Integrated photovoltaic system for rainwater collection and sustainable irrigation

Vol.:(0123456789) I iga ion Science (2025) 43:1385–1395 h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s00271-025-01028-7 ORIGINAL PAPER In eg a ed pho o ol aic sys em o  ainwa e collec ion andsus ainable i iga ion An onioGa cía‑Chica1· AngelMa ianoRod iguez‑Pe ez2· JulioJoseCapa os‑Mance a2· Cesa An onioRod íguez‑Gonzalez2· RosaMa iaChica1 Recei ed: 10 Feb ua y 2025 / Accep ed: 26 May 2025 / Published online: 16 July 2025 © The Au ho (s) 2025 Abs ac The in eg a ion o pho o ol aic sys ems wi h ainwa e ha es ing o e s a p omising solu ion o enhancing wa e and ene gy managemen in a id and semia id ag icul u al egions."This s udy p esen s an ag i ol aic sys em whe e pho o ol aic panels unc ion bo h as ene gy sou ce and as su aces o uno collec ion, di ec ing ainwa e in o a s o age ese oi o i iga- ion. A de ailed analysis was conduc ed o e alua e di e en scena ios, o a pe iod o en yea s, including panel inclina ion, op imizing a 35°, and he expansion o he pho o ol aic ield, o enhance ene gy e iciency and wa e a ailabili y. The esul s demons a e ha his app oach signi ican ly educes wa e sho ages, educing c i ical cases below 50% in i s scena io, pa icula ly du ing peak i iga ion demand pe iods, while inc easing he sys em’s s o age capaci y and o e all esilience o clima e a iabili y. The expansion o he pho o ol aic sys em, which is scalable acco ding o he applica ion, demons a es he o e all educ ion o c i ical cases in i iga ion a ailabili y, inc easing he ese oi capaci y up o 60,000 m3, which can be combined wi h inc eased managemen o ene gy gene a ed o he g id, o local gene a ion in emo e a eas, in combina ion wi h imp o ed wa e supply managemen . Addi ionally, he sys em imp o es ene gy sus ainabili y by educing eliance on ex e nal sou ces and lowe ing ca bon emissions om ag icul u al ac i i ies. The indings highligh he po en ial o in eg a ing pho o ol aic sys ems in o i iga ion managemen as a scalable and eplicable amewo k o enhancing esou ce e iciency and sus ainabili y in wa e -sca ce egions. In oduc ion Wa e sca ci y and he g owing global demand o ood and ene gy equi e inno a i e solu ions ha in eg a e wa e , ene gy, and ag icul u al sys ems (Widme e al. 2024). The po en ial o sola ene gy o mee global elec ici y demand is immense, bu i equi es ex ensi e a eas. The e is g ow- ing conce n ha la ge enewable ene gy ins alla ions may displace o he land uses, as a mland has a signi ican ly high sola po en ial compa ed o o he loca ions, a e aging app oxima ely 28 W/m2 (Adeh e al. 2019). Ag i ol aics, an inno a i e land-use s a egy, combines ag icul u al p oduc ion wi h pho o ol aic ene gy gene a ion on he same land. This app oach op imizes he use o na u al esou ces by ha nessing sola adia ion o bo h c op p o- duc ion and elec ici y gene a ion. Unlike con en ional pho- o ol aic sys ems, which occupy la ge land a eas and may compe e wi h ag icul u e, ag i ol aics enables a syne gis ic coexis ence be ween bo h ac i i ies, p o iding economic and en i onmen al bene i s (Roxani e al. 2023; A jun e al. 2023; Jano a e al. 2023). Global ene gy demand could be o se by sola p oduc ion i e en less han 1% o a mland we e con e ed in o an ag i ol aic sys em (Adeh e al. 2019). A he Eu opean le el, he mul i unc ional use o land h ough ag i ol aics has he po en ial o make a signi ican con ibu ion o achie ing he goals se in he Eu opean G een Deal (EGD) (Cha zipanagi e al. 2022). Fu he esea ch and de elopmen a e s ill needed ega ding ene gy aspec s, ag i- cul u al and pho o ol aic pe o mance, biodi e si y impac s, pilo p ojec s, and sys em moni o ing, all o which will be essen ial o ob ain sus ainable solu ions o he u u e (E ec o clima e change on ese oi wa e balance and i iga ion wa e demand: a case o Gidabo i iga ion p ojec xxxx; Cha zipanagi e al. 2023; Sheme e al. 2023). * Angel Ma iano Rod iguez-Pe ez angel. od [email p o ec ed] 1 Depa men o Enginee ing, Uni e si y o Alme ía, Alme ía, Spain 2 Depa men o Mining, Mechanical, Ene gy andCons uc ion Enginee ing, Uni e si y o Huel a, Huel a, Spain 1386 I iga ion Science (2025) 43:1385–1395 Nume ous s udies ha e been conduc ed in ecen yea s due o ag i ol aics po en ial in he ood-ene gy nexus. Demons a ion p ojec s wi h new concep ual designs based on pho o ol aic modules co e ing open ields ha e shown p omising esul s in op imizing ligh a ailabili y while educing i iga ion needs and p o ec ing agains ex eme wea he e en s (Toledo and Scognamiglio 2021; Ye e al. 2023). Howe e , he po en ial o op imizing wa e use wi hin hese sys ems emains unexplo ed. Almanzo a Valley, loca ed in he p o ince o Alme ía, is cha ac e ized by a semi-a id clima e, wi h sca ce ain all and high empe a u es h oughou mos o he yea (Ma ín-Vide e al. 2021). T adi ionally, his egion has expe ienced ho , d y summe s and mild win e s wi h limi ed ain all. In ecen yea s, he e ec s o clima e change ha e in ensi ied hese condi ions, inc easing a idi y and leading o mo e ex eme wea he e en s (Bull e al. 2000; Sumne e al. 2003). A no able mani es a ion o his end is he decline in annual p ecipi a ion, combined wi h an inc ease in he equency o o en ial ains (Cama asa-Belmon e e al. 2020). Recen da a indica e ha ain all, which was p e iously mo e e enly dis ibu ed h oughou he yea , now occu s in isola ed high- in ensi y e en s, discha ging la ge olumes o wa e o e sho pe iods. This e olu ion o he me eo ology c ea es he need o new wa e ha es ing models and in as uc u es o achie e sus ainable echnological de elopmen o wa e ese es o di e en sec o s o socie y (Fa mani e al. 2012, 2011; Memon e al. 2011; Wa d e al. 2011; Bu le e al. 2011; Aljohani e al. 2023; Albalawi e al. 2022). P e ious ele an scien i ic s udies analyze he bene i s o wa e ha es ing in pho o ol aic sys ems in geog aphical loca ions wi h o en ial ain all. In pa icula , by cap u - ing and channeling ainwa e in a con olled manne , sola panels help educe uncon olled su ace uno , which sig- ni ican ly con ibu es o p e en ing e osion and landslides. These wa e ha es ing designs allow o a mo e e en and a ge ed dis ibu ion o wa e low, he eby educing he di ec impac o wa e on he soil and p omo ing mo e sus- ainable wa e esou ce managemen in a eas wi h dese and ex eme clima es. S udies ha e ocused on quan i ying he e ec o uno ollowing he ins alla ion o pho o ol aic sys- ems in ag icul u al egions (Cook LM, McCuen RH 2013). In o de o ake ad an age o o en ial wa e s o i iga ion while also analyzing in an ad anced way he di e en cases o e osion in he g ound ha hese ins alla ions can cause, models ha e been p oposed (Gullo a e al. 2023). Likewise, wi h he objec i e o analyzing he e ec applied o he com- plexi y o he o og aphy, o he models also analyze he e ec o uno and i s applica ion in he g ow h o ag o ol aic c ops (Ba na d e al. 2017). Compa ed o p e ious s udies, his s udy uses pipes a he ends o he pho o ol aic panels, a oiding on-si e con- s uc ion, which en ails g ea e economic and en i onmen al impac . The p oposed sys em is designed o accumula e he wa e collec ed in he exis ing ese oi , hus a oiding he use o he land benea h he pho o ol aic ins alla ion. Wi h his sys em's unique app oach, i does no di ec ly link wa e collec ion o he c op ield, bu ins ead uses a ese oi as a wa e ese e sys em o plan i iga ion pe iods acco ding o c op needs, signi ican ly s eng hening i iga ion esilience. This s udy also op imizes he ela ionship be ween ene gy gene a ion and wa e collec ion capaci y. Fu he mo e, a scalable p oposal o inc easing he pho o ol aic sys em o e s di e en scena ios, including g id connec ion o local gene a ion in emo e a eas. The e o e, his s udy p oposes a no el me hod o collec ing ainwa e om he su aces o pho o ol aic panels in eg a ed wi h an i iga ion sys em. Fo he case o alida ion o he s udy, wa e is s o ed and used o i iga e almond c ops, which a e well adap ed o a id and semi-a id egions. The sys em maximizes esou ce e iciency by aligning enewable ene gy p oduc ion wi h sus ainable wa e managemen p ac ices. The p ima y objec i e o his s udy is o e alua e and demons a e he easibili y o an in eg a ed pho o ol aic sys em ha combines sola ene gy gene a ion and ainwa e ha es ing, aiming o enhance wa e and ene gy sus ainabil- i y in a id and semi-a id ag icul u al egions whe e o en ial ain all occu s. This s udy p oposes an inno a i e app oach by u ilizing he su aces o sola panels as a ool o uno collec ion, in eg a ing enewable ene gy p oduc ion wi h e icien wa e managemen p ac ices. The key inno a ion lies in he design and e alua ion o a mul i unc ional sys em ha simul aneously op imizes ene gy pe o mance and wa e s o age, mee ing he needs o high-a idi y c ops. The s uc u e o he manusc ip is o ganized as ol- lows: he in oduc ion con ex ualizes he global wa e and ene gy challenges in ela ion o ag icul u e; he me hodol- ogy desc ibes he sys em design and e alua ion me hods; he esul s and discussion analyse he impac s o di e en con igu a ions and scena ios, p o iding op imiza ion o he p oposed case. Finally, he conclusions highligh he bene i s and u u e pe spec i es o he sys em. Me hodology The design o he p oposed sys em mee s se e al key equi emen s o ensu e i s e iciency and iabili y. Fi s , he collec ion o ainwa e is designed o be op imized alongside elec ici y gene a ion h ough pho o ol aic sys ems. Addi ionally, i is essen ial o minimize ins al- la ion and main enance cos s by op imizing he selec ion o ma e ials and sys em con igu a ion o educe expenses wi hou comp omising unc ionali y. Finally, he sys em mus ensu e a su icien wa e supply o c op p oduc i - i y, conside ing wa e demand based on c op ype (MAPA 1387I iga ion Science (2025) 43:1385–1395 (Minis e io de Ag icul u a, Pesca y Alimen ación) 2021; Rome o e al. 2004). To add ess hese equi emen s, he p oposed sys em design le e ages syne gies be ween sola ene gy cap u e and ainwa e collec ion o op imize wa e esou ce use in ag icul u al ields. By u ilizing he panel inclina ion along wi h a se o gu e s and pipes, ainwa e is collec ed and pumped in o a cen al ese oi , inc easing i s e ec- i e capaci y and ensu ing wa e a ailabili y du ing d y pe iods. Subsequen ly, his wa e is dis ibu ed h ough a d ip i iga ion ne wo k, ensu ing an e icien and sus ain- able wa e supply o c op de elopmen . The sys em alls wi hin he ainwa e ha es ing me hod, which is applied o inducing, collec ing, s o ing, and conse ing local su - ace uno o la e use (Lasage and Ve bu g 2015). Figu e1 illus a es he concep ual schema ic o he sys- em, highligh ing i s main componen s and he in eg a ion o he pho o ol aic ield wi hin he ag icul u al acili y. The sys em consis s o he ollowing componen s: • Pho o ol aic pa k: The pho o ol aic panels a e op imized in e ms o inclina ion o enhance bo h sola ene gy cap- u e and ainwa e uno collec ion. • Channelling mechanism: Gu e sys ems a e ins alled a he lowe edges o he panels o di ec collec ed ainwa e in o he piping sys em. • S o age: The wa e is anspo ed o a s o age ank o cen al ese oi , dimensioned acco ding o expec ed p ecipi a ion le els and i iga ion equi emen s. • I iga ion ne wo k: A d ip i iga ion sys em is designed o dis ibu e he collec ed wa e o almond c ops, ensu - ing e icien wa e use. To assess he easibili y and e iciency o he ainwa- e collec ion sys em in eg a ed in o a pho o ol aic pa k, a de ailed analysis o clima ic and ene gy condi ions in a speci ic egion in sou h o Spain was conduc ed. His o ical da a om local me eo ological s a ions, including daily ain- all, we e collec ed o es ima e ainwa e a ailabili y and i s po en ial u iliza ion. Ag icul u al wa e demand was de ined based on he c op ype in he a ea, allowing o he de e mi- na ion o he necessa y wa e olume o e icien and sus- ainable i iga ion (Agencia es a al de Me eo ologia. 2025). Addi ionally, he op imal inclina ion o he pho o ol aic panels was e alua ed, no only o maximize ene gy gen- e a ion bu also o op imize ainwa e uno collec ion, es ablishing a quan i iable ela ionship be ween ene gy p o- duc ion and wa e ha es ing. Fo his pu pose, he ene gy pe o mance o pho o ol aic panels was analysed h ough sola i adia ion eco ds and pho o ol aic con e sion mod- els, in eg a ing hese da a in o he sys em planning. The combina ion o hese a iables enables he es ima ion o he o e all e iciency o he p oposed sys em, p o iding key in o ma ion o i s implemen a ion and adap a ion o di e - en clima ic and ag icul u al con ex s. Nex , he cha ac e is ics and pe o mance o a pho o ol- aic ins alla ion using 500 W sola panels we e examined o de e mine hei ene gy gene a ion capaci y o in eg a ion in o he ainwa e collec ion sys em. The panels used in his s udy a e high-e iciency monoc ys alline models, designed o pho o ol aic pa k applica ions. The main speci ica ions o hese panels a e p esen ed in Table1. The bene i s o applying he sys em a e aimed a imp o ing i iga ion sys- ems whe e wa e supply can be c i ical due o emo e a eas o limi ed supplies. Simila ly, he pho o ol aic a ay is an o -g id sys em, al hough his same applica ion would be Fig. 1 Rainwa e collec ion sys em design in a pho o ol aic pa k 1388 I iga ion Science (2025) 43:1385–1395 scalable o g id-connec ed sys ems while main aining he main ad an ages. To e alua e he ene gy pe o mance o he pho o ol aic ield in he s udy egion in sou he n Spain, a de ailed analy- sis was conduc ed conside ing di e en panel il angles. This app oach allows o iden i ying he op imal con igu a- ion o maximize annual ene gy gene a ion and unde s and- ing seasonal a ia ions in sys em pe o mance. Ene gy gen- e a ion was analysed o il angles o 15°, 35°, 45°, and 60°, enabling a compa ison o bo h mon hly and annual accumu- la ed alues. The analysis was suppo ed by he Pho o ol aic Geog aphical In o ma ion Sys em, he PVGIS ool (h ps:// e. j c. ec. eu opa. eu/ p g_ ools/ en/) (accessed on 20 Janua y 2025). The Pho o ol aic Geog aphical In o ma ion Sys em (PVGIS) is a ool de eloped by he Eu opean Commission ha p o ides sola i adia ion da a and es ima es pho o ol- aic ene gy p oduc ion using sa elli e-de i ed clima e da a and s anda d PV pe o mance models. I calcula es expec ed ene gy ou pu based on geog aphical loca ion, sys em con- igu a ion, and me eo ological inpu s. Figu e2 p esen s he analysis o sola ene gy gene a ion, highligh ing ha a 35° il p o ides he highes annual accumula ed ene gy gen- e a ion, eaching alues close o 14,000 MWh. F om a i s glance, his would be he op imal inclina ion alue. The e- o e, hese alues se e as an ini ial ac o in op imizing he balance be ween ene gy gene a ion and wa e collec ion, which is conside ed in he nex sec ion. To e alua e he a ailabili y o wa e o i iga ion h oughou he yea , a mon hly wa e balance analysis was conduc ed, conside ing di ec p ecipi a ion and c op demand unde h ee di e en scena ios. This assessmen was ca ied ou in he Almanzo a egion, loca ed in he no h o he p o ince o Alme ia (Spain). In a i s scena io, he sys em was modelled wi hou he addi ional collec ion o wa e h ough pho o ol aic panels, allowing he e alua ion o he s o age capaci y o he es- e oi and wa e co e age solely om di ec ain all on he soil and he ese oi . This case s udy aims o analyze how ain all and ese oi wa e supply mee i iga ion needs, highligh ing c i ical pe iods when wa e is insu icien o mee c op demand. The wa e le el in he ese oi a he end o each mon h (V ) is calcula ed using he ollowing equa ion: whe e: • V −1 is he ese oi olume in he p e ious mon h, • P −1 is he p ecipi a ion eco ded in he p e ious mon h, • Ab is he ese oi ca chmen a ea, • D −1 is he i iga ion demand o he p e ious mon h. In a second scena io, he collec ion o ainwa e h ough pho o ol aic panels was inco po a ed, in oducing an addi- ional wa e inpu in o he sys em. In his scena io, he analy- sis ocuses on alida ing he inc eased wa e ha es ing in (1) V = V −1 + P −1 ⋅ Ab − D −1 Table 1 Speci ica ions o pho o ol aic panels Cha ac e is ic Value Pho o ol aic pa k powe 8.37MW Numbe o panels 16,740 Panel dimensions 2108 × 1048 × 35mm Panel weigh 24kg Nominal Ope a ing Cell Tempe a u e (NOCT) 43°C Expec ed li espan 30yea s Fig. 2 Pho o ol aic sola ene gy gene a ion o di e en panel il s 1389I iga ion Science (2025) 43:1385–1395 ag i ol aic sys ems o add ess he demand de ici om he p e ious scena io. In his case, he mon hly olume o he ese oi (V ) is adjus ed conside ing he uno cap u ed by he panels, acco ding o he ollowing equa ion: whe e: • Pp -1 is he p ecipi a ion cap u ed by he pho o ol aic panels in he p e ious mon h, • Ap ep esen s he o al e ec i e panel a ea, which is a unc ion o he inclina ion angle. This adjus men allows o e alua ing he impac o wa e collec ion h ough pho o ol aic panels on he sys em’s wa e a ailabili y and de e mining he op imal inclina ion o bal- ance wa e ha es ing and sola ene gy gene a ion. The hi d scena io conside s an expansion o he pho- o ol aic ield, e alua ing a h ee old inc ease in he cu - en panel su ace a ea o enable addi ional ainwa e accu- mula ion in he ese oi . The expansion alue ep esen s he a ailable ins alla ion a ea combined wi h a pa ame e (2) V = V −1+ P −1⋅ Ab − D −1+ Pp −1⋅ Ap e lec ing he hi d case o he alida ion me hodology. I ensu es su icien accumula ed wa e olume and po en ial su plus in a o able ain all condi ions. This alue is no uni- e sal, bu scalable, allowing op imiza ion based on ain all, sys em con igu a ion, wa e demand, and si e a ailabili y. The applica ion o his scena io is aimed a b oadly add ess- ing wa e demand du ing c i ical pe iods. I also p oposes a scalable scena io whe e inc eased ene gy gene a ion can con ibu e o sel -consump ion, g id connec ion, o local supply. The Table2 shows he scena ios analyzed in he esul s sec ion, including he a iables conside ed in each o hem as well as he speci ic igu e whe e he empo al e olu ion o he olumes o ain, s o age and demand o each case can be seen, h oughou he analyzed pe iods o en yea s. Resul s anddiscussion This sec ion p esen s he esul s ob ained o he di e en analysed scena ios, o a pe iod o en yea s om 2014 o 2024. Figu e3 shows he esul s o he i s scena io, illus a ing he e olu ion o he ese oi olume and i s Table 2 Speci ica ions o pho o ol aic panels Rain (c op) Rain ( ese - oi ) Rain (PV) Wa e con- sump ion Rese oi olume Rese oi ol- ume wi h PV Resul s Scena io 1 ( ese oi ) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Figu e3 Scena io 2 (ag i ol aic + ese oi ) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Figu e4 Scena io 3 (ex ended ag i ol aic + ese oi ) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Figu e5 Fig. 3 E olu ion o ese oi olume o he las en yea s 1390 I iga ion Science (2025) 43:1385–1395 ela ionship wi h mon hly demand, allowing o he iden i- ica ion o pe iods in which wa e a ailabili y is insu icien o mee c op needs. Figu e3 shows ha he accumula ed ain all o he c op and he ese oi exhibi s ma ked seasonali y, along he en yea s’ pe iod, wi h peaks in au umn and win e mon hs, eaching o e 6000 m3, and minimum alues in summe , wi h a e age alues below 1000 m3, highligh ing he wa e sys em's dependence on seasonal ain all o echa ge. The mon hly wa e demand ollows a pa e n consis en wi h he c op g ow h cycle, eaching i s maximum du ing wa m mon hs such as sp ing and summe , when e apo anspi a ion a es a e highe , wi h alues a ound 5000 m3, while in colde mon hs, he demand is signi ican ly lowe , down o 500 m3. The wa e consump ion epo ed in he esul s also akes in o accoun e apo a ion and il a ion ac o s in he ese oi . The ese oi olume a ies signi ican ly h oughou he yea ; du ing high p ecipi a ion mon hs, he ese oi ends o echa ge, up o 8000 m3 o he bes yea s, whe eas in d y pe iods, especially in summe , he olume dec eases consid- e ably, o en eaching c i ical le els. Thus, se e al pe iods a e iden i ied in which wa e a ailabili y is insu icien o mee c op needs, mainly in high-demand mon hs such as July and Augus , unde sco ing he impo ance o op imiz- ing s o ed wa e managemen and seeking complemen a y s a egies o mi iga e he impac o wa e de ici s. In he scena io 2, he impac o inco po a ing pho o- ol aic panels in o he wa e sys em is e alua ed. Figu e4 shows how he inclusion o pho o ol aic panels posi i ely a ec s he ese oi olume, p o iding an ex a inpu o col- lec ed wa e du ing p ecipi a ion pe iods. The ese oi olume wi h he in eg a ion o pho o ol aic panels shows a signi ican inc ease compa ed o he baseline scena io, especially du ing high p ecipi a ion mon hs such as au umn and win e , eaching o e 9000 m3. This addi- ional inpu helps mi iga e he wa e de ici s ha p e iously occu ed in d y mon hs like July and Augus in mos cases. This is e lec ed in he esul s o wa e collec ion including he panels, which ep esen his sys em as a complemen a y sou ce ha educes p essu e on he exis ing wa e sys em. In his scena io he ese oi each up o 15,000 m3 o he bes cases, while i mi iga es he c i ical mon hs o insu icien wa e ese es below 50% compa ed o he i s scena io. Since he inclusion o wa e collec ion wi h pho o ol aic panels educes he numbe o c i ical cases ega ding es- e oi olume bu does no en i ely elimina e hem, a hi d scena io is p oposed, in ol ing an ex ension o he pho o- ol aic ield. Scena io 3 analyses he impac o expanding he pho o ol aic ield o imp o e bo h ene gy gene a ion and ainwa e collec ion. The pho o ol aic ield is expanded acco ding o he a ailable land a ea and op imized based on si e-speci ic condi ions such as ain all, wa e demand, and sys em con igu a ion. Figu e5 shows how his change signi ican ly in luences he wa e sys em's beha iou , com- ple ely mi iga ing pe iods when he ese oi olume eaches c i ical alues. The expansion o he pho o ol aic ield subs an ially inc eases he amoun o wa e collec ed, di ec ly con ib- u ing o main aining mo e s able ese oi olume le els. The ex en o he PV ins alla ion expansion depends on he land a ailable and is adjus ed o maximize wa e collec ion e iciency unde local en i onmen al and ope a ional con- di ions. Fo he case s udy, he e ec i e a ea in his case is ipled, hus a ec ing bo h wa e collec ion and ene gy gene a ion. This may a y depending on he applica ion a ea, as his is a scalable sys em. This imp o emen is Fig. 4 E olu ion o ese oi olume wi h pho o ol aic wa e collec ion 1391I iga ion Science (2025) 43:1385–1395 pa icula ly no able in high wa e -demand mon hs such as July and Augus , whe e he sys em p e iously expe ienced c i ical de ici s. The inc eased collec ion capaci y enables he sys em o espond mo e e icien ly o c op needs, e en unde limi ed p ecipi a ion condi ions. Addi ionally, a compa ison wi h p e ious scena ios shows ha expand- ing he pho o ol aic ield no only mi iga es de ici s bu also p o ides a wa e secu i y ma gin by inc easing s o age capaci y du ing we mon hs, eaching ese oi olume up o 60,000 m3. This ensu es be e wa e a ailabili y h oughou he yea , educing dependence on ex e nal sou ces and p o iding a mo e consis en wa e supply ha enhances sys em esilience agains clima e a iabili y and inc easing c op demands. The inal analysis e alua ed he ese oi olume based on he pho o ol aic panels' il angle, also conside - ing he expansion o he pho o ol aic ield (+ in Fig.6). This app oach aims o de e mine he op imal angle ha maximizes ainwa e collec ion while ensu ing e icien ene gy gene a ion. The analysis in Fig.6 shows ha he inclina ion o pho- o ol aic panels has a di ec e ec on ese oi olume, pa - icula ly in i s abili y o main ain s able le els o e ime. A lowe inclina ion esul s in g ea e wa e collec ion due o he panels' mo e ho izon al su ace, which allows o inc eased uno cap u e du ing in ense ain all pe iods. Howe e , hese lowe inclina ions can sligh ly educe sola gene a ion e iciency compa ed o s eepe angles. A highe inclina ions, wa e collec ion dec eases sligh ly due o he panels' mo e e ical angle. Expanding he pho o ol aic ield signi ican ly enhances he sys em's abili y o add ess wa e de ici s, pa icula ly a in e media e inclina ions such as 35° and 45°, which achie e a easonable balance be ween wa e collec ion and sola gene a ion (Fig.2), wi h 35° being he op imal case unde he s udy condi ions, since 35° also p oduced he g ea es sola gene a ion. Wi h he expanded Fig. 5 E olu ion o ese oi olume wi h ex ended pho o ol aics Fig. 6 E olu ion o ese oi olume wi h di e en pho o ol aic il angles 1392 I iga ion Science (2025) 43:1385–1395 pho o ol aic ield, ese oi le els emain highe e en du ing peak demand mon hs like July and Augus , elimina ing he c i ical de ici s obse ed in scena ios wi hou pho o ol aic ield expansion while ensu ing bo h a la ge wa e ese e and op imal ene gy gene a ion. These esul s can indeed be sca- la ed o di e en egions as he inc eased wa e capaci y is demons a ed wi hin he expanded pho o ol aics in eg a ion. The economic iabili y o ins alling he sys em has been analyzed. Se e al ac o s a e aken in o accoun , includ- ing he cos o he ma e ial and i s in eg a ion, as well as sa ings in wa e supply. I should also be no ed ha his applica ion can be c i ical in egions wi h di icul wa e supplies. The amo iza ion analysis is based on he ini ial in es men equi ed o he implemen a ion o he wa e col- lec ion sys em. This includes ma e ial cos s (such as pip- ing and i ings), labo o ins alla ion, and o he essen ial componen s necessa y o sys em ope a ion. The p o i - abili y h eshold co esponds o he olume o wa e ha would gene a e equi alen sa ings compa ed o con en ional wa e acquisi ion sou ces. The e o e, sys em amo iza ion is achie ed when he accumula ed collec ed olume compen- sa es he ini ial in es men h ough a oided wa e pu chase cos s. The annual accumula ion o collec ed wa e is p o- jec ed conside ing di e en pho o ol aic panel il angles, in luencing collec ion e iciency. Conside ing he di e en con igu a ions o he i s pho o ol aic ins alla ion case, i is con i med ha he sys em can be amo ized in less han 7yea s, Fig.7, while he op imized case o 35° is p o i able om 5yea s. Depending on he egion and he wa e accu- mula ion when he sys em is ins alled, hese igu es could e en be imp o ed. The e o e, in addi ion o a sho economic eco e y pe iod, he sys em no only a oids he cos o wa e supply in emo e a eas, which has been p o en in his wo k o be equi ed o sa is y he demand o he plan a ion, bu also a oids modi ying he o og aphy o he egion when ca - ying ou la ge-scale supplies, wi h he bene i s in en i on- men al impac ha his en ails. Rega ding he payback om he expansion o pho o ol aic panels, which can be scaled acco ding o hei applica ion, se e al issues a e wo h no - ing. Since he ins alla ion ma e ial, i s in eg a ion cos , he cos o wa e sa ed, and he olume o wa e collec ed a e p opo ional, he payback is he same. This p opo ionali y a ises na u ally, as scaling up he sys em en ails a di ec inc ease in ma e ials, ins alla ion ime, and wa e collec ion capaci y. Al hough ce ain non-linea e ec s, such as mino e iciency a ia ions o local cos di e ences, may occu , hei in luence is gene ally limi ed compa ed o he dominan impac o scaling. The e o e, his app oxima ion is consid- e ed su icien ly obus o global scalabili y assessmen s, while mo e de ailed, si e-speci ic analyses can u he e ine he payback es ima ion i needed. I is impo an o keep in mind ha an inc ease in pho o ol aic gene a ion mus also ha e an applica ion. I he ag icul u al plan does no ha e su icien ene gy demand, wo scena ios can be conside ed. On he one hand, g id connec ion, in a eas whe e i exis s, o he c ea ion o a local g id wi h nea by acili ies, o supply ene gy o mo e emo e a eas o hose seeking o shi owa d a mo e sus ainable ene gy consump ion model. Al hough his migh inc ease CAPEX and a ec inancial indica o s, he c ea ion o a local g id p o ides a s a egic bene i by enabling ene gy access in emo e a eas, which goes beyond sho - e m p o i abili y. The implemen a ion o he in eg a ed pho o ol aic sys em is shown in Fig.8, which illus a es he layou o he main componen s o his sys em. The pho o ol aic sys em is s a egically loca ed and designed o maximize bo h sola ene gy cap u e and ainwa e uno collec ion. The panels a e il ed a op imized angles ha allow he Fig. 7 Analysis o he sys em amo iza ion 1393I iga ion Science (2025) 43:1385–1395 collec ed wa e o be di ec ed owa d a s o age sys em, which includes he main ese oi wi h su icien capaci y o ensu e wa e supply du ing c i ical mon hs o he yea . This ese oi , ecei ing addi ional inpu s om wa e col- lec ed by he panels, main ains s able le els e en du ing high wa e -demand pe iods. Adjacen o he main ese oi is he pumping ese oi , which egula es wa e dis ibu- ion. This design ensu es e icien wa e managemen , educing losses and gua an eeing a cons an supply. The s o ed wa e is dis ibu ed h ough an i iga ion sys em, which minimizes e apo a ion and op imizes esou ce use, adjus ing o he speci ic needs o he c op. The in eg a ion o his sys em in o he cul i a ed a ea p o ides subs an ial bene i s. Sola ene gy gene a ion sig- ni ican ly educes ene gy cos s associa ed wi h ag icul u al ope a ions, such as wa e pumping and o he i iga ion- dependen ac i i ies. Fu he mo e, ainwa e collec ion ensu es a s able wa e supply and educes eliance on ex e nal sou ces, p omo ing g ea e wa e and ene gy au onomy. The implemen a ion o his in eg a ed pho o ol- aic sys em enhances c op esilience o clima e a iabili y condi ions, such as d ough pe iods o i egula ain all. I s mul i unc ional design allows o e icien esou ce use, in eg a ing en i onmen al sus ainabili y wi h ag icul u al p oduc i i y. In eg a ion s ill allows o he inco po a ion o di e en plan a ions, on a smalle scale, wi h a educed en i onmen al impac . Addi ionally, his solu ion is ep- licable in o he egions, adap ing o hei speci ic clima e condi ions, making i a aluable ool o ans o ming ag i- cul u e in o a mo e sus ainable and esilien model. Conclusions The esul s ob ained in his s udy demons a e ha he in e- g a ion o pho o ol aic sys ems wi h ainwa e ha es ing is a echnically iable and high-impac solu ion o wa e and ene gy managemen in a id and semi-a id egions. The abil- i y o sola panels o unc ion as uno collec ion su aces no only expands he unc ionali y o adi ional pho o ol aic sys ems bu also maximizes he u iliza ion o exis ing in a- s uc u e, c ea ing syne gies be ween enewable ene gy gen- e a ion and wa e sus ainabili y. The combina ion o ene gy gene a ion and wa e collec ion makes pho o ol aic panels an e icien and mul i unc ional solu ion. The objec i e o e alua ing and demons a ing he easibili y o an in eg a ed pho o ol aic sys em ha combines sola ene gy gene a ion wi h ainwa e ha es ing has been success ully add essed. The esul s highligh he sys em's po en ial o imp o e wa e and ene gy sus ainabili y in a id and semi-a id ag icul u al egions p one o o en ial ain all. The de ailed analysis o di e en scena ios and con igu a- ions, including panel inclina ion and he expansion o he pho o ol aic ield, con i ms ha i is possible o signi ican ly educe c i ical wa e de ici s h ough his sys em. Speci i- cally, o he e alua ed case, he op imal inclina ion o 35° Fig. 8 In eg a ed i iga ion sys em wi h pho o ol aics and ainwa e ha es ing