112 12.45 −0.7 −1.4 −1.5 −0.6 17.2 0.13 290 113 13.97 N.C. −1.1 −0.9 <|−0.2| 13.6 – – 114 11.05 <|−0.5| −0.4 −2.3 <|−0.2| 11.2 0.12 265 117 12.73 <|−0.5| −0.4 −0.4 <|−0.2| 16.0 0.14 325 119 11.71 <|−0.5| −3.6 −3.1 −0.6 16.0 0.14 330 125 13.11 <|−0.5| −1.5 −0.7 <|−0.2| - 0.16 605 128 12.36 −0.5 −3.5 −7.2 −0.5 22.4 – – 160 10.99 <|−0.5| −1.0 −0.4 <|−0.2| 9.1 0.12 380 161 13.96 −0.8 −3.9 −6.5 −0.3 >16.8 0.12 365 166 13.09 −0.6 −5.0 −12.9 −1.2 22.4 – – 169 11.79 <|−0.5| −0.4 −1.4 −0.3 13.1 – – 173 15.64 −0.6 −0.6 −1.6 −0.5 21.0 – – 174 10.92 <|−0.5| −2.2 −2.8 −0.3 >15.8 0.12 275 177 11.64 <|−0.5| −2.0 −4.1 <|−0.2| 10.9 – – 179 10.85 <|−0.5| −0.4 −2.7 <|−0.2| 13.9 – – 184 12.88 <|−0.5| −2.1 −4.0 −0.7 18.3 – – 187 12.12 <|−0.5| −0.6 −1.2 <|−0.2| 12.2 0.12 230 188 13.1 <|−0.5| −2.8 −4.6 −0.8 20.8 0.12 230 197 15.45 <|−0.5| −1.1 −0.8 <|−0.2| 16.6 0.12 225 198 11 <|−0.5| −1.5 −1.6 −0.3 >17.0 0.12 230 208 12.6 <|−0.5| −4.3 −1.4 −0.5 >18.3 – – 211 12 <|−0.5| −2.6 −3.3 −0.6 >16.1 0.14 425 21699100, 2023, 4, Downloaded from https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2022JE007672 by Universidad del Pais Vasco, Wiley Online Library on [15/05/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets VICENTE-RETORTILLO ETAL. 10.1029/2022JE007672 7 of 18 Table 1 Continued Sol LTST ΔAlbedo (%) ΔP (Pa) ΔDSW (%) ΔT (K) WS (m/s) Albedo at noon TI (tiu) 213 12.24 N.C. −2.3 −21.0 −0.8 24.6 – – 213 12.34 <|−0.5| −0.8 −0.6 −0.4 >23.6 – – 215 10.31 <|−0.5| −0.3 −4.9 −0.2 12.2 0.14 410 215 11.04 <|−0.5| −1.9 −0.7 <|−0.2| 10.7 0.14 410 237 11.61 <|−0.5| −1.7 −8.5 <|−0.2| >8.2 0.14 425 242 13.49 −0.5 −2.6 −1.3 −0.2 17.8 0.12 700 265 11.95 <|−0.5| −0.5 −2.8 <|−0.2| 14.7 0.13 375 265 12.01 <|−0.5| −1.0 −0.9 <|−0.2| 18.5 0.13 375 266 11.18 <|−0.5| −0.4 −0.5 <|−0.2| 15.77 0.14 370 271 11.76 <|−0.5| −0.5 −1.7 <|−0.2| 9.3 0.13 375 280 11.42 <|−0.5| −1.9 −0.6 <|−0.2| 13.5 – – 280 13.5 <|−0.5| −3.0 −5.8 −0.5 15.7 – – 284 10.62 −0.8 −4.8 −10.0 −3.0 >14.5 – – 284 13.19 <|−0.5| −1.9 −12.1 −1.4 >15.0 – – 305 13.64 <|−0.5| −4.3 −6.9 −1.2 >12.7 0.11 295 306 11.12 <|−0.5| −3.8 - −0.9 >18.5 0.11 300 309 14.42 <|−0.5| −2.9 −0.9 <|−0.2| 14.7 0.11 290 310 14.94 <|−0.5| −1.1 −0.5 <|−0.2| 10.3 0.11 305 311 12.29 −1.3 −4.6 −24.9 −1.8 >14.3 0.11 290 313 10.38 <|−0.5| −0.4 −2.4 −0.9 24.7 0.11 310 314 10.99 N.C. −2.1 −7.5 −0.9 – 0.11 320 315 10.01 <|−0.5| −1.0 −2.7 −0.4 – 0.11 315 315 10.58 <|−0.5| −1.5 −4.7 −0.3 – 0.11 315 315 12.41 <|−0.5| −0.9 −1.9 <|−0.2| – 0.11 315 316 13.57 <|−0.5| −0.4 −3.2 <|−0.2| – 0.10 330 316 14.63 <|−0.5| −0.6 −2.5 <|−0.2| – 0.10 330 320 13.49 <|−0.5| −0.4 −0.4 −0.2 – 0.09 315 320 13.97 <|−0.5| −0.7 −0.5 <|−0.2| – 0.09 315 321 15.02 <|−0.5| −2.4 −1.1 <|−0.2| – 0.09 315 321 15.14 <|−0.5| −2.3 −2.3 −0.4 – 0.09 315 323 11.93 <|−0.5| −1.5 −2.0 −0.4 – 0.09 315 323 15.83 <|−0.5| −2.2 −0.9 <|−0.2| – 0.09 315 324 15.22 <|−0.5| −1.9 −2.8 <|−0.2| – 0.09 325 325 13.4 <|−0.5| −1.3 −3.8 <|−0.2| – 0.09 320 325 13.48 <|−0.5| −1.6 −0.6 −0.2 – 0.09 320 327 13.03 −1.3 −6.1 −20.8 −1.3 –0.09 315 333 12.34 <|−0.5| −0.4 −1.7 <|−0.2| – – – 337 15.9 <|−0.5| −1.0 −1.6 <|−0.2| – 0.12 365 344 10.82 <|−0.5| −3.1 −1.6 −0.3 – 0.10 350 346 10.94 <|−0.5| −1.0 −1.1 −0.4 – 0.10 350 21699100, 2023, 4, Downloaded from https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2022JE007672 by Universidad del Pais Vasco, Wiley Online Library on [15/05/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets VICENTE-RETORTILLO ETAL. 10.1029/2022JE007672 8 of 18 measured by Mastcam-Z around noon increased from less than 0.4 on sol 312 to almost 1.4 on sol 316, decreasing again to 0.4 on sol 319 (Figure2a). Perseverance remained at the same location between sols 287 and 328, providing a unique opportunity to track surface albedo before, during, and after the storm. Figure2a shows the temporal evolution of the surface albedo between sols 287 and 328 at 13 LMSTs (a similar behavior is observed at other local times). The most remarkable feature shown in this panel is the strong darkening of the surface induced by the dust storm: there was a 17% decrease in surface albedo between sols 315 and 319; the largest sol-to-sol variation occurred between sols 315 and 316, when the albedo decreased to 11%. In contrast, the albedo remained stable both before and after the storm. Figures2b and2c provide additional context showing the surface FOV observed by TIRS. In particular, evidence of aeolian processes was manifested by the subdued appearance of the wheel tracks after the storm. This will be further discussed below. In order to quantitatively assess the changes induced by the dust storm, we used Mastcam-Z pairs of images of portions of the surface observed by TIRS (Figure3). Both images of each pair were acquired under similar times of sol (Table2), radiometrically calibrated to relative reflectance (cf. Bell etal.,2021; Hayes etal.,2021), and paired images were stretched identically (Table2). This enables differences in each pair of images to be interpreted as changes in albedo, which could be attributed to removal of dust (reddish, fine-grained airfall materials) or by transport of coarser-grained sands. In Figures3a and3b, the rover wheel tracks appeared morphologically fainter following the dust storm, suggesting that small particles making up the molded tracks were mobilized. However, there is also an overall relative darkening and loss of reddish appearance in the images acquired after the storm. This is supported by the quantitative analysis shown in Figure3e, where the relative reflectance of the wheel track (red box in Figure3a) Table 1 Continued Sol LTST ΔAlbedo (%) ΔP (Pa) ΔDSW (%) ΔT (K) WS (m/s) Albedo at noon TI (tiu) 349 12.17 −1.1 −2.5 −7.3 −0.6 –0.10 350 350 10.88 <|−0.5| −3.9 −4.4 −0.4 – – – Note. Columns indicate sol number, local time, magnitude of the albedo change (N.C. indicates that the analysis is inconclusive), transient drops in pressure (P), downwelling shortwave radiation (DSW) and surface temperature (T), peak wind speed, albedo at noon and thermal inertia. Bold highlights dust devils with surface albedo changes. Figure 2. (a) Change in surface albedo at 13:00 LMST (dark orange) and dust opacity around noon (gray) between sols 287 and 328. (b, c) Comparison of portions of Mastcam-Z vertical projection mosaics corresponding to the Thermal and Infrared Sensor field of view before (b) and after (c) the dust storm. 21699100, 2023, 4, Downloaded from https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2022JE007672 by Universidad del Pais Vasco, Wiley Online Library on [15/05/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets VICENTE-RETORTILLO ETAL. 10.1029/2022JE007672 9 of 18 Figure 3. (a, b) Mastcam-Z Bayer filter image of the wheel tracks in the Thermal and Infrared Sensor (TIRS) field of view (FOV) before (a) and after (b) the storm; (c, d) Green Bayer filter band depth images corresponding to (a, b) images, respectively; (e) Comparison of Bayer-filter (3-band) relative reflectance spectra of rover track (red box in (a)) from before and after the storm; (f, g) Mastcam-Z bayer filter image of region within the TIRS FOV before (f) and after (g) the storm; (h) Comparison of Bayer-filter relative reflectance spectra of regolith (green box in (f)) from before and after dust storm. Details on images are provided in Table2. Table 2 Summary of the Acquisition Time, Image ID and Processing Details of the Images Shown in Figures1–3 Fig. Acq. time Image ID Processing details 1,b.l. Sol 64 13:54 LMST NLF_0064_0672627159_178CWS_N0032046NCAM00201_0A0195J01 2b Multiple sols 286-312 Portion of Mastcam-Z vertical projection mosaics 2c Multiple sol 320 As in 2b 3a Sol 308 11:53 LMST ZL0_0308_0694280717_269IOF_N0090000ZCAM08334_0340LMA03 Calibrated to relative reflectance and stretched red=0.00–0.27; green=0.00–0.17; blue=0.00–0.11 3b Sol 320 12:20 LMST ZL0_0320_0695347646_895IOF_N0090000ZCAM08341_0340LMA01 As in 3a 3c As in 3a As in 3a Stretched 0.00–0.20 3d As in 3b As in 3b As in 3c 3f Sol 298 12:54 LMST ZL0_0298_0693396692_898IOF_N0090000ZCAM08323_0340LMA02 Calibrated to relative reflectance and stretched red=0.00–0.32; green=0.00–0.20; blue=0.00–0.14 3g Sol 320 12:19 LMST ZL0_0320_0695347593_895IOF_N0090000ZCAM08341_0340LMA01 As in 3f 21699100, 2023, 4, Downloaded from https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2022JE007672 by Universidad del Pais Vasco, Wiley Online Library on [15/05/2023]. 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