A systematic review of key strategies for teachers and parents for developing an effective intervention to reduce the risk of online child sexual abuse

Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology, 22 (3), 671-698. ISSN: 1696-2095. 2024. no. 64 671 Systematic Review: Strategies to Reduce the Risk of Online Child Sexual Abuse Héctor Galindo-Dominguez1, Nahia Delgado de Frutos 1, Martín Sainz De-la-Maza1, Daniel Losada 1 1 Universidad del País Vasco Spain Correspondence: Héctor Galindo-Dominguez. Universidad del País Vasco (España). E-mail: [email protected] © Universidad de Almería and Ilustre Colegio Oficial de la Psicología de Andalucía Oriental (Spain) Hector Galindo-Domínguez et al. 672 Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology, 22 (4), 671-698. ISSN: 1696-2095. 2024. no. 64 Abstract With the advent of new technologies, cases of online child sexual abuse have become notoriously widespread, rendering it necessary for both teachers and parents to know how to deal with this phenomenon. The aim of this study was to find out which were the main interventions and strategies that both teachers and parents could apply within their immediate environment to reduce the risk of online child sexual harassment. Using the PRISMA approach for systematic reviews, all literature about strategies and interventions for reducing the risk of online child sexual abuse from a variety of databases was analyzed. When possible, Cohen’s d was used to measure the effect size of the interventions. Based on 38 included papers out of a total of 5644, it was found 13 strategies that teachers could commonly use with their students, such as reading real-life testimonies of grooming, as well as 7 strategies that parents could commonly use with their children, such as establishing rules about the use of the internet. The effect sizes showed a reduction in the prevalence of grooming [Experimental (d = -.71 to - .03); Control (d = .00 to .50)] and an increase in knowledge and attitudes [Experimental (d = .45 to 1.66); Control (d = -.03 to .22)] in favor of the students that participated in the interventions. The present results suggest that using these kind of interventions and strategies may bring positive results for children and teenagers in order to prevent and cope with online child sexual abuse. Keywords: grooming, online sexual abuse, intervention, strategies, systematic review Systematic Review: Strategies to Reduce the Risk of Online Child Sexual Abuse Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology, 22 (3), 671-698. ISSN: 1696-2095. 2024. no. 64 673 Resumen Con el desarrollo de las nuevas tecnologías, los casos de abuso sexual infantil online se han extendido notoriamente, por lo que es necesario que tanto profesores como padres sepan cómo afrontar este fenómeno. El objetivo de este estudio ha sido averiguar cuáles son las principales intervenciones y estrategias que tanto el profesorado como los padres pueden aplicar en su entorno inmediato para reducir el riesgo de acoso sexual infantil en línea. Se ha utilizado el enfoque PRISMA para revisiones sistemáticas, analizando toda la literatura sobre estrategias e intervenciones para reducir el riesgo de abuso sexual infantil en línea procedente de diversas bases de datos. También se ha utilizado la d de Cohen para medir el tamaño del efecto de las intervenciones. Sobre la base de 38 artículos incluidos de un total de 5644 analizados, se encontraron 13 estrategias que los docentes pueden utilizar habitualmente con su alumnado, como la lectura de testimonios reales de captación de menores, así como 7 estrategias que los padres pueden utilizar con sus hijos, como el establecimiento de normas sobre el uso de Internet. Los tamaños del efecto mostraron una reducción de la prevalencia del grooming [Experimental (d = -,71 a -,03); Control (d = 0,00 a 0,50)] y un aumento de los conocimientos y actitudes [Experimental (d = 0,45 a 1,66); Control (d = -,03 a 0,22)] a favor de los alumnos que participaron en las intervenciones. Los presentes resultados sugieren que el uso de este tipo de intervenciones y estrategias puede aportar resultados positivos para los niños y adolescentes con el fin de prevenir y hacer frente al abuso sexual infantil online. Palabras clave: grooming, abuso sexual en línea, intervención, estrategias, revisión sistemática Hector Galindo-Domínguez et al. 674 Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology, 22 (4), 671-698. ISSN: 1696-2095. 2024. no. 64 Introduction Child Sexual Abuse (CSA), according to Finkelhor (1999), is a sexual encounter with a child when the partner has a large age or maturity gap, has authority over the child, or utilizes violence or trickery. Sexual harassment, solicitation, grooming, and exploitation are some examples of CSA (Quayle et al., 2012) and whereas various types of abuse can begin entirely offline, they can also occur online (Patterson et al., 2022). On this point, due to the fact that our society's technological growth in which 23% of our adolescents reported using the internet three or more hours per day (Oliva et al., 2019), online child sexual abuse (OCSA) is becoming increasingly common. Indeed, OCSA can be understood as “a process by which an adult, using digital media, targets a minor to obtain sexual material or to sexually abuse the adolescent” (Calvete et al., 2021). The length of this process can be varied, ranging from a few days to years (Wachs et al., 2018). Jones et al. (2012) surveyed underage students in the United States and discovered that 9% of adolescents from their early adolescence (10 years old) to late adolescence (17 years old) had been sexualed solicited by adults. Likewise, in Spain, 12.6% of underage students had received sexual solicitations from an adult over the internet in the previous year, and 7.9% of them had some sexual engagement with an adult via the internet (De Santisteban & Gámez-Guadix, 2018b), although more conservative studies suggest that the prevalence of OCSA is between 5% and 9% in adolescents aged 10-17 years (Bergen et al., 2014). Personal characteristics With regard to personal characteristics, Calvete et al. (2021b) stated that identifying individual characteristics that increase the likelihood of reacting with risky behaviors, such as sharing sexual material with the offender, is relevant in order to develop more solid preventive interventions. In this regard, the literature pointed out how females experienced more OCSA than males, but females were less involved than boys in sexualized interactions (e.g., Aljuboori et al., 2021; Calvete et al., 2021b; Gámez-Guadix et al., 2021b). Nonetheless, Aljuboori et al. (2021) revealed that online risk behaviors were a predictor for online sexual abuse in both males and females. In addition, previous literature stated that younger adolescents were at higher risk of OCSA, possibly due to their lack of maturity and experience (Calvete et al., 2021b). However, this last finding is still being discussed as other studies pointed out how offenders applied Systematic Review: Strategies to Reduce the Risk of Online Child Sexual Abuse Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology, 22 (3), 671-698. ISSN: 1696-2095. 2024. no. 64 675 more grooming strategies with older adolescents (Gámez-Guadix et al., 2021b; Jones et al., 2012). Consecuences The consequences of suffering from OCSA have been another topic that has been widely discussed in the literature. Some studies revealed that adolescents that were victims of online sexual abuse presented more frequent risk behavior, poorer psychological health, like anxiety and depression, poorer relationships with parents and lower self-esteem (GámezGuadix et al., 2021b; Jonsson et al., 2019). In fact, Nur et al. (2015) showed that victims of OCSA were 4.21 times more likely to develop a psychopathology, 3.77 times more likely to have depression, and 2.14 times more likely to develop a post-traumatic stress disorder as a consequence of sexual abuse. Data related to online child sexual abuse One of the main problems of OCSA is the lack of information that most adolescents have about this phenomenon. For example, recent studies showed that a high percentage of adolescents thought that OCSA is only suffered by girls, that only boys are perpetrators, or that perpetrators are easily recognizable (Montiel, 2018). On this topic, the research by Guerra et al. (2021) showed how in 37.6% of the time the aggressor was a minor male, in 22.4% of the time it was an adult male, in 14.5% of the time it was a minor female, in 2.9% of the time it was an adult female, and in 22.5% of the time the aggressor could not be identified. This study shed some light on how, despite being true that in a high percentage of cases it is men who commit the OCSA, in some cases females are also perpetrators and that in almost 1 out of 4 cases of OCSA the aggressor cannot be recognized. Based on the erroneous beliefs of children and adolescents, previous studies (e.g., Calvete et al., 2021; Gámez-Guadix et al., 2018a; 2021a) revealed a high association between sexual solicitation (i.e., an adult solicits sexual content from a minor) and the behavior of establishing risk interactions with the adult. Preventive interventions As a result, the educational community has been forced to design and implement a series of preventive interventions with the aim of reducing unsafe behavior on the Internet (Calvete et al., 2021). In fact, previous works have highlighted that education and awareness may prevent 95% of online sexual abuse (Child Molestation Research and Prevention Institute, n.d.) remarking the relevance of performing solid preventing interventions. These interven- Hector Galindo-Domínguez et al. 676 Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology, 22 (4), 671-698. ISSN: 1696-2095. 2024. no. 64 tions, as stated several years ago by Wurtele et al. (1992), should take into account the training from both minors’ teachers and parents in order to give them (1) more opportunities to receive feedback on the programme; (2) more confidence disclosing sexual abuse to the parents; and (3) and more support when discussing this issue avoiding secrecy. However, there are times when implementing these interventions in an adolescent population can be particularly challenging. This is because many preventive interventions are based on theories of decision-making, meaning that such interventions are based on the assumption that adolescents will easily change their behavior when given information about Internet risks. However, in certain characteristics, adolescents, compared to children, may exhibit behavior that is contrary to expectations when they perceive that their autonomy is not recognized (Yeager et al., 2018). Thus, if an adolescent perceives that an adult is trying to change their behavior in a way that affects their autonomy, they may respond with avoidance strategies, such as ignoring or criticizing the information received (Sweeney & Moyer, 2015). To address this problem, a new approach to interventions, known as "wise interventions", has been introduced in recent years (Calvete et al., 2021). These types of interventions, based on the principles of persuasion, may be helpful for teachers on the grounds that they are not interventions based on what behavior a person necessarily adopts, but after a process of searching for meaning based on (1) the accuracy of their interpretations, (2) the need for others to think well of us, and (3) the need to belong to a community and contribute positively to the lives of others; the subject independently adopts the expected behavior (Brady et al., 2016; Silverman et al., 2013). Some effects of these types of interventions have already been studied, with shortand long-term behavioral changes observed, such as improvements in academic performance (Brisson et al., 2017); reduction of depression (Miu & Yeager, 2015); and a reduction of violent behaviors (Calvete et al., 2019; Fernández-González et al., 2020). Purpose of the study From previous literature we may ascertain, firstly, the necessity of increasing professional and community knowledge of the possible hazards linked with digital technology and sexual abuse (Nur et al., 2015). Indeed, UNESCO (2015) observed how teachers from various countries have a meaningful lack of any type of guidance supervision or reporting recommendations for disclosure of sexual abuse, and hence, this could lead to poor or inadequate training processes of pre-service and in-service teachers (Martin & Alaggia, 2013). Systematic Review: Strategies to Reduce the Risk of Online Child Sexual Abuse Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology, 22 (3), 671-698. ISSN: 1696-2095. 2024. no. 64 677 Second, some studies pointed out that in order to deal with Online Sexual Abuse, schools should incorporate preventative evidence-based initiatives and programs that avoid generic and broad messaging, as youth digital interactions have become increasingly widespread (Coop et al., 2021; Ortega-Baron et al., 2022; UNICEF, 2020). Essentially, the relevance of such programs lies in their special characteristics: the ability to reach large numbers of students at once, a relatively low cost, high potential benefit, and low or nil stigmatization of students who are most at risk (Brown & Saied-Tessier, 2015; Calvete et al., 2022; Mota & Manita, 2021; Walsh et al., 2015). Third, as observed by Author et al. (2022a), one of the main reasons why teachers were not involved in educational research was due to the difficulty in transferring the results to their closest environments. Therefore, it is necessary to carry out both theoretical and empirical studies whose results have significant implications for the daily practice of teachers, especially for those of Early Childhood, Primary and Secondary Education, who were the least involved and least competent in educational research (Author et al., 2022b). Objectives and Hypothesis Based on the above, two criteria are considered as the main objectives of the current study. Specifically, this study aims to identify the main interventions and strategies teachers used with children and adolescents to prevent and reduce the risk of online sexual abuse, as well as identifying the main interventions and strategies used by parents with children and adolescents to prevent and reduce the risk of online sexual abuse. The main hypothesis is that the use and implementation of interventions and strategies by teachers and parents can help prevent online child and adolescent sexual abuse. Method Documentary Search In order to achieve the aims of this study, a deep analysis of the most relevant national and international databases was carried out. Specifically, the systematic review was performed using Web of Science, Scopus, InCites, ProQuest, ScienceDirect, SpringerLink, Psyc, EBSCOHost, ACM, IEEE Xplore Digital Library, Emerald Insight, DOAJ, Google Scholar, PubMed, ResearchGate, SciELO and Dialnet. Within these databases, the search for documents did not have a specific start date but had a deadline of October 2022. These databases Hector Galindo-Domínguez et al. 678 Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology, 22 (4), 671-698. ISSN: 1696-2095. 2024. no. 64 were selected since they compile information from the most prestigious and impactful scientific journals at national and international levels. Moreover, the documentary search was performed cross-matching the following most relevant keywords in both languages Spanish and English. • Keywords of the studied phenomenon: grooming; online sexual harassment; online sexual victimization; online sexual abuse; online sexual solicitation. • Keywords of the object of analysis: intervention; program; programme; plan; strategies; treatment. • Keywords of the subject of analysis: children; adolescents; teenagers; adolescence; teen; young. Inclusión criteria A wide range of potential documents were collected (n = 5644), although some were excluded since they did not meet the criteria for this systematic review (Table 1). The used criteria were the following: Table 1. Excluded document criteria Criteria Exclusion reason number Title All results obtained from selected databases were screened by title based on our object of analysis (OCSA, grooming…). Therefore, those studies that did not meet this criterion were excluded n = 5472 Duplicates All results that were duplicates due to the fact that they were indexed in different databases were excluded n = 79 Accessibility All results obtained from selected databases were considered, however, those studies regardless of their format (paper, proceeding, chapter…) that were not accessible for the author had to be excluded n = 4 Language All results were obtained from selected databases whenever documents were written, at least the abstract, in either Spanish or English. Thus, those manuscripts written in other languages were excluded n = 0 Object of analysis Those documents that did not provide any types of strategies, interventions or plans were excluded from the analysis n = 45 Subject of the analysis It was required studies focused on the early, mid or late adolescence period. Hence, those studies that were carried out with other types of participants, like adult perpetrators of n = 4 Systematic Review: Strategies to Reduce the Risk of Online Child Sexual Abuse Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology, 22 (3), 671-698. ISSN: 1696-2095. 2024. no. 64 679 grooming, were excluded Format of the manuscripts As long as the manuscript was complete with its main parts, all types of formats (dissertations, papers, proceedings, books, chapters, reports…) were accepted regardless of their methodological approach. Therefore, those manuscripts that provided incomplete data were excluded n = 1 The path followed using PRISMA approach was illustrated in Figure 1. Figure 1. PRISMA flow diagram of the inclusion and exclusion criteria Hector Galindo-Domínguez et al. 686 Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology, 22 (4), 671-698. ISSN: 1696-2095. 2024. no. 64 advice on how to protect children and provide useful first-warning signs in how the behavior of young people may change if they are being targeted by offenders (Raymond, 2009); (3) Develop parents’ digital literacy and security skills (Van der Knaap et al., 2014). • Establishing rules concerning children’s usage of the internet: It supposes the establishment of rules concerning adolescents’ internet usage. Some examples of these rules could be: (1) determining when to buy a mobile phone with internet access or determining when a minor can use their parents' mobile phone if they does not have their own (BartauRojas, et al., 2018); (2) prohibit access without an adult present and prevent access to certain content (Bartau-Rojas et al., 2018); (3) Repeated reminders of rules and prohibitions ("no mobiles until a certain age", "no uploading photos", "do not give out information on where they are", "do not turn on the computer without parental supervision", "do not look for anything you are not ready to see") (Bartau-Rojas et al., 2018); (4) negotiate and agree on agreements and/or set rules regarding homework ("use the Internet for homework"; "use the Internet after homework", or "use the Internet on days when homework is not due") (Bartau-Rojas et al., 2018); (5) Specify time of use, set times and limit spaces from which they are allowed to access the internet (Bartau-Rojas et al., 2018; Raymond, 2009); (6) Direct face-to-face supervision: Being directly aware of what they are doing (BartauRojas et al., 2018; Raymond, 2009). In fact, parental monitoring and controls are widely recommended; about one-third of parents use parental controls on their adolescents’ cell phones and over half use parental controls for internet access and content (Rice et al., 2015). Nevertheless, it should be noted that certain authors consider that these strategies can be counterproductive since they can be considered as a violation of their privacy and autonomy by the adolescent (Valkenburg & Peter, 2011), which is why it is suggested there should be a balance between control and freedom in this aspect (Van der Knaap et al., 2014); (7) consensual and shared supervision: This involves making use of technological tools between parents and children (Bartau-Rojas et al., 2018); (8) non-consensual supervision: This involves the non-consensual review of devices (Bartau-Rojas et al., 2018). As stated by Smallbone & Wortley (2017) for older adolescents it may be appropriate to negotiate more specific rules, and to engage them in discussions about ethical social and sexual behavior. • Use of internet filters and trackers (software): It supposes the usage of filters and external software in order to block specific websites, specific words, IPs, email addresses… This strategy is also known as technical supervision (Bartau-Rojas et al., 2018). Systematic Review: Strategies to Reduce the Risk of Online Child Sexual Abuse Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology, 22 (3), 671-698. ISSN: 1696-2095. 2024. no. 64 687 Moreover, for coping strategies, the literature, mainly collected the following: • Reducing availability: When an online grooming instance occurs, parents should try to restrict the availability of the materials, either by lowering the actual volume of content or by relocating existing material to more difficult-to-reach regions of the internet. (Smallbone & Wortley, 2017). • Participate in a trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy: As stated by Smallbone & Wortley (2017) participating in these kinds of treatments, may reduce the psychological harms related to online sexual abuse, and it could be one of the keys to reducing the revictimization, in both the short and longer term. • Contact the police: In case the adolescent has been exposed in pornographic images, parents should contact law enforcement agencies directly. In the case of studies referring to families, no effect size could be calculated, since no study was found that aimed to evaluate any intervention (internal validity 2 or 3). Discussion The aim of this study was to identify the main interventions and strategies that can be applied by teachers and parents to reduce the risk of online sexual harassment in children and adolescents. The results of the systematic review revealed a total of 13 teacher-focused strategies and a total of 7 parent-focused strategies. Although with a reduced number of studies, based on the effect size analyses that have been used on the interventions carried out by teachers, a certain positive impact can be seen in the experimental group in contrast to the control group, having increased to a greater degree the knowledge, interest and awareness of OCSA, and having reduced to a greater degree the prevalence of OCSA victimization. Moreover, all these strategies were divided into preventing strategies and coping strategies. This division was justified on the basis of the literature, in which it can be seen that instruments for measuring the degree of online sexual abuse of children and adolescents are characterized by two main dimensions: Sexual solicitation, which required knowledge of preventive strategies, and sexualized interaction, which required knowledge of coping strategies (Gámez-Guadix et al., 2018b). Similarly, this division is in line with another classification such as the one used by Craven et al. (2007), which, depending on the status of the child or Hector Galindo-Domínguez et al. 688 Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology, 22 (4), 671-698. ISSN: 1696-2095. 2024. no. 64 adolescent, divided the intervention into primary prevention (when abusive behaviors have not started), secondary prevention (when the victim has recently been abused), or tertiary prevention (when there is a long history of sexual abuse). Theoretical and Practical Implications The present data have important theoretical and practical implications. In respect of theoretical implications, the current research is presented as a systematic document that allows us to have a better view of the main interventions that may be useful for reducing the risk of online child sexual harassment. This systematicity may allow researchers to analyze the effectiveness of each of the present strategies to investigate which ones should be prioritized according to the personal characteristics of a given group of people. The systematic review in question reveals a clear commitment on the part of each study included in its analysis to the main ethical principles stipulated in the Declaration of Helsinki. These ethical principles reflect the importance attached by researchers to respecting the autonomy of participants, the need to minimise risks and maximise benefits, and the responsibility to conduct research in a transparent and fair manner. In terms of practical implications, this systematic work may be useful for educational professionals such as teachers and educational psychologists in designing and implementing interventions with students who have not yet experienced online sexual abuse, as well as with students who have to cope with online sexual abuse. On this matter, Wurtele (2017) stated that educational interventions benefitted from including youth voices about technologyrelated risks and responses. In this regard, the strategies collected provide usefulness to the active role taken by the child or adolescent in preventing and coping with the problem themselves. In addition, Christen (2009) suggested that when the learning environment is similar to the childrens’ and adolescents’ view of the world, the intervention could be more beneficial to the stakeholders. On this point, as stated by Patterson et al. (2022, p. 865) “a younger child may need a simple game structure to be engaged, while an older adolescent may prefer a discussion with clear evidence from reliable sources”. Likewise, the present results can be used to improve the initial training of teachers during their university studies in order to provide them with a basis of knowledge of what Systematic Review: Strategies to Reduce the Risk of Online Child Sexual Abuse Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology, 22 (3), 671-698. ISSN: 1696-2095. 2024. no. 64 689 tools they could apply, both in their classes and with the families of their students when dealing with one of the risks of the Internet, as is the case of online sexual harassment. With regard to families, the results can also be useful in that they are presented as potential tools that they can apply with their children to deal with an issue that for many of them could be taboo, such as sexual harassment. In fact, previous literature suggests that talking to children and adolescents about sexuality and sexual abuse should be considered essential in the nuclear family (RAINN, 2021). Similarly, previous work such as that of Aljuboori et al. (2021) showed how good family support could function as a protective factor against OCSA. Therefore, providing useful information and valid strategies to families on how to deal with their children using the OCSA should be one of the pillars taken into account when designing their interventions (Patterson et al., 2022). Finally, the present results also provide important insights for policymakers in charge of developing institutional reports and initial programs in that, they provide useful information on what academic content should be worked on to reduce the risk of online grooming in children and adolescents, and therefore, it could be relevant to consider introducing these contents in future educational curricula. As can be seen from all these implications, this work may be especially useful for a number of stakeholders, underlining the idea that educational practice should have a multilevel approach in order to be effective (Magarey et al., 2013; Nixon et al., 2012). Limitations and Prospective Despite these strengths, the present work has a number of limitations that should be considered when interpreting the results. Firstly, the systematic review was carried out including only studies published in both Spanish and English. Therefore, future studies should replicate the methodology employed in the present study by performing a thorough search for studies in languages other than those analyzed. This could be of interest not only to discover if there are any measures not included in the present analysis, but also to compare the importance that could be given to certain measures according to sociocultural variables. Likewise, despite making efforts to prioritize the most effective measures through the study of the internal validity of the manuscripts, the present work does not investigate the Hector Galindo-Domínguez et al. 690 Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology, 22 (4), 671-698. ISSN: 1696-2095. 2024. no. 64 effectiveness that individually, each of the strategies and interventions, could have. This limitation has been previously discussed in the literature (Forni et al., 2020; Calvete et al., 2021). In addition, from the interventions performed by teachers, notorious difficulties for calculating effect size of each intervention are observed as different analysis procedures have been used for estimating the impact of the interventions. Therefore, future work could continue to analyze the effectiveness of the present measures, especially in the case of parent-applied measures, prioritizing randomized controlled trials, and standardizing the most common statistical procedures for measuring the effectiveness of interventions, for instance by performing an ANOVAs of repeated measures. Finally, the present systematic review has not taken into account the impact that a series of individual characteristics, such as gender, age or socioeconomic status, could have when considering an intervention as more or less effective. For this reason, future work should investigate this phenomenon by performing different analyses according to the personal and family characteristics of the individual. Despite all these limitations, it is hoped that this work will serve as a reference in the design and implementation of future interventions that aim to reduce online sexual harassment in children and adolescents. 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