Enhancing local governance for climate action: A guiding conceptual framework

Urban Governance 5 (2025) 455–465 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Urban Governance journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ugj Enhancing local governance for climate action: A guiding conceptual framework Estibaliz Sanz a , ∗ , Lorenzo Chelleri b , c ,Aline Chiabai a , Maria José Sanz a a Basque Centre for Climate Change (BC3), Leioa, Spain b Universitat Internacional de Catalunya (UIC), Barcelona, Spain c Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology (BIST), Barcelona, Spain a r t i c l e i n f o Key words: Climate emergency Climate governance Local governance Capacity building Climate action Urban health a b s t r a c t This paper addresses the climate governance in order to guide and boost integrated solutions while implementing solutions for both the climate and the health crises. Despite the proliferation of climate emergency declarations by local governments, there is a growing concern regarding their limited impact on real climate action. In addition, a great number of climate plans and strategies are in place, while little attention is devoted on how to assess and boost implementation and capacities to put them into practice. To address these gaps, this paper presents a conceptual framework to guide local governments on the effective implementation and promotion of climate policies. The framework has been guided by a comprehensive literature review and in-depth interviews with policy makers and technical staff of in Spain. The resulting framework represents and innovative approach that incorporate three distinct “factors ” — climate strategic decisions, capacity building and psychosocial involvement —, which have been further divided into 18 determinants and 53 corresponding indicators. The development of this framework serves two primary purposes. Firstly, it aims to provide a comprehensive approach to explore the potential opportunities inherent in local governance for effectively driving climate policies. Secondly, it seeks to serve as a guiding tool for local governments in formulating and advancing their climate policies by utilizing the factors, determinants, and indicators incorporated within the conceptual framework. Lastly, the integration of the health perspective within this framework facilitates the identification and harnessing of synergies and benefits that can arise from the intersection of climate and health policies, emphasizing the importance of not neglecting this crucial aspect. 1. Introduction Since 2019 climate emergency declarations have been considered to be amongst the most impactful “actions ”taken by local governments in response to global warming, indicating a strong commitment and call for prompt actions ( Davidson et al., 2020 ; McHugh et al., 2021 ). This movement has gained support from various scientists, politicians, and activists, who view it as a truthful and effective message capable of motivating political action. Such declarations signal a fundamental and previously unexplored shift in how climate emergency is perceived by scientists, policy makers, and the general public ( McHugh et al., 2021 ). These declarations and the ambitious 2030 and 2050 climate neutrality targets expressed by many municipal governments require a notable shift in the approach of local authorities towards collaborating with their partners and communities to address the impact of climate change, not only at city centres levels —as it is now happening —, but also in ∗ Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (E. Sanz) . the metropolitan areas and within regions ( Palmer et al., 2021 ) and countries. Success in achieving these goals is dependent upon the implementation of transformative, targeted, and time-sensitive measures that present opportunities to invigorate and improve economies and societies by engaging with social movements, social sciences, and humanities ( Knutti., 2019 ). Despite the seriousness of the climate emergency and the growing pressure, numerous studies have indicated that political and collective actions fall short of what is required to address the urgency of the situation ( Gills & Morgan., 2020 ; Davidson et al., 2020 ). The most crucial step at this point is to begin thinking and acting urgently, treating the climate crisis as an actual emergency ( Gills & Morgan, 2020 ). However, local authorities face various challenges that hinder their ability to create an appropriate environment for such changes ( Palmer et al., 2021 ). Recent research has revealed that only a minority of cities and municipalities that have declared a climate emergency have followed up with https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ugj.2025.09.002 Received 27 March 2024; Received in revised form 2 September 2025; Accepted 16 September 2025 Available online 20 September 2025 2664-3286/© 2025 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of Shanghai Jiao Tong University. This is an open access article under the CC BY license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ) E. Sanz, L. Chelleri, A. Chiabai et al. Urban Governance 5 (2025) 455–465 decisive policies and facilitated the necessary mobilization. Thus the vast majority have merely taken symbolic action that does not elevate their ambition beyond their pre-existing climate policies ( Chou, 2021 ; Howarth et al., 2021 ; Ruiz-Campillo et al., 2021 ; Gills & Morgan, 2020 ) . The reason of these missing implementations could be revealed looking at the complexity of the climate governance design to support implementation, which is not yet fully understood. It is crucial to understand what opportunities and challenges might materialize from the new climate policy framing and its governance implications, as noted in recent studies ( McHugh et al., 2021 ). The limited implementation of these declarations highlights the complexity of designing effective governance frameworks capable of driving transformative climate action. While the governance implications of climate policy have been acknowledged ( McHugh et al., 2021 ), existing frameworks have not fully explored how local governance can effectively deliver on these ambitious targets. This underscores the need for innovative and integrated approaches to enhance the capacity of local governments to act. Numerous approaches have been employed in prior research to investigate the connection between governance and climate change policies. However, these frameworks have only partially captured local governance’s capacity to implement rapid and comprehensive climate action. For example, Olazabal et al. (2019) developed an evaluation framework to assess the credibility of adaptation planning, while Ford and King (2015) proposed a framework to evaluate readiness by identifying key adaptation factors. Additionally, Keeney & McDaniels (2001) suggested an adaptive decision framework to stimulate interactive evaluation of climate policy options. Runhaar et al. (2016) emphasized preparedness and accountability for climate adaptation. Meanwhile, Mees et al. (2014) proposed a systematic method for assessing and selecting policy instruments to encourage adaptation. Recently, Ulibarri et al. (2022) examined the equity implications of adaptation tools. While these frameworks offer valuable insights, they fall short of being holistic. They often focus on specific aspects, such as readiness or policy instruments, and lack integration of critical dimensions such as multi-sectoral collaboration, capacity-building, and health co-benefits, which are essential for transformative climate policies by local governance. This research proposes a novel conceptual framework to address these gaps. The framework uniquely integrates climate policy with public health considerations to promote synergies and co-benefits. This innovation builds on the growing recognition of the interdependence between urban livability, physical and mental health, and climate mitigation and adaptation measures ( Fox et al., 2019 ; Haines & Ebi, 2019 ; Ferrini et al., 2020 ). Recent findings, such as those presented by the Lancet Countdown ( Watts et al., 2021 ; Romanello et al., 2022 ), underscore the critical role of health in shaping effective climate policy. This integration is particularly relevant in a post-COVID-19 context, where the co-benefits of climate action extend beyond environmental outcomes to improve public health and societal resilience ( Newell & Dale, 2021 ) The focus on health and climate reflects the framework’s holistic nature. Public health serves as a lens through which broader ecological, economic, and social factors are considered, as health outcomes are intrinsically tied to these domains. By incorporating health into the framework, this research addresses not only the direct impacts of climate policies but also their broader implications for equity, sustainability, and community well-being. This research addresses the following questions: (1) What enablers and capacities are required within local governments to design effective climate actions? (2) How can local capacity-building efforts be strengthened to support this challenge? (3) What behavioral elements and mechanisms can enhance societal participation? (4) How can overlaps between climate and health policies be identified and leveraged to maximize the impact of climate actions? This paper explores these questions through the development of a conceptual framework, providing municipal officials with a robust tool to guide the design and implementation of climate actions. 2. Methodology and research design This study employed a multi-stage methodology to develop a comprehensive framework for effective climate governance, integrating health co-benefits within local climate action. The methodology consisted of a systematic literature review and semi-structured interviews, using Spain as a case study. [First, a systematic literature review was conducted to identify existing obstacles and enablers in climate governance frameworks. The review encompassed 112 articles sourced from major academic databases, including Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. To capture the breadth of research within this field, search terms included "climate governance," "local climate action," and "health co-benefits." This search focused on publications from 2000 to 2023, allowing us to gather both foundational and contemporary perspectives on climate policy integration. By systematically analyzing this body of literature, we identified critical gaps that this framework seeks to address, specifically the need for a multi-sectoral, health-integrated approach within local governance.]To complement the systematic review of scientific and grey literature, 42 semi-structured interviews were conducted with technical and political personnel from various municipalities across Spain. Participants included representatives from major urban centers such as Barcelona (Manager of Environment and Urban Services and Director of the Office of Climate Change and Sustainability), Bilbao (Councillor and Technicians from the Department of Mobility and Sustainability of Bilbao City Council), Donostia-San Sebastián (Director and Technicians from the Department of Environment of San Sebastián City Council and technical staff from the Municipal Center for Environmental Resources), Madrid (Deputy Director General of Energy and Climate Change at Madrid City Council and technicians from the Department of Energy and Climate Change), Murcia (Director and technical staff from the Local Energy and Climate Change Agency), Valencia (General Coordinator of Urban Strategies and Sustainable Agenda and the Head of the Innovation Service at Valencia City Council), and Vitoria-Gasteiz (Councillor for Territory and Climate Action). Additionally, interviews were conducted with policymakers and technical staff from mediumsized and smaller municipalities in the Basque Country. Further interviews included key stakeholders from research institutions, NGOs, and public sector organizations such as Fundación ECODES, ISGlobal, and the Barcelona Health Agency. This diverse representation provided a comprehensive understanding of climate governance and urban health in Spain. Participants were selected through purposive sampling to ensure diverse representation across different governance levels and geographic scales. The selection criteria focused on individuals with direct involvement in climate action, governance, and public health policy. This approach ensured the inclusion of perspectives from large cities, mediumsized municipalities, smaller towns, and key sectors such as academia, NGOs, and public institutions. Recruitment was conducted through direct invitations and referrals, targeting professionals whose expertise aligned with the study’s objectives. The interviews were conducted in three distinct phases, following a structured and iterative framework: 1. Phase 1: Validation of Factors In this initial phase, participants were asked to validate and contrast the three primary factors identified in the literature review: climate policy, capacity building, and psychosocial engagement. They provided insights into the barriers and opportunities associated with implementing these factors in their respective municipalities, offering practical perspectives to complement theoretical findings. 2. Phase 2: Evaluation of Determinants and Indicators The second phase focused on reviewing and assessing specific sets of determinants and indicators for each factor. These determinants and indicators, derived from the literature review, were evaluated by participants to determine their relevance and applicability to lo456 E. Sanz, L. Chelleri, A. Chiabai et al. Urban Governance 5 (2025) 455–465 cal governance contexts. Feedback from this phase informed refinements to the proposed framework. 3. Phase 3: Refinement of the Framework In the final phase, discussions with key experts in urban climate governance and public health were conducted to refine and consolidate the framework. This phase emphasized the framework’s practical applicability and its alignment with real-world governance challenges. The interview data were transcribed verbatim and analyzed manually using thematic analysis to identify recurring themes and patterns. The analysis followed an inductive approach, allowing for the emergence of new themes that enriched the framework. Key insights were systematically categorized into matrices organized by factors, determinants, and indicators. This structure facilitated the identification of interdependencies between elements of the framework and ensured coherence with findings from the literature review. Spain was chosen as the primary case study for this research due to its proactive stance on climate policy and its diverse municipal landscape. This setting offers a unique opportunity to examine climate governance challenges and opportunities across different levels of local government. Spain’s commitment to ambitious climate goals, coupled with the variability in governance structures between its urban and rural areas, makes it an ideal context for testing and refining the framework’s applicability. While this framework is designed to align with the specific climate policy landscape of Spain, its principles, determinants, and indicators are adaptable to similar international contexts, enabling its potential application in regions facing parallel governance challenges and policy objectives.] 3. Results and discussion 3.1. The guiding conceptual framework and its three factors: climate strategic policy, capacity building, and psychosocial involvement The outcomes of this research have contributed to the development of a comprehensive conceptual framework that serves as a guide for understanding a complex phenomenon. This framework is based on three key factors that were identified through an extensive review of existing literature and the contrast process. These factors are intricately linked to each other, emphasizing their interdependencies. On the one hand, to provide a more in-depth understanding of each factor, they are further divided into determinants. These determinants explore specific dimensions or components of each factor, enabling a more detailed analysis. By breaking down the factors into determinants, researchers can examine and evaluate the individual elements that contribute to the overall phenomenon. On the other hand, to facilitate a more comprehensive analysis, each determinant is further subdivided into indicators. These indicators allow for a granular examination of the various characteristics associated with a particular determinant. In other words, by using these indicators, it is possible to develop the assessment and measurement of specific attributes or variables that are relevant to the determinant under investigation. Overall, this research establishes a guiding conceptual framework that outlines the three interconnected factors, their determinants, and respective indicators ( Fig. 1 ). This framework provides a structured approach to analyse and understand the phenomenon, supporting deeper exploration of its underlying components. In this way, the proposed guiding conceptual framework allows for a deep exploration of the following fundamental aspects: (1) the capacity for strategic policy decision-making, (2) the municipal structure that facilitates the implementation of climate and health strategies, and (3) the mechanisms for fostering citizen involvement and community engagement. Thus, as represented in Fig. 2 below, three key factors have been proposed, which are critical for enhancing the capacity of local governments in promoting climate action: i) climate strategy ii) capacity building, and iii) psychosocial involvement. The three factors were identified responding to different needs. The Climate Strategy factor responds to the need to highlight the importance, from a policy and strategic perspective, the local governments’ capacity to design and implement their climate strategies integrating the health perspective. Our analysis highlighted the importance of having strong and consensus-based policies among political parties and society that drive the implementation of climate action and ensure their sustainability over time. This factor includes determinants such as legitimacy ( Cashmore & Wejs, 2014 ; Keskitalo & Pettersson, 2016 ), coherence ( Wamsler, 2015 ; Uittenbroek, 2016 ), stability ( C. Uittenbroek, 2014 ; Runhaar et al.;, 2018 ), equity and social justice ( Reckien et al.;, 2017 ), involvement of the private and financial sector ( Cole, 2015 ; Martínez & Ramos, 2019 ; Bulkeley & Newell, 2015 ) and integration ( Reckien et al., 2019 ; C. Uittenbroek, 2014 ; Wamsler, 2015 ). Addressing this factor enables the assessment of essential leadership, consensus building among diverse municipal political ideologies, prioritization of climate goals in the municipal mandate plan, budget allocation, and/or securing necessary financing to execute planned activities, and a willingness to integrate with other municipal policies. These are some of the indicators that will be explained in more detail in the following section. Considering the capacity building factor (see Fig. 2 ) enables assessment of the municipal management structure’s strength to promote policies and integrate the health perspective. Ultimately, thanks to it, it is possible to verify the existence of appropriate institutional strengthening and innovation to address these policies together. Throughout the interview processes, it has been confirmed that municipal structures and operations are not well adapted to the urgency of climate change needs. Additionally, the distribution of responsibilities among municipal areas lacks coordination both within the municipality and with other administrations, creating obstacles to address climate change as a cross-cutting and inter-institutional issue that needs to be mainstreamed in municipal policies. Based on the input provided by several interviewed municipal technicians, the capacity building factor can be considered the "hardware" of local administrations in implementing climate strategies, while climate strategy can be regarded as the "software" that is more decision making oriented. The determinants of this factor include human resources and technical training ( Knutti, 2019 ; H. Bulkeley, 2010 ), structural and methodological support ( Wamsler, 2014 ); Uittenbroek (2016) , effectiveness ( C. Uittenbroek, 2014 ; Olazabal, 2019 ), and sources of knowledge ( Knutti, 2019 ). The development of these determinants enables the identification of indicators such as the availability of human and organizational resources, technical training of municipal staff, presence of the necessary bodies to coordinate cross-cutting strategies, and sources of knowledge utilized. Finally, Psychosocial Involvement is considered a crucial factor in assessing the ability of local governments to engage society and community activism. A large number of municipalities expressed their frustration over the inadequate involvement of citizens and communities in promoting climate action. They emphasized the critical need to delve deeper into the mechanisms that can be implemented within their jurisdiction to encourage and foster climate action. The determinants that contribute to this factor include public participation ( Alegre, 2011 ; Huerta et al., 2013 ); ideological inclusivity ( Hoffman, 2015 ); community activism, ( Roser-Renouf et al., 2014 ); effective communication ( Hoffman, 2015 ; Clayton, 2019 ); cognitive and behavioural determinants (Jon Naustdalslid, 2011 ; Hoffman, 2015 ); awareness and sensitivity ( Meadowcroft & Fiorino, 2017 ) and psychological factors ( Hoffman, 2015 ). As per the statements of a few municipal technicians and politician who were interviewed, this factor enables the consideration of the significance of communicating the urgency of climate change in a way that resonates with the emotional aspect of the audience and stresses its effects at the local level. Furthermore, it emphasizes the importance of utilizing credible communicators who can bridge political polarization around climate policies. This means to examine whether social factors have been incorporated to prevent climate gentrification, and whether the direct impact of climate change on health has been con457 E. Sanz, L. Chelleri, A. Chiabai et al. Urban Governance 5 (2025) 455–465 Fig. 1. Conceptual framework design. Source: prepared by the authors. Fig. 2. Conceptual framework. Source: prepared by the authors. veyed as one of the most compelling arguments for effectively involving citizens. Last but not least, the results have revealed the existence of a multitude of synergies and co-benefits between climate emergency and health policies. Consequently, an evaluation was conducted to determine the degree of integration of a health perspective that accounts for well-being and equity, consistent with the World Health Organization’s (WHO) and Planetary Health approach ( Horton & Lo, 2015 ); Fox et al., 2019 ). These approaches define health as a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, rather than solely the absence of disease or infirmity, and aims to achieve the highest possible level of health, well-being, and equity globally through balanced attention to human, political, economic, social, and natural systems within planetary boundaries. This perspective facilitates the integration of human and planetary health, equity and social justice, and their incorporation into public policies, which are fundamental components of the research framework. It is worth noting that these findings have significant implications for the development of policies and strategies designed to promote the health and well-being of populations, while simultaneously mitigating and adapting the impacts of climate change. 3.2. THE three factors AND ITS determinants AND indicators The guiding conceptual framework explores and structures the three distinct factors, its 18 determinants mentioned above, into a set of 53 corresponding indicators. In the next sections, we are going to introduce and explore all the determinants’ indicators, emerged from the literature and discussed/reviewed through the in-depth interviews. This deep-dive into all the measurements reflecting the Spanish context, are anyway innovative and functional to any international city for understanding and integration of climate and health policies. 3.2.1. Determinats and indicators of the climate strategy factor The first determinant of the climate strategy factor is legitimacy , which is concerned with the credibility and societal acceptance of these policies. It is essential to evaluate whether the municipal corporation has adopted a positive stance towards such policies. A significant number of the interviewed technical and political personnel emphasized the necessity of the municipal government being an inspiring example. In this context, the scientific literature highlights the importance of institutional legitimacy for effective policy implementation ( Cashmore & Wejs, 2014 ; Scott et al., 2000 ). According to scholars such as Fox et al. (2019) , health co-benefits can enhance the legitimacy of emergency climate strategies. As showed in the Fig. 3 , legitimacy is categorized into two indicators: regulatory legitimacy and exemplar legitimacy. regulatory legitimacy is linked to the need for local governments to take prior actions that legitimize the development of regulatory norms. For instance, the declaration of a climate emergency or political commitments to specific climate mitigation and adaptation objectives. On the other hand, Exemplar Legitimacy enables the evaluation of the public administration’s exemplary role in implementing its own climate and health policies. The coherence determinant is a useful tool for assessing potential conflicts that may arise among various municipal policies. Analysis of interviews showed that inconsistencies among internal municipal policies were occasionally prevalent. As introduced by the literature, ensuring political, regulatory, economic, temporal, and strategic coherence will also ensure the consistency and continuity of these strategies over time ( Runhaar et al., 2012 ; Wamsler, 2015 ; Uittenbroek, 2016 ). As noted by authors such as Runhaar et al. (2018) ; C. Uittenbroek (2014) , coherence in municipal policies is a critical indicator in ensuring the effective implementation of climate policies, from both political and economic/financial perspectives ( Sippel & Jenssen, 2009 ; H. Bulkeley, 2010 ; Runhaar et al., 2018 ; C. Uittenbroek, 2014 ). Furthermore, coherence analysis can help to identify potential contradictions between municipal policies and health policies. As noted by authors such as Haines and Ebi (2019) ; Ferrini and Gori (2020) , the synergies between climate change and health and well-being are particularly evident at the urban level. Improving urban liveability has a direct impact on the physical and mental health and overall comfort of citizens. Thus, it is important to ensure that policies in these areas are coherent with each other. Based on the analysis of the consulted scientific literature and expert interviews, there are five indicators that constitute this determinant — political, economic, fiscal, normative, and temporal-strategic coherence ( Runhaar et al., 2012 ; Wamsler, 2015 ; Uittenbroek, 2016 ). Political coherence measures the consistency of local policies with adopted climate and health goals. Economic coherence assesses the alignment of budgetary and financial plans with climate planning. Fiscal coher458 E. Sanz, L. Chelleri, A. Chiabai et al. Urban Governance 5 (2025) 455–465 Fig. 3. Determinants and indicators related to climate strategy factor. Source: Prepared by the authors. ence evaluates the incentivization of fiscal policies. Normative coherence gauges the absence of contradictions between climate planning, municipal regulations and the extent to which regulations support these efforts. Finally, temporal and strategic coherence examines whether the planned actions are aligned with government cycles and whether they are projected at opportune times, such as the renewal of urban master plans. Through the comparative analysis of diverse local governments, it has been concluded that stability is a vital determinant for ensuring the long-term success and sustainability of climate policies. This finding is consistent with the views expressed by scholars such as C. Uittenbroek (2014) and Runhaar et al. (2018) , who have underscored the significance of policy implementation consistency. Leadership , as the first indicator, plays a significant role in determining the political impetus and support required for achieving climate objectives. It is worth noting that several of the political figures interviewed emphasized the need for "distributed leadership" that involves various municipal departments, stakeholders, civil society, the private sector, among other vital actors. On the other hand, in numerous recent publications, the importance of robust leadership that incorporates health and climate policies has been emphasized, with the aim of preventing public health from being overlooked in climate planning ( Fox et al., 2019 ; Haines & Ebi, 2019 ; Ferrini et al., 2020 ; Watts et al., 2021 ; Romanello et al., 2022 ). The indicator of political consensus is a crucial metric for assessing the dedication to advancing and sustaining climate strategies, as observed throughout the conducted interviews ( Stead & Meijers, 2009 ; Runhaar et al., 2012 ; C. Uittenbroek et al., 2014 ; Wamsler & Pauleit, 2016 ). In addition, intra-municipal collaboration is a key factor in assessing policy stability, as climate change’s cross-cutting nature requires integration with other municipal departments. According with the interviewed, the lack of coordination among municipal areas due to their own distribution of competencies is a significant barrier to addressing cross-cutting issues such as climate change and health. Researchers such as Runhaar et al. (2018) , Wamsler (2014) , and Uittenbroek (2016) have discussed the ineffectiveness of environmental departments working in isolation. H. Bulkeley (2010) highlighted that one of the main limitations was the exclusive focus on environmental departments for addressing climate change, instead of a holistic and integrated approach across all departments. Inter-institutional collaboration enables the recognition of essential coordination and cooperation among various levels of public administration. Finally, authors like Sippel and Jenssen (2009) and Quay (2010) propose that budgetary and financial stability are key indicators to evaluate the economic feasibility of these strategies and promote them in an integrated manner. In accordance with current scientific discourse advocated by Reckien et al. (2017) and Anguelovski et al. (2019) , the equity and social justice determinant evaluates the extent to which climate strategies incorporate the most vulnerable groups. The inclusive perspective indicator specifically assesses whether these policies consider the needs of particularly vulnerable groups and align with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Additionally, the gender perspective indicator helps to identify whether the pivotal role of women as agents of change in communities has been acknowledged. The equidistributive policy indicator assesses whether the compensation for the potential adverse impacts on the most vulnerable communities has been adequately addressed. In addition, it is essential to acknowledge the significance of these policies being comprehensive and the balance they provide against the effects of "green gentrification" ( Anguelovski et al., 2019 ). Moreover, in the context of facing climate crisis, it is imperative to establish universal public health coverage for everyone, including those who are at risk of social exclusion ( Salas & Jha, 2019 ; Fox et al., 2019 ; Watts et al., 2021 ). Regarding the determinant and its homonymous indicator, the results emphasize the importance of involving the private and economic sectors as essential agents in achieving climate goals ( Glasbergen et al. (2007) ; J.C.S. Andrade and Puppim De Oliveira (2015) . By doing so, it becomes possible to evaluate whether these sectors are committed to emission reduction policies and other strategies that are vital to address catastrophic events, such as those related to public health. While previous studies have shown that the private sector can have a significant influence on the design and implementation of climate policies, it is essential to ensure that individual interests do not conflict with public and global interests in the fight against climate change. Notwithstanding the acknowledgment of the substantial importance of private sector engagement, it is still at an early stage of development, as observed during the interviews and literature review. Furthermore, the involvement of the financial sector is also crucial in the transition to a low-carbon economy, given its ability to channel funds into sustainable investments. The financial sector can also play a role in financing the necessary investments for adaptation and recovery from damages caused by adverse weather events, which can significantly have an impact on public health ( Martínez & Ramos, 2019 ); Bulkeley & Newell, 2015 ; Sullivan., 2014 ; Agrawala et al., 2011 ). Despite the significance of receiving support from the financial sector, none of the cities and municipalities interviewed indicated having a financial agreement in place with this sector. The effectiveness of climate policies at the municipal level depends on their integration , which affect climate goals and the health perspective. This finding has been consistently observed throughout the interview processes. To assess this integration, Reckien et al. (2019) propose a set of indicators. First, exclusive dedication of climate planning , which evaluates whether climate planning is integrated in other municipal polices. Second, the partial integration assesses if partially various types of sector plans consider climate change during their development. Third, the regulatory integration indicator evaluates the need to modify formal and informal planning procedures, such as regulations, policies, and legislation, to integrate climate policies ( Wamsler & Pauleit, 2016 ). Finally, the collaborative integration indicator examines whether changes are being made to promote collaboration with civil society, academia, and the private sector, such as collaborations with architects and urban planners ( C. Uittenbroek (2014) ; Bassett and Shan459 E. Sanz, L. Chelleri, A. Chiabai et al. Urban Governance 5 (2025) 455–465 Fig. 4. Determinants and indicators related to Capacity Building factor. Source: Prepared by the authors. das (2010) ; Carmin, Anguelovski and Roberts (2012) ; Wamsler, (2015). Moreover, Frumkin (2016))) and others suggest that new collaborations are needed to effectively integrate climate and health policies, while also strengthening existing relationships with traditional public health partners. 3.2.2. Determinants and indicators of the capacity building factor In the realm of assessing the ability of local governments to achieve these climate and health goals, the Capacity Building factor evaluates the structural, and managerial municipal capacity through its determinants and indicators ( Fig. 4 ). As posited by Olazabal et al. (2019) ; Knutti (2019) ; Uittenbroek (2016) ; Archer and Dodman (2015) , augmenting institutional training is widely acknowledged as a crucial component for fortifying responses to climate change. The assessment of human resources and technical training is a critical determinant in evaluating the structural and management capacity of municipalities towards achieving climate change and health policies. The human resources indicator aims to evaluate the presence of technical personnel devoted to the development of these policies and their level of commitment. Despite the importance attributed to human resources by many authors in the scientific literature ( Holgate, 2007 ; Sippel & Jenssen, 2009 ), during the interview process it was observed that the global, national, and regional climate agendas have generated a significant amount of new tasks that the environmental area can hardly manage in terms of dedication, structure, and logistics. In addition, a recurrent theme identified across the interviewed municipalities is the requirement for technicians of other areas take part in the design and implementation of these climate policies as well. As it was observed in the contrast processes, the lack of trained personnel in the design and development of these policies is a common challenge faced by local entities, resulting in significant obstacles to their implementation. Hence, the technical training indicator aims to evaluate the extent to which municipal corporations invest in the training, ensuring that they possess the latest technical and scientific knowledge in the field and are capable of adapting it to the local needs ( Knutti, 2019 ). It is worth noting that some of the interviewed cities considered promoting specialized technical training among existing municipal staff a priority over new hires. The evaluation of both intra-municipal and inter-institutional organizational resources serves as a pivotal determinant in discerning the essential structures that promote efficient cooperation among various departments. As highlighted by Runhaar et al. (2018) , Wamsler and Brink (2014) and Uittenbroek et al. (2016) , such structures encompass entities, committees, and panels capable of fostering cohesive responses to collaboration within departments and between institutions. These indicators also consider the availability of personnel with proper training and competencies in health, as well as the organizational resources that contribute to the integration of climate change and health strategies. As argued by Roca Villanueva et al. (2019) , it should also be considered that health systems are not immune to the risks posed by climate change, and health professionals must play an active role. The determinant of structural and methodological support is a crucial element in evaluating the effectiveness of local government’s response. The indicator of structural support examines how local government’s management structures, internal norms, job descriptions, departments, personnel, and financial resources are adapted to integrate both policies ( Runhaar et al., 2012 ; Ekstrom & Moser, 2014 and Wamsler, 2015). As advocated by C. Uittenbroek (2014) , the indicator of methodological support evaluates the availability of guides, sources, and experiences that facilitate the development of necessary methodologies to respond to climate change and health policies. The effectiveness determinant measures how well local governments comply with climate change and health policies. It includes three indicators: normative support, monitoring and control, and adaptive flexibility. Normative support ( C. Uittenbroek, 2014 ; Olazabal, 2019 ) refers to legally binding regulations that provide necessary legal coverage, while monitoring and control evaluates whether local governments have established indicators to measure policy effectiveness. According to C. Uittenbroek (2014) , adaptive flexibility constitutes the capacity of local governments to adapt to potential obstacles and leverage opportunities during policy implementation. One of the most frequently cited examples observed during the contrast processes was the opportunity to integrate the climate and health strategies into the urban master plan review. The objective of the knowledge sources determinant is to identify the utilization of suitable knowledge in decision-making concerning climate change and health strategies. The technical-scientific knowledge support indicator assesses whether decision-making is based on reliable and up-to-date knowledge provided by experts in the field ( Hulme & Mahony, 2010 ). Decision-making based on scientific evidence and public health ethics is crucial to managing uncertainty and optimizing outcomes regarding health, the environment, and the economy ( Frumkin et al., 2008 ). The contrast between municipal technicians and politicians revealed the distance between scientific knowledge and decision-making. To put an end to this, it was suggested that using appropriate language tailored to the targeted audience could be an effective strategy. 460 E. Sanz, L. Chelleri, A. Chiabai et al. Urban Governance 5 (2025) 455–465 Fig. 5. Determinants and indicators related to Psychosocial involvement factor. Source: Prepared by the authors. It is confirmed by local governments that complex issues such as climate change require an integrated knowledge approach that employs multi-, inter-, and transdisciplinary views to facilitate the development of innovative methodologies for co-producing knowledge ( Stock & Burton, 2011 ; Knutti, 2019 ). The knowledge and emissions projection indicators are essential in assessing the impacts at the local scale. Additionally, the local vulnerability knowledge indicator is crucial in determining whether these strategies are tailored according to the analysis of local vulnerability. Incorporating local knowledge can enhance the training of decision-makers, enabling them to make more informed decisions that reflect the unique needs of the local community ( Knutti, 2019 ; Naess, 2013 ). 3.2.3. Determinants and indicators of the psychosocial implication factor The interviewed municipalities highlighted the challenge of engaging citizens and community organizations in climate action. According to authors such as Naustdalslid (2011) social mobilization is a crucial aspect of effectively responding to climate change, necessitating therefore the identification of strategies that activate societal forces. From a psychological perspective, Hoffman (2015) argues that examining the cultural and emotional impact of personal beliefs and perceptions is vital to addressing the climate emergency. As a result, there is a need to investigate the psychosocial determinants that can motivate such action. In this sense, the psychosocial implication factor is categorized into a set of determinants and indicators to assess local government’s ability to promote citizen and civil society involvement and ensure the efficacy and long-term sustainability of climate policies ( Fig. 5 ). The first determinant and its corresponding indicator, public participation , aim to evaluate the quality of participatory processes implemented and their alignment with health expert recommendations. Specifically, this determinant assesses whether participatory channels strive to reach a broad audience, facilitate feedback processes, incorporate the public suggestions and robust public participation that encompasses all sectors of the population. According to Huerta (2013) and Alegre (2011) inclusive public participation is critical to avoiding the perception that policies are solely determined by experts who are unfamiliar with local concerns and facilitating effective citizen involvement. The ideological inclusivity determinant and indicator assess whether efforts have been made to involve diverse agents and social groups, including women and the third sector. Based on the findings of the interviews, it has been identified that it is important to engage a diverse group of actors and representatives from social, political, cultural, and religious domains. This is in line with the views of scholars like Hoffman (2015) , who argue that involving a broad range of actors with different beliefs and perspectives can enhance the sense of ownership of these policies. Furthermore, the inclusive consensus indicator , which is closely linked to the ideological inclusivity , evaluates whether attempts have been made to achieve basic consensus with representatives of diverse ideological currents. In order to ensure policy implementation and long-term sustainability, interviews also revealed how it is essential to secure consensus not only among political representatives, but also among various ideological currents in civil society. The determinant and indicator of community activism assess the degree to which local governments promote community involvement in initiatives, programs, spaces, and other activities. This determinant also enables the assessment of municipal efforts to encourage community activism regarding health and the climate crisis. Although the significance of community activism is highly regarded, as studies by RoserRenouf et al. (2014) and Ockwell et al. (2009) indicate, some municipalities have expressed challenges in involving communities in these policies. Nevertheless, there are some encouraging examples, such as Barcelona, which have provided some citizen associations with grants in order to boost initiatives against climate change. The effective communication determinant is a tool used to assess how well the climate emergency is being communicated to the public, specifically in regards to how it relates to health. The first indicator, transmission of technical scientific knowledge, looks at whether the information is presented in an understandable way that emphasizes the most current scientific and technical findings. Communicating about climate change is often difficult due to the complexity of the science involved, as well as misinformation and economic interests. Therefore, as suggested by various studies such as Hoffman (2015) ; Allum et al. (2008) ; Frumkin et al. (2008) , it is crucial to tailor the communication to bridge the gap between scientific knowledge and the public’s understanding. The positive communication indicator is based upon the importance of communicating the climate emergency while trying to avoid the use of a catastrophic message that reduces the audience’s hope for a better future ( Clayton & The College of Wooster, 2019 ). It is highly important to show a positive perspective that encourages the climate action and avoids inaction. The targeting communication indicator assesses whether the message is tailored to the language and interests of the target audience. Thus, effective communicators need to consider the audience and the source delivering each message, and adequate the message to the language and interests of the audience. This can involve using trusted communicators and linking the message to values that are important to the public ( Hoffman, 2015 ; Clayton, 2019 ). For example, if the message is targeted at the economic and financial sector, it may be necessary to use familiar terms such as cost-benefit, supply and demand, productivity, etc. Lastly, the persuasive communication indicator evaluates whether the climate emergency message seeks to convince the audience through an attractive and valuable presentation rather than imposing it. Certain cities that were interviewed acknowledge the significance of relying on the expertise of communication firms to maximize the effectiveness of their awareness campaigns. In addition, as demonstrated by R. Bouwen, Dewulf and Craps (2006) and Hoffman (2015) , persuasive communication is more effective when combined with emotional appeals that capture the audience’s attention. The cognitive determinant can be used to assess whether local governments are effectively increasing public knowledge about climate change. According to Hoffman (2015) , combined with a lack of knowl461 E. Sanz, L. Chelleri, A. Chiabai et al. Urban Governance 5 (2025) 455–465 Table 1 Framework Summary Source: Prepared by the authors. Factor Determinant Indicators References Climate Strategy Legitimacy Regulatory legitimacy Exemplary legitimacy Cashmore and Wejs (2014) ; Scott et al. (2000) ; Fox et al. (2019) Coherence Political coherence Economic coherence Fiscal coherence Normative coherence Strategic–temporal coherence Runhaar et al. (2012) ; Wamsler (2015) ; Uittenbroek (2016) ; Runhaar et al. (2018) ; C. Uittenbroek (2014) ; Sippel and Jenssen (2009) ; H. Bulkeley (2010) ; Haines and Ebi (2019) ; Ferrini and Gori (2020) Stability Political leadership Political consensus Intra-municipal collaboration Inter-institutional collaboration Budgetary and financial stability C. Uittenbroek (2014) ; Runhaar et al. (2018) ; Fox et al. (2019) ; Haines and Ebi (2019) ; Ferrini et al. (2020) ; Watts et al. (2021) ; Romanello et al. (2022) ; Stead and Meijers (2009) ; Runhaar et al. (2012) ; C. Uittenbroek et al. (2014) ; Wamsler and Pauleit (2016) ; H. Bulkeley (2010) ; Sippel and Jenssen (2009) ; Quay (2010) Equity and social justice Inclusive perspective Gender perspective Equidistributive policies Reckien et al. (2017) ; Anguelovski et al. (2019) ; Salas and Jha (2019) ; Fox et al. (2019) ; Watts et al. (2021) Private and economic sector involvement Private and economic sector involvement Financial sector involvement Glasbergen et al. (2007) ; J.C.S. Andrade and Puppim De Oliveira (2015) ; Martínez and Ramos (2019) ; Bulkeley and Newell (2015) ; Sullivan (2014) ; Agrawala et al. (2011) Integration Climate planning integration Partial integration Regulatory integration Collaborative integration Reckien et al. (2019) ; Wamsler and Pauleit (2016) ; C. Uittenbroek (2014) ; Bassett and Shandas (2010) ; Carmin, Anguelovski and Roberts (2012) ; Wamsler (2015) ; Frumkin (2016))) Capacity Building Human resources and technical training Human resources Technical training Intra-municipal organizational resources Inter-agency organizational resources Holgate (2007) ; Sippel and Jenssen (2009) ; Knutti (2019) ; Runhaar et al. (2018) ; Wamsler and Brink (2014) ; Uittenbroek et al. (2016) ; Roca Villanueva et al. (2019) Structural and methodological support Structural support Methodological support Runhaar et al. (2012) ; Ekström and Moser (2014) ; Wamsler (2015) ; C. Uittenbroek (2014) Effectiveness Regulatory support Monitoring, evaluation and reporting Adaptive flexibility C. Uittenbroek (2014) ; Olazabal (2019) Sources of knowledge Support scientific-technical knowledge Integrated knowledge Emissions inventory knowledge Emissions knowledge projection Technical-scientific knowledge Hulme and Mahony (2010) ; Frumkin et al. (2008) ; Stock and Burton (2011) ; Knutti (2019) ; Naess (2013) Psychosocial Involvement Public participation Public participation Huerta (2013) ; Alegre (2011) Ideological inclusivity Ideological inclusivity Inclusive consensus Hoffman (2015) Community activism Boosting community activism Roser-Renouf et al. (2014) ; Ockwell et al. (2009) Effective communication Transmission of technical-scientific knowledge Positive communication Targeted communication Persuasion Clayton (2019) ; Hoffman (2015) ; Maibach et al. (2008) ; Myers et al. (2013) ; Bain et al. (2014) ; Naustdalslid (2011) ; Roser-Renouf et al. (2014) Cognitive factors Public perception Local impact perception Social perception of CC Efficacy perception Hoffman (2015) ; Semenza et al. (2008) Behavioral factors Manipulation of information Trust Change of habitis Hoffman (2015) ; Roser-Renouf et al. (2014) ; R. Bouwen et al. (2006) ; Stern (2012) ; Hobson and Niemeyer (2013) ; Matthies et al. (2006) Awareness Environmental education Dissemination at good practices Huerta (2013) ; Ekström and Moser (2014) ; Semenza et al. (2008) Psychological factors Emotional Component Hoffman (2015) ; Meadowcroft and Fiorino (2017) ; Stern (2012) edge on how to act or what actions can have the greatest impact, the lack of perception of citizens towards climate change as a significant problem determines climate inaction. To address this, educational messages can be used to increase awareness about the causes and consequences of global warming and promote change of behaviour ( Semenza et al., 2008 ). This observation has been sustained throughout the interview process where it was observed that this lack of knowledge also extends to the impact of climate change on public health. The effective communication determinant is essential to value the public engagement and action towards climate emergency. This research proposes three perception indicators to assess the effectiveness of communication strategies, which were validated during the interview process. The local impact perception indicator emphasizes the importance of highlighting the local consequences and co-benefits of emissions reduction, as well as gathering local information on vulnerabilities ( Clayton, 2019 ; Hoffman, 2015 ; Maibach et al., 2008 ; Myers et al., 2013 ; Bain et al., 2014 ). The social perception indicator assesses whether a holistic understanding of climate change is being communicated, including its multidisciplinary nature. Identifying climate change as an environmental problem without addressing its social impact determines the incongruity between the severity of climate change and climate action ( Naustdalslid, 2011 ). The efficacy perception indicator examines whether messages are effectively transmitted by considering the importance of self-consciousness about the impact of individual behaviour ( Roser-Renouf et al., 2014 ). The behavioral determinant encompasses multiple factors that affect individual and societal behavior towards climate-related policies. Among the individuals interviewed, it was perceived that manipulation of information might constitute a difficulty in the acceptance of these policies. Consequently, it was critical to identify whether interest groups 462 E. Sanz, L. Chelleri, A. Chiabai et al. Urban Governance 5 (2025) 455–465 manipulate the messages. Hoffman’s research (2015) suggests that our rationality is restricted and influenced by our emotions and surroundings, enabling them to manipulate public debates in favour of their interests. Such manipulation can result in alterations to media coverage, public attitudes, consumer markets, and government policies. In order to prevent this, some of the politicians who were interviewed expressed the need to publish and refute the inaccurate and manipulated information that is disseminated through the media. Another important indicator is the trust generation, which aims to evaluate the potential of enhancing the credibility of messages related to the climate emergency. According to Hofman (2015) , one way of doing so is by using messengers with high social acceptance, such as sports or cultural figures, and promoting transparency in policy development processes. By using this indicator, we can evaluate the extent of efforts being taken to promote acceptance of climate-related policies. Furthermore, this also allows us to assess whether messengers with high social acceptance are being used from the health perspective. In terms of the citizen involvement indicator, it provides a means to assess the municipal corporation’s endeavours in regularly promoting initiatives aimed at enhancing citizen involvement. The interviewed municipalities expressed that, despite the significance of the matter, the expected outcomes were not being realized. This indicator can also determine whether there is a promotion of awareness regarding the impact of climate change on health. Notably, scholars such as Stern (2012) acknowledge that health is a value that significantly resonates with the community. Hence, emphasizing the repercussions of climate change on human well-being could be an effective message in promoting climate strategies. Additionally, experts such as Hoffman (2015) ; RoserRenouf et al. (2014) ; R. Bouwen et al. (2006) point out that understanding the mechanisms that drive population dynamics and their commitment to the climate challenge is crucial. As evidenced by interviews, established habits are considered a significant obstacle to achieving climate objectives, as many habitual behaviours are highly resistant to change ( Hobson & Niemeyer, 2013 ) However, appropriate policies can achieve behavioural changes ( Matthies et al., 2006 ). The habit change indicator serves as a tool to assess whether local governments have conducted a comprehensive analysis of social habits and are making efforts to pursue necessary habit changes. The determinant of awareness includes the environmental education indicator, which evaluates how municipalities extend their efforts towards environmental education through diverse educational and cultural actions . Additionally, the municipalities interviewed expressed the importance of extending this scholar environmental program to higher education levels such as secondary schools and universities, as well as adult culture programs or company training. Furthermore, the dissemination of good practice indicator recognizes the efforts of public administrations in promoting social interaction that facilitates the exchange of good practices, such as engaging in energy efficiency competitions or adopting sustainable mobility solutions. Finally, as observed during the contrast process, the psychological determinant is a critical aspect in evaluating efforts to engage society and promote its involvement. People, when confronting a problem, tend to be carried away by emotions easier than by conscious thoughts. According to experts such as Hoffman (2015) , Meadowcroft and Fiorino (2017) , and Stern (2012) , emotional appeals play a crucial role in engaging the public with climate policies. The emotional component indicator enables assessing the extent to which efforts have been made to promote a message that appeals to the emotional component of the audience. For example, recent messages may emphasize the interrelationship between the climate emergency and the Post-Covid 19 health crisis ( Table 1 ). 4. Conclusions Existing frameworks addressing climate local governance have provided limited insights into their capacity to effectively facilitate climate action. Given the climate emergency, there is an urgent need for a more comprehensive and integrated governance model that ensures the effective implementation of climate policies while simultaneously addressing broader societal implications. This study introduces a holistic framework that integrates climate strategy, capacity building, and psychosocial engagement, recognizing that sustainable climate governance requires an approach that is both technically robust and socially inclusive. Unlike previous models, this framework extends beyond climate adaptation and mitigation by incorporating a health perspective, ensuring that policies deliver co-benefits for environmental sustainability and public well-being. The COVID-19 pandemic has underscored the necessity of such an integrated approach, offering a pivotal opportunity to address two global crises —climate change and public health —through interconnected policy solutions. This framework provides a systematic and multidimensional approach to strengthening local climate governance by evaluating three key interrelated factors. Climate strategy assesses the decision-making capacity of local governments, taking into account leadership, political consensus, financial planning, policy coherence, and integration to ensure that climate policies are effectively formulated and implemented. Capacity building evaluates whether local administrations have the institutional and technical capability to develop and execute climate policies, with a focus on human resources, technical expertise, and governance structures that sustain long-term policy effectiveness. Psychosocial engagement examines how local governments actively involve communities in climate action, emphasizing public participation, community activism, and strategic communication to address the behavioral and emotional dimensions of climate challenges. By incorporating these three pillars, the framework ensures that local climate strategies are not only institutionally and technically sound but also socially accepted and widely supported. By integrating 18 determinants and 53 indicators, this framework serves as a comprehensive diagnostic tool for identifying governance gaps, improving institutional coordination, and strengthening citizen engagement in climate policy processes. It provides a structured and adaptable approach for local governments, policymakers, and urban planners seeking to enhance climate adaptation and resilience. Through its standardized methodology, municipalities can evaluate and refine their climate policies, pinpoint institutional weaknesses, and foster participatory decision-making that integrates diverse stakeholder perspectives. Moreover, by aligning climate policies with public health priorities, this approach facilitates co-benefits that contribute to environmental sustainability and societal well-being. Its flexibility allows for adaptation across various political, economic, and social contexts, positioning it as a versatile, evidence-based decision-support tool for cities aiming to establish innovative, inclusive, and resilient climate governance strategies. To further strengthen and validate this framework, future research should prioritize empirical applications in diverse urban settings, ensuring adaptability across different governance models. Expanding its use in real-world case studies will refine its effectiveness as a standardized assessment tool, guiding local governments in the development of resilient, participatory, and evidence-based climate policies. By offering a structured yet adaptable model, this framework provides a unique and actionable contribution to both research and governance, reinforcing the need for integrated, equitable, and interdisciplinary climate action that effectively addresses the interconnected challenges of climate change and public health. 463