Strategies for enhancing irrigation efficiency on turfgrass areas
Abstract
Turfgrass systems are a vital component of urban green infrastructure, providing functional, ecological, and aesthetic services in recreational, sporting, and public landscapes. However, maintaining high-quality turfgrass requires substantial water, which has become increasingly problematic in the context of global water scarcity, climate change, and environmental regulations. Efficient water use has become a priority in sustainable turfgrass management. Unlike traditional agricultural systems, turfgrass areas prioritize usability, plant growth, and aesthetics. Standards for sports turf construction focus on soil properties, drainage, and moisture retention, but increasing drought and water scarcity demand innovative irrigation strategies to maintain functionality. Traditional irrigation systems, particularly sprinkler-based methods, often result in inefficient water use due to wind drift, evaporation loss, and technically induced distribution inaccuracies. Conversely, subsurface drip irrigation offers targeted and potentially more efficient water delivery, though it poses challenges in adequately wetting the turfgrass rootzone. Irrigation delivery systems interact with soil physical properties and rootzone construction methods, thereby affecting water distribution, retention, and turfgrass quality. Efficient irrigation strategies require a nuanced understanding of soil–water dynamics, including the impact of rootzone construction methods and irrigation delivery systems on water retention characteristics and soil moisture distribution. This cumulative dissertation addresses the pressing need to enhance irrigation efficiency in turfgrass areas by systematically investigating the impact of rootzone construction methods on irrigation water distribution, retention, and turfgrass performance. This investigation focuses on using traditional and commonly used sprinkler irrigation (SPR) or subsurface drip irrigation (SDI). Moreover, the study aims to assess the application of numerical simulation models, specifically HYDRUS-2D, to predict and optimize irrigation efficiency under various rootzone–irrigation configurations, with the overarching objective of evaluating strategies to enhance irrigation efficiency in turfgrass areas. To achieve this objective, trials were conducted over several years, encompassing three complementary studies: empirical (field and controlled environment) and modeling-based. The research systematically explores how rootzone construction influences irrigation water distribution, retention, and turfgrass quality, particularly when paired with either SPR-irrigation or SDI. Furthermore, the study evaluates the application of numerical simulation models, specifically HYDRUS-2D, to predict and optimize irrigation efficiency under varying soil–irrigation configurations. The experiments were conducted under both controlled greenhouse and open field conditions. The first study was conducted under greenhouse conditions using controlled irrigation cycles and bare soil profiles (without grass cover) to isolate and analyze water distribution in response to irrigation delivery system type and rootzone construction methods. Three rootzone constructions, two two-layered (analogous to the national standard) and one three-layered, were evaluated under both SPR-irrigation and SDI. The volumetric water content (VWC) was monitored at multiple depths and time intervals following irrigation events. The second study investigated turfgrass quality and water storage in a two-year field trial (2023 and 2024) under deficit irrigation conditions, specifically 60% reference evapotranspiration (ETO). Turfgrass plots featuring perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) and employing the same three rootzone construction methods used in the greenhouse condition were irrigated using either SPR or SDI. Key performance indicators included turfgrass quality (TQ), rootzone water storage (RWS), and soil water tension (SWT). In the third study, the HYDRUS-2D finite element model was employed to simulate water dynamics within the rootzones and associated irrigation delivery systems (SPR and SDI) based on the observed greenhouse data. The model incorporated soil hydraulic parameters, determined through laboratory analysis, for each material employed in this study. The calibration and validation of the model were conducted with a focus on optimizing model quality and minimizing the discrepancies between observed and simulated outputs, particularly in relation to volumetric water content. The results of the investigations showed that the greenhouse trials revealed distinct patterns of soil moisture distribution across irrigation systems and rootzone designs. SPR-irrigated plots exhibited rapid volumetric water content (VWC) increases at shallow depths (3 cm) followed by substantial decreases within 72 hours, particularly under two-layered designs. Three-layered SDI plots showed a pronounced capillary rise in irrigation water combined with sustained irrigation water retention in the soil matrix, highlighting the system’s efficiency. The field trials demonstrated significant differences in RWS and SWT across rootzone constructions. Two-layered designs under SDI experienced high SWT values (>120 kPa), indicating insufficient moisture retention. In contrast, three-layered designs maintained lower SWT (<15 kPa) and higher RWS after 35 days of 60% deficit irrigation. TQ declined rapidly in two-layered SDI variants, with an unacceptable TQ (<6) observed 14 days after study initiation. In contrast, three-layered SDI variants achieved the highest TQ throughout the study, demonstrating their resilience under water-limited conditions. SPR-irrigated variants initially exhibited acceptable TQ but failed to maintain it beyond 28 days due to poor water retention in sandy rootzones and high evaporation loss during irrigation. An exception was the three-layered SPR variants, which maintained an acceptable TQ throughout the testing period. The HYDRUS-2D model effectively simulated water distribution under both SDI and SPR systems, with calibrated parameters yielding improved model quality values. Sensitivity analyses identified shape factors α and n determining the soil hydraulic functions as critical parameters influencing model quality, particularly under SDI conditions with high spatial variability. Incorporating hysteresis effects in the model´s soil water retention function improved the model's accuracy. The collective results underscore the complex but manageable interplay between irrigation delivery system and rootzone construction. While effective at initial near-surface wetting, sprinkler systems fail to provide lasting soil moisture retention. Conversely, SDI systems supported by a three-layered design that enhances capillary rise are highly efficient. From a sustainability standpoint, the three-layered SDI variants consistently demonstrated superior water retention under controlled conditions, as well as enhanced RWS and TQ under field conditions. These configurations enabled homogenous moisture distribution, maximized water use efficiency, and maintained high TQ—key goals in sustainable urban green and turfgrass management. The calibrated HYDRUS-2D model demonstrated its utility as a cost-effective tool for predicting water dynamics and developing efficient irrigation strategies. Future research should explore hybrid irrigation approaches combining SPR and SDI systems to assess water distribution and irrigation efficiency under open field conditions. Additionally, model-based approaches should incorporate root water uptake models to provide a more comprehensive understanding of soil–plant–water dynamics. The integrated findings of this cumulative dissertation contribute significantly to understanding how irrigation systems and rootzone construction influence soil moisture dynamics and turfgrass quality. The evidence underscores the benefits of harmonizing the rootzone construction method with the corresponding irrigation delivery system to achieve uniform moisture distribution and enhanced water use efficiency, particularly in the context of SDI. Moreover, simulation tools like HYDRUS-2D effectively support turfgrass irrigation management and water conservation efforts when appropriately calibrated. The synergy between empirical findings and modeling results supports a paradigm shift toward precise, site-specific irrigation strategies that enhance irrigation efficiency in turfgrass areas. Nonetheless, further trials in urban and sports turf environments are essential to facilitate the broader implementation of these strategies.
Full text
Jan Co del
STRATEGIES FOR ENHANCING
IRRIGATION EFFICIENCY ON TURFGRASS AREAS
Disse a ion
Uni e si ä Osnab ück
Hochschule Osnab ück
II
S a egies o enhancing i iga ion e iciency
on u g ass a eas
Disse a ion
zu E langung des Dok o g ades
Dok o de Na u wissenscha en (D . e . na )
des Fachbe eiches Kul u - und Sozialwissenscha en
de Uni e si ä Osnab ück
in Koope a ion mi de Hochschule Osnab ück
Fakul ä Ag a wissenscha en und Landscha sa chi ek u
o geleg
on
Jan Co del
gebo en in
Bonn
Osnab ück den 05.06.2025
Gu ach e *in:
P o . D . Gab iele B oll
Ins i u ü Geog aphie
Uni e si ä Osnab ück
P o . D . Rüdige Anlau
Fakul ä Ag a wissenscha en und Landscha sa chi ek u
Hochschule Osnab ück
P o . D . Be nd Leinaue
Ex ension Plan Sciences
New Mexico S a e Uni e si y
III
Index
Chap e 1 Gene al In oduc ion ........................................................................................ 1
1.1 Backg ound and objec i es ................................................................................. 2
1.2 Tu g ass i iga ion managemen ........................................................................ 5
1.3 Resea ch objec i es and hypo heses ................................................................ 11
Chap e 2 Scien i ic publica ion wi hin he con ex o his wo k.................................... 14
2.1 Impac o oo zone cons uc ion and i iga ion me hods on soil mois u e in
spo s ields unde g eenhouse condi ions ...................................................... 15
2.2 Tu g ass i iga ion: Analyzing he e ec s o oo zone cons uc ion and i iga ion
deli e y sys em on wa e e en ion cha ac e is ics and pe ennial yeg ass
pe o mance ..................................................................................................... 38
2.3 P edic ing wa e dis ibu ion and op imizing i iga ion scheduling in u g ass
managemen using HYDRUS-2D ....................................................................... 53
Chap e 3 Gene al Discussion ......................................................................................... 83
3.1 Enhancemen o u g ass oo zone wa e e en ion cha ac e is ics and wa e
use e iciency .................................................................................................... 84
3.2 Ha moniza ion o oo zone cons uc ion me hod and i iga ion deli e y sys em
unde open ield condi ions .............................................................................. 87
3.3 Iden i ica ion o a model-based app oach o op imizing i iga ion scheduling in
u g ass managemen ...................................................................................... 89
Chap e 4 Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 92
Summa y ......................................................................................................................... 95
Zusammen assung .......................................................................................................... 98
Re e ences ..................................................................................................................... 102
Acknowledgemen s ....................................................................................................... 118
Annex ........................................................................................................................ 119
Con e ence con ibu ions as i s au ho ................................................................. 120
E klä ung an Eides übe die Eigens ändigkei de e b ach en wissenscha lichen
Leis ung .................................................................................................................... 121
IV
Abb e ia ions and ac onyms
2A, 2LSTD wo-laye ed oo zone cons uc ion me hod
2B, 2LUHFC wo-laye ed oo zone cons uc ion me hod
3, 3LUHFC h ee-laye ed oo zone cons uc ion me hod
α soil hyd aulic p ope y shape ac o o he wa e e en ion cu e
αw soil hyd aulic p ope y shape ac o o he we ing wa e e en ion cu e
θ(ψ) wa e con en a ma ic po en ial ψ
ϴ esidual wa e con en
ϴs wa e con en a sa u a ion
ϴsw wa e con en a sa u a ion o he we ing wa e e en ion cu e
CM oo zone cons uc ion me hod
CSIL, URTS C coa se sand in e media e laye
DFLU d ainage lux
DG, DS d ainage g a el laye
DIN deu sches Ins i u ü No mung
ET e apo anspi a ion
ETO e e ence e apo anspi a ion
FLL Fo schungsgesellscha Landscha sen wicklung und Landscha sbau
FSIL, URTS F ine sand in e media e laye
H2D HYDRUS-2D
HSRM, STD high sil oo zone mix
IS i iga ion sys em
𝐾ψ hyd aulic conduc i i y a ma ic po en ial ψ
LSRM, UHFC low sil oo zone mix
m soil hyd aulic p ope y shape ac o o he wa e e en ion cu e
MAE mean absolu e e o
NDVI no malized di e ence ege a ion indices
n soil hyd aulic p ope y shape ac o o he wa e e en ion cu e
NSE Nash-Su cli e e iciency
q subsu ace d ip i iga ion wa e lux
R2 co ela ion coe icien
RMSE oo mean squa e e o
ROS eac i e oxygen species
RWS oo zone wa e s o age
SDI subsu ace d ip i iga ion
Se e ec i e wa e con en
SOIL_S soil wa e s o age
SPR sp inkle i iga ion
SWT soil wa e ension
TC u g ass co e age
TQ u g ass quali y
USGA Uni ed S a es Gol Associa ion
VWC olume ic wa e con en
1
Chap e 1
Gene al In oduc ion
Gene al In oduc ion
2
1.1 Backg ound and objec i es
Tu g ass a eas cons i u e in eg al componen s o u ban ecosys ems, o e ing a di e se
a ay o ecosys em se ices, social bene i s, and economic ad an ages, pa icula ly wi hin
u ban en i onmen s (Bea d, 1973; Bea d and G een, 1994). These include p omo ing
ec ea ional ac i i ies, enhancing he aes he ic alue o u ban landscapes, and suppo ing
ca bon seques a ion, which is c ucial o mi iga ing clima e change (B aun and B eme , 2019;
Qian and Folle , 2012; Selho s and Lal, 2011). Gene ally, ecosys em se ices a e di ided in o
ou componen s: p o isioning, egula ing, cul u al, and suppo ing se ices (Thompson and
Kao-Kni in, 2017). P o isioning se ices include p oduc s de i ed om g asses, such as seed
and li es ock eed (La son e al., 2016). Es ablished g ass swa ds con ibu e o ecosys em
egula ion by educing u ban hea , il e ing wa e , and s o ing ca bon (Mon ei o, 2017). In
addi ion, g ass-co e ed a eas o e aes he ic and cul u al bene i s, se ing as isually appealing
spaces and p o iding oppo uni ies o ec ea ion (Mon ei o, 2017). Finally, g asses suppo
ecosys em unc ions by enhancing soil o ma ion and nu ien cycling (Kopp and Guilla d,
2002).
Managing i iga ion and e iliza ion egimes can in luence he ca bon seques a ion
a es in u g ass, highligh ing he impo ance o implemen ing sus ainable p ac ices o
maximize hese bene i s (B aun and B eme , 2019; Selho s and Lal, 2011). Ca bon
seques a ion in u g ass a eas ypically occu s a a es anging om 0 o 5.0 Mg C ha-1 yea -1,
con ingen upon managemen p ac ices, u g ass species, and en i onmen al condi ions
(B aun e al., 2023; B aun e al., 2024). Fo ins ance, gol cou ses exhibi ca bon seques a ion
a es be ween 0.4 and 1.58 Mg C ha-1 yea -1, which a y acco ding o hei age and he in ensi y
o main enance (Coyne, 2023). In addi ion o ca bon seques a ion, u g ass p o ides
excellen e osion and uno con ol h ough i s dense canopy, oo s uc u e, and soil-
s abilizing p ope ies. I is pa icula ly e ec i e in u ban and subu ban landscapes, oadsides,
and bu e zones nea wa e bodies (S ie e al., 2013). Fu he , u g ass plays a c ucial ole in
imp o ing soil quali y by enhancing o ganic ma e , s abilizing soil, boos ing mic obial ac i i y,
and educing e osion and nu ien losses (B aun e al., 2024). In addi ion o ecological
unc ions, in u ban landscapes, he p esence o u g ass enhances hei aes he ic alue and
suppo s ec ea ional ac i i ies, he eby p omo ing social well-being (Ba nes and Wa kins,
2023; Philocles e al., 2023). I unc ions as a c ucial su ace o spo s such as socce , gol ,
baseball, and oo ball, o e ing a non-hea able, inju y-p o ec i e, and impac -abso bing
playing su ace ha no o he ege a ion o syn he ic u can ully eplica e (Mon ei o, 2017).
Unlike ag icul u al sys ems, whe e yield is he p ima y objec i e, u g ass managemen
p io i izes yea - ound usabili y, ege a ion-suppo i e p ope ies, and aes he ic appeal. These
equi emen s can be con adic o y, as op imizing unc ionali y o en comp omises
sus ainabili y (Hejduk e al., 2012). The challenge lies in enhancing unc ionali y while ensu ing
long- e m sus ainabili y, a di icul balance o achie e gi en ha imp o emen s in one aspec
may nega i ely a ec he o he (Philocles e al., 2023). As u baniza ion expands and managed
u g ass a eas inc ease, he en i onmen al conce ns associa ed wi h hese sys ems a e
expec ed o in ensi y. In pa icula , he emphasis on sus ainable and ecologically esponsible
managemen p ac ices has g own due o ising conce ns abou clima e change and he
inc easing h ea o wa e sca ci y (B aun e al., 2022; Felipe e al., 2014; Hejduk e al., 2012;
Gene al In oduc ion
3
Mo is and Shea man, 1998). Tu g ass ypically equi es 25–38 l m-2 o wa e pe week o
suppo op imal g ow h (Ch is ians e al., 2016). Sp inkle i iga ion sys ems a e he
es ablished s anda d o u i iga ion. S ill, clima ic ac o s, such as wind d i and echnical
dis ibu ion inaccu acies, lead o low i iga ion e iciency and nu ien leaching in he soil
ma ix, which is usually weak in so p ion and wa e e en ion (Cha zoulakis and Be aki, 2015;
Fidanza, 2023). In con as , subsu ace d ip i iga ion (SDI) sys ems a e cha ac e ized by di ec
wa e deli e y in o he plan oo zone, which can inc ease he i iga ion sys em´s e iciency
(Leinaue and Makk, 2007) and is al eady s anda d in mode n land use sys ems (e.g., in ensi e
ege able p oduc ion o u ban g eens). Ne e heless, hese sys ems expe ience limi ed
adop ion in u g ass a eas due o mul iple ac o s, p ima ily associa ed wi h he lack o
unde s anding o soil–physical ela ionships and he inc eased echnical complexi y o
subsu ace i iga ion compa ed o sp inkle i iga ion. Consequen ly, he po en ial o
signi ican wa e conse a ion in u g ass a eas emains la gely un ealized (Leinaue , 2020).
Mo eo e , he oo zone cons uc ion me hod (mul i-laye ed sys ems), in conjunc ion wi h he
associa ed i iga ion sys em (sp inkle o SDI), cons i u es a highly complex design in e ms o
i iga ion wa e dis ibu ion and p esen s signi ican challenges o i iga ion scheduling
ega ding he a ge ed and e icien u iliza ion o wa e (S ie e al., 2013). Consequen ly,
i iga ion emains a c i ical issue, especially in egions wi h insu icien p ecipi a ion o sus ain
heal hy and isually appealing u g ass (James, 2011).
In his con ex , he p ima y objec i e o his hesis was o e alua e s a egies o
enhancing i iga ion e iciency in u g ass a eas by examining he e ec s o oo zone
cons uc ion me hods and associa ed i iga ion sys ems on i iga ion e iciency and u ilizing
p edic i e nume ical models (HYDRUS-2D) o op imize i iga ion scheduling in u g ass
managemen o ensu e he a ge ed and e icien use o wa e esou ces. To achie e his, a
s udy was conduc ed om 2021 o 2024 unde bo h g eenhouse and ield condi ions. The
g eenhouse s udy, pe o med wi hou g ass co e , ocused on he undamen al physical
p inciples o wa e mo emen , whe eas he ield s udy employed an iden ical expe imen al
se up, inco po a ing u g ass o assess eal-wo ld applicabili y.
S uc u e o he hesis
This disse a ion is s uc u ed as cumula i e wo k. Indi idual componen s ha e been
published in pee - e iewed jou nals and ep oduced as disc e e chap e s (2.1 – 2.3) in his
hesis. P eceding each chap e , supplemen a y in o ma ion is p o ided, including bibliog aphic
da a and delinea ion o indi idual au ho con ibu ions.
Chap e 1 p esen s a gene al in oduc ion o he esea ch opic. The challenges a ising om
di e se and o en con lic ing unc ional equi emen s o u g ass a eas, as well as he
inc easing demand o sus ainabili y in hese a eas, a e elucida ed. In addi ion, he unde lying
ac o s ha con ibu e o o exace ba e his issue a e discussed. Fu he mo e, his chap e
delinea es he esea ch ques ions and s udy objec i es o his hesis, along wi h he
co esponding hypo heses which a e o mula ed a he end o his chap e .
Gene al In oduc ion
4
In Chap e 2, h ee pee - e iewed publica ions a e included in subchap e s:
- Chap e 2.1 deals wi h he impac o a ious oo zone cons uc ion me hods and
i iga ion sys ems on soil mois u e dis ibu ion and e en ion unde g eenhouse
condi ions (wi hou g ass co e ). Iden i ying how hese ac o s can be ha monized o
enhance i iga ion e iciency and de elop sus ainable, en i onmen ally esilien u g ass
a eas was impo an . The expe imen in ol ed wo- and h ee-laye ed oo zones,
i iga ed using bo h sp inkle and subsu ace d ip i iga ion (SDI) sys ems.
- Chap e 2.2 p esen s he esul s o a wo-yea ield s udy conduc ed wi h an
expe imen al se up iden ical o he g eenhouse s udy (Chap e 2.1) bu wi h g ass co e .
This s udy e alua ed he e ec s o oo zone cons uc ion me hods and i iga ion deli e y
sys ems on wa e e en ion cha ac e is ics and pe ennial yeg ass pe o mance unde
60% e e ence e apo anspi a ion (ETO) de ici i iga ion. Va ious oo zone cons uc ions
we e in es iga ed using sp inkle and subsu ace d ip i iga ion (SDI) sys ems.
Fu he mo e, i was essen ial o e alua e he in e ac ions be ween oo zone
cons uc ion and i iga ion sys ems ega ding i iga ion e iciency; his p o ided aluable
insigh ha enhancing i iga ion e iciency while main aining unc ionali y necessi a es
ha monizing oo zone cons uc ion me hods and i iga ion deli e y sys ems.
- Chap e 2.3 aims o compa e measu ed ield da a wi h p edic ed da a on i iga ion wa e
dis ibu ion in u g ass oo zones o e i y and enhance he accu acy o he HYDRUS-2D
simula ion model. Fo his pu pose, da a we e collec ed unde con olled g eenhouse
condi ions ac oss un ege a ed plo s wi h wo- and h ee-laye ed oo zone cons uc ion
me hods, each ecei ing wa e ia subsu ace d ip i iga ion (SDI) o sp inkle (SPR).
Wa e con en was moni o ed a a ious dep hs and ime in e als. The hyd aulic soil
pa ame e s equi ed o he simula ion model we e de e mined h ough labo a o y
analysis. To imp o e model pe o mance, sensi i i y analysis and model calib a ions
we e conduc ed wi h he o e all goal o p o iding an e icien and eliable ool o
op imizing i iga ion scheduling in u g ass managemen .
Chap e 3 p esen s a gene al discussion in a b oade con ex o he esul s ob ained om all
expe imen al in es iga ions conduc ed wi hin he scope o his hesis. Fu he mo e, he
emaining esea ch gap is desc ibed in mo e de ail.
Finally, Chap e 4 concludes he po en ial and challenges o s a egies o enhance i iga ion
e iciency in u g ass a eas.
Gene al In oduc ion
5
1.2 Tu g ass i iga ion managemen
The p ope i iga ion o u g ass s ands as a c i ical ac o o main aining op imal
u g ass heal h while achie ing aes he ic appeal and unc ional main enance ac oss di e en
landscapes, including spo s ields, gol cou ses, and u ban g een spaces ha se e as
ec ea ional a eas o ci y esiden s. Wi hou p ope i iga ion p ac ices, u g ass de elops
d ough s ess apidly, p oducing a ious se e e nega i e impac s ha damage i s g ow h and
quali y h ough mul iple i al su i al and i ali y p ocesses. The absence o p ope i iga ion
causes mul iple nega i e e ec s, including damage o cell s uc u es and physiological
p ocesses, inhibi ed g ow h leading o de elopmen al s un ing, physical changes in g ass
appea ance, and subs an ial landscape isual de e io a ion (Se ba e al., 2022).
Challenges in u g ass i iga ion managemen
Mul iple di icul ies exis du ing he i iga ion managemen o u g ass due o
en i onmen al, echnological, and ope a ional elemen s. Tu g ass i iga ion con ol p esen s
mul iple di icul ies, especially in wa e -limi ed a eas o hose unde ex eme clima ic
condi ions. The cu en wa e sca ci y si ua ion, along wi h clima e change e ec s and o he
wa e compe ing demands, equi es i iga ion me hods o u g ass o be eassessed. The
la ge wa e usage alloca ed o u ban u g ass i iga ion demands he implemen a ion o wa e
conse a ion me hods ha p ese e u g ass quali y (Li ak e al., 2017; Se os iano a e al.,
2025). The limi ed a ailabili y o wa e causes se e e di icul ies o u g ass i iga ion
managemen because con en ional wa e ing me hods lead o excessi e usage o a ailable
wa e esou ces. Tu g ass uses a signi ican amoun o u ban wa e dis ibu ion, making i an
essen ial a ge o wa e p ese a ion p ojec s (Li ak e al., 2017; Se os iano a e al., 2025).
The iden i ied p oblems call o di e en app oaches (Hejl e al., 2023; Sando e al., 2021;
Se ba e al., 2024) ha ocus on educing wa e usage bu simul aneously main ain
p o essional and ec ea ional u g ass quali y (Se ena e al., 2022; Se ena e al., 2020a; Se ena
e al., 2020b). The esea ch demons a es ha wa e quali y plays an essen ial ole in a ec ing
u g ass de elopmen and ni ogen abso p ion along wi h i s inal pe o mance le el. The
esea ch conduc ed by Fan e al. (2014) con i med ha using eclaimed wa e o i iga ion
esul ed in changes o u g ass g ow h a es and ni ogen up ake e iciency, ye e ealed ha
low-quali y wa e usage al e s he u sys em's nu ien pa e ns. Resea ch conduc ed o e
se e al yea s p o es ha in equen i iga ion leads o dec eased u g ass quali y which
demons a es he need o p ope wa e quali y and quan i y (Chang e al., 2013; Gómez-
A mayones e al., 2018). Tu g ass ep esen s one o he mos wa e -consuming ag icul u al
c ops since i u ilizes majo quan i ies o u ban wa e esou ces (Hagh e di e al., 2021).
F eshwa e i iga ion equi emen s c ea e addi ional wa e sca ci y p oblems which gene a e
con lic s be ween ag icul u al ope a ions, indus ial acili ies, and municipal wa e se ices. In
a id egions he hea y applica ion o landscape i iga ion p oduc s, including u g ass and
o namen al g asses, exace ba es he exis ing wa e sca ci y p oblems in hese a eas (Li ak e
al., 2014). The g owing sho age o wa e in u ban a eas equi es u g ass managemen o
adop e icien i iga ion app oaches. These s a egies enable he main enance o heal hy u
alongside educed wa e consump ion and limi ed wa e esou ces elie (Se ba e al., 2022).
Gene al In oduc ion
12
i iga ion e iciencies on u g ass quali y and wa e e en ion cha ac e is ics. The speci ic
esea ch ques ions, objec i es, and hypo heses guiding his s udy a e de ailed below.
Topic 1: Enhancemen o Tu g ass Roo zone Wa e Re en ion Cha ac e is ics and Wa e Use
E iciency
Resea ch Ques ion: How can he isk o ine icien wa e usage du ing u g ass i iga ion be
mi iga ed?
Hypo heses:
• In gene al, oo zone cons uc ion me hods and i iga ion deli e y sys ems
signi ican ly in luence wa e use e iciency.
• Sp inkle i iga ion leads o p onounced downwa d mo emen o i iga ion wa e
ollowed by apid d ying o nea -su ace a eas and low wa e use e iciency,
pa icula ly in highly pe meable oo zones.
• The cons uc ion me hod o a well-pe o ming subsu ace i iga ion sys em (SDI)
should be op imized o p o ide su icien capilla y ac ion o he homogenous we ing
o he oo zone, he eby enabling e icien and a ge ed use o i iga ion wa e .
The hypo heses a e examined in de ail in Pape 1 (Sec ion 2.1) and Pape 2 (Sec ion 2.2).
Topic 2: Ha moniza ion o oo zone cons uc ion me hod and i iga ion deli e y sys em
unde open ield condi ions
Resea ch Ques ion: Does he ha moniza ion o he oo zone cons uc ion me hod and he
i iga ion deli e y sys em inc ease i iga ion e iciency wi hou ad e sely a ec ing u g ass
quali y pa ame e s?
Hypo heses:
• Sp inkle -i iga ed a ian s a e hypo hesized o exhibi a apid decline in u g ass
quali y unde de ici i iga ion condi ions.
• SDI-i iga ed a ian s a e an icipa ed o yield he lowes u g ass quali y when soil
physical p ope ies a e no conside ed in he oo zone cons uc ion me hod ela i e
o he applied i iga ion echnology. Fu he mo e, i is hypo hesized ha SDI-i iga ed
a ian s employing cons uc ion me hods designed o acili a e an op imal
ope a ional en i onmen o his i iga ion echnique a e expec ed o exhibi he
highes u g ass quali y pa ame e s.
• Ma ching he oo zone cons uc ion me hod and i iga ion deli e y sys em is
necessa y o inc ease i iga ion e iciency in u g ass a eas.
The hypo heses a e examined in de ail in Pape 2 (Sec ion 2.2).
Gene al In oduc ion
13
Topic 3: Iden i ica ion o a model-based app oach o op imizing i iga ion scheduling in
u g ass managemen
Resea ch Ques ion: A e simula ions wi h a nume ical model (HYDRUS-2D) an e ec i e ool o
op imize i iga ion scheduling in u g ass managemen and con ibu e o model-based
imp o emen s in i iga ion e iciency?
Hypo heses:
• The complexi y o he o e all design esul ing om he oo zone cons uc ion me hod
and associa ed i iga ion deli e y sys em will in luence he model’s applicabili y and
necessi a e model calib a ion o achie ing high model quali y.
• In he con ex o subsu ace i iga ion, due o he inc eased complexi y o soil physical
p ocesses and in e ac ions, a p ecise pa ame e iza ion o soil hyd aulic p ope ies,
coupled wi h a mo e sophis ica ed model calib a ion p ocedu e, is expec ed o be
necessa y o achie e accep able model quali ies.
• A model-based app oach based on high-accu acy simula ion models will acili a e
p ecise analysis wi hin complex designs o oo zone cons uc ion me hods and he
associa ed i iga ion deli e y sys ems and, consequen ly, enhance i iga ion
e iciency.
The hypo heses a e examined in de ail in Pape 3 (Sec ion 2.3).
14
Chap e 2
Scien i ic publica ion wi hin he
con ex o his wo k
15
2.1 Impac o oo zone cons uc ion and i iga ion me hods on soil
mois u e in spo s ields unde g eenhouse condi ions
J. Co del1, W. P ämaßing1 and R. Anlau 1
1 Facul y o Ag icul u e Sciences and Landscape A chi ec u e, Osnab ück Uni e si y o
Applied Sciences, Am K ümpel 31, 49090 Osnab ück, Ge many
Ci a ion:
Co del, J., P ämaßing, W., Anlau , R. (2024): Impac o oo zone cons uc ion and i iga ion
me hods on soil mois u e in spo s ields unde g eenhouse condi ions. Eu .J.Ho ic.Sci. 89 (2),
1-14. h ps://doi.o g/10.17660/eJHS.2024/007
Signi icance o his s udy:
Wha is al eady known on his subjec ?
Highly unc ional ma e ials and cons uc ion me hods a e used o u g ass a eas a he
expense o so p ion and wa e e en ion. D y pe iods necessi a e a i icial i iga ion o
main ain unc ion and plan g ow h. Sp inkle i iga ion sys ems a e he s anda d, bu ha m
i iga ion wa e e iciency. Subsu ace i iga ion sys ems o e a ge ed and p ecise wa e
dis ibu ion in he oo zone, bu a e no widely used in u g ass a eas.
Wha a e he new indings?
This s udy shows ha a a ge ed and homogeneous wa e dis ibu ion wi h a subsu ace
i iga ion sys em is possible, bu soil physical p ocesses and co esponding oo zone
cons uc ion me hods mus be conside ed o achie e he desi ed e ec .
Wha is he expec ed impac on ho icul u e?
The ha moniza ion o he oo zone cons uc ion me hod and i iga ion sys em imp o es he
i iga ion wa e 's e iciency. This s udy p o ides co esponding in o ma ion on which designs
he i iga ion wa e e iciency can be inc eased.
Keywo ds:
hyb id i iga ion, i iga ion wa e e iciency, soil mois u e e en ion, spa io empo al soil
mois u e dis ibu ion, sp inkle i iga ion, subsu ace i iga ion, u g ass a eas
Au ho con ibu ions:
Jan Co del: Concep ualiza ion, In es iga ion, Me hodology, Fo mal analysis, Valida ion,
Visualiza ion, W i ing – o iginal d a . Rüdige Anlau : supe ision, w i ing – e iew and edi ing.
Wol gang P ämaßing: w i ing – e iew and edi ing.
Acknowledgemen s:
The au ho s would like o hank He be P alle and Anne F iede ike Bo che o hei
assis ance wi h s a is ical da a analysis.
Impac o oo zone cons uc ion and i iga ion me hods on soil mois u e in spo s ields
unde g eenhouse condi ions
16
Abs ac
This s udy in es iga ed he e ec s o a ious oo zone cons uc ion me hods and
i iga ion sys ems on soil mois u e dis ibu ion and e en ion in spo s ield soils unde
g eenhouse condi ions. The goal was o iden i y how hese ac o s can be ha monized o
enhance i iga ion e iciency and de elop sus ainable, en i onmen ally esilien u - g ass
a eas. The expe imen in ol ed 2- and 3-laye ed oo - zones, i iga ed using bo h sp inkle and
subsu ace d ip i iga ion (SDI) sys ems. Eigh een plo s we e se up in a g eenhouse, each
ecei ing 10 L m-2 h-1 o wa e o 1 o 2 hou s ia SDI o sp inkle . Soil mois u e was moni o ed
a di e en dep hs and imes o assess he dis ibu ion and e en ion pa e ns. Resul s showed
ha bo h he oo zone cons uc ion and i iga ion sys em signi ican ly in luenced soil mois u e
beha io . Sp inkle i iga ion led o a quick mois u e inc ease ollowed by a sha p decline due
o high pe cola ion and low e en ion. In con as , SDI caused minimal changes, especially in
nea -su ace a eas, due o insu icien upwa d wa e mo emen . The 2-laye ed SDI se up, e en
wi h doubled i iga ion, did no enhance capilla y ise o humidi ica ion in he main oo ing
zone up o 12 cm dep h. Howe e , he 3-laye ed SDI a ian demons a ed a mo e e ec i e
capilla y ise, esul ing in e en mois u e dis ibu ion and be e wa e e en ion. A 12 cm
dep h, he 3-laye ed SDI se up main ained highe esidual mois u e han o he a ian s. This
sugges s ha he bene i s o SDI a e mos p onounced in 3-laye cons uc ions o o he se ups
ha adequa ely accoun o capilla y ise in he oo zone. The indings indica e ha a hyb id
app oach combining SDI and sp inkle sys ems could e ec i ely mee he dual equi emen s
o spo s ields: su icien nea -su ace humidi ica ion o u g ass es ablishmen and e icien
wa e esou ce u iliza ion.
G aphical Abs ac
Impac o oo zone cons uc ion and i iga ion me hods on soil mois u e in spo s ields
unde g eenhouse condi ions
17
In oduc ion
Spo s u a eas a e unique pa s o u ban ecosys ems wi h s ongly di e gen
equi emen p o iles. The ocus he e is no on yield, as in ag icul u e, bu on p o iding
unc ional c oss-season spo s, ege a ion- a o able p ope ies, and aes he ically pleasing
u . The use s and ope a o s’ ocus a e on he season-spanning usabili y o he spo s u
a eas wi h co espondingly high unc ionali y and aes he ics. The esul ing equi emen s a e
some imes con adic o y, and ac o s op imized o unc ionali y a e a he expense o hese
sys ems’ sus ainabili y (Hejduk e al., 2012). Na ional and in e na ional echnical s anda ds
de ine spo s u su aces co esponding o soil-mechanical and physical p ope ies, e.g., by
Ge man Ins i u e o S anda diza ion (DIN18035-4, 2018), Landscape De elopmen and
Landscaping Resea ch Socie y (FLL, 2008), Uni ed S a es Gol Associa ion (USGA, 2018). The
inc ease in d y summe s due o clima e change and sca ci y o wa e esou ces has led o a
subs an ial inc ease in he ocus on he sus ainabili y o spo s u . The cu en si ua ion
makes he con e sion o adap a ion o hese sys ems ine i able. Fu u e-o ien ed spo s u
a eas should be con igu ed wi h a holis ic iew o he ele an legal, economic, and ecological
equi emen s, adap ed and implemen ed acco ding o he clima ic loca ion and he use ’s
equi emen s p o ile. Clima ic condi ions and he equen a ion o spo s u a eas cause a
s ain on he plan popula ion and a change in soil s uc u e. The e o e, main enance
managemen adap ed o he ex e nal condi ions and in luences is c ucial o he unc ional
p ese a ion o u spo s ields. The use o po able wa e o u g ass i iga ion, essen ial o
basic main enance, has in i ed c i ical discussions. Op imal g ow h o es ablished u ypically
necessi a es an a e age wa e in ake o 25 o 38 mm pe week, p ima ily due o
e apo anspi a ion (ET) (Ch is ians e al., 2016). Balancing any disc epancies be ween
p ecipi a ion and ET is c ucial o main aining i al g ow h. The ocus he e is on he in e ac ion
be ween he i iga ion sys em and oo zone cons uc ion me hod, signi ican ly in luencing soil
mois u e dis ibu ion and e en ion. Fac o s such as he wa e applica ion me hod (e.g.,
su ace o subsu ace) and dis ibu ion uni o mi y o he i iga ion sys em, along wi h soil
physical p ope ies such as he con en o plan a ailable wa e in he oo zone, ma kedly
a ec hese dynamics. Unde s anding hese complex beha io al pa e ns wi hin i iga ion
managemen is c ucial o p e en o e wa e ing and o ensu e e icien wa e esou ce
u iliza ion. The wo sening wa e sca ci y has spawned inno a i e app oaches, especially in
ecen yea s, aimed a sus aining u spo s ields in o he u u e. Sp inkle i iga ion sys ems
a e he s anda d o u i iga ion. Howe e , clima ic ac o s like wind d i s and echnically
induced dis ibu ion inaccu acies may cause low i iga ion e iciency and in ensi e pe cola ion
and nu ien leaching in he soil ma ix, which is weak in so p ion and wa e e en ion
(Cha zoulakis and Be aki, 2015; Fidanza, 2023).
The e a e se e al s a egies o educe/elimina e po able wa e use o u i iga ion.
One s a ing poin is subsu ace wa e deli e y in he oo zone o u g asses, which can cause
inc eased i iga ion sys em e iciency (Se ena e al., 2020b). In mode n land use sys ems (e.g.,
in ensi e ege able p oduc ion o u ban g eens), i iga ion sys ems wi h wa e deli e y in he
immedia e oo zone (subsu ace i iga ion) a e al eady a s anda d (Lamm e al., 2012).
Howe e , hese sys ems expe ience only shallow accep ance on spo s u ields due o
nume ous ac o s, ela ed o he igno ance o soil-physical ela ionships and he highe
Impac o oo zone cons uc ion and i iga ion me hods on soil mois u e in spo s ields
unde g eenhouse condi ions
18
echnical complexi y o subsu ace i iga ion, is-à- is sp inkle i iga ion. Many elemen a y
and complex soil physical ela ionships can be iden i ied in he soil ma ix in mul i-laye ed
oo zone cons uc ion me hods. De eloping s a egies o inc easing i iga ion e iciency
equi es a holis ic analysis o he soil cons uc ion and he i iga ion echnology used. Mainly
ela ed o subsu ace i iga ion, he po en ial o signi ican wa e sa ings on spo s u ields
emains mos ly un apped (Leinaue , 2020). The ac ual e iciency o an i iga ion echnology is
de e mined by nume ous clima ic, echnical, ege a ion- ela ed, and soil physical ac o s. The
soil ma ix, wi h he cen al unc ion o wa e e en ion (making i a ailable o plan s) and
wa e anspo (d aining o excess wa e o main ain du abili y and playabili y), is an
elemen a y ac o he e.
Syn he ic u pi ches equi ing less main enance and ca e ha e long been p e e ed in
u ban a eas and a e widely used (Felipe e al., 2014; Fleming e al., 2023). Due o be e
playabili y and economic impo ance, howe e , he cu en ocus is inc easingly on g ass o
hyb id u pi ches (McCa y e al., 2016). The e o e, sus ainabili y and ecological main enance
managemen ha e acqui ed u gency (I en e al., 2020; James, 2011). The e is now in ense
p essu e o add ess clima ic changes, pa icula ly o p epa e o impending wa e sho ages
(Ch is ians e al., 2016; Johnson e al., 2013; Tu geon and Fidanza, 2017). Di e se aspec s o
playabili y, aes he ic equi emen s, e iciency, and sus ainabili y should be in eg a ed in o an
all- ound compa ible comp omise (S einke and E in, 2013; S aw e al., 2020). Tu
cons uc ion me hods, i iga ion sys ems, and managemen a e, he e o e, c ucial in e ms o
sus ainabili y (Follis e al., 2009; A Kowalewski e al., 2015; Alec Kowalewski e al., 2015; McCoy
e al., 2007). I iga ion sys ems wi h high dis ibu ion accu acy and e icien wa e applica ion
can p o ide he basis o i al u g ow h and he sus ainable use o wa e esou ces (S ie e
al., 2013). An e icien i iga ion sys em should minimize losses om wind d i , su ace uno ,
pe cola ion, and e apo a ion (Ca ow e al., 2002). Sp inkle i iga ion sys ems using o a y,
mul i-je , and sp ay sp inkle s a e he s anda d on u spo s ields. In con as , subsu ace
d ip i iga ion (SDI) sys ems a e cha ac e ized by di ec wa e deli e y in o he plan ’s
oo zone. The ypical oo ing dep h o cool-season u g asses is subjec o seasonal a ia ions
(Tu geon, 1991) and anges be ween 5 and 15 cm (Landschoo , 2018).
The ad an ages o subsu ace i iga ion a e he un es ic ed usabili y o he a ea du ing
he i iga ion p ocess, educed disease p essu e due o less mois u e pene a ion o he u ,
and e icien nea - oo wa e deli e y unin luenced by e apo anspi a ion and wind d i
(Bea d, 1973; Ca ow e al., 2008; Leinaue , 1998). The disad an ages o SDI a e highe
ins alla ion cos s, di icul y in ge mina ing u g ass seedings (Leinaue and Makk, 2007),
limi ed soil ae a ion wo k and incompa ibili y wi h su ace applied p oduc s, e.g., g anula
e ilize (Sua ez-Rey e al., 2000).
Highe discha ge a es o i iga ion sys ems (sp inkle o SDI) end o inc ease e ical
sp eading mo e han ho izon al sp eading because he a io o g a i a ional o ces o capilla y
o ces inc eases wi h highe amoun s o wa e .
Ho izon al and e ical soil we ing om he d ip applica ion o a gi en olume o wa e
will be de e mined by soil hyd aulic p ope ies depending on he ex u e o he soil and will
Impac o oo zone cons uc ion and i iga ion me hods on soil mois u e in spo s ields
unde g eenhouse condi ions
19
no be signi ican ly impac ed by d ip managemen pa ame e s such as discha ge a e and
pulsed wa e applica ion (Skaggs e al., 2010).
Unde d ip i iga ion, he e ical we ing on ad ances as e in sandy soil han in
clayey soil, bu he ho izon al we ing on in clay soil ad ances mo e is-à- is sandy soil due
o highe capilla y o ces in he smalle po es in clay (Bajpai and Kaushal, 2020). Sand-
domina ed oo zones a e widely used o high-quali y spo s acili ies because o hei good
d ainage p ope ies, g ea e ai - illed po e space a e compac ion, and mo e consis en
playing cha ac e is ics (Bake , 2006). The pa icle size dis ibu ion also has a majo in luence
on he physical p ope ies o a oo zone mix, and a comp omise is equi ed be ween he
ad an ages o coa se sand o hyd aulic conduc i i y and ai - illed po e space and ine sands
o mois u e e en ion and s abili y. Uni o m g ain-size sand is associa ed wi h be e d ainage
and g ea e o al po e space bu a he expense o s abili y (Bake , 2003). To inc ease wa e -
holding capaci y, oo zones a e amended wi h pea (Leinaue and Makk, 2007), and soil
su ac an s enhance mois u e e en ion in u g ass oo zones (Leinaue and Makk, 2007;
Leinaue e al., 2001).
Wa e e en ion and wa e mo emen issues p ima ily in luence decisions abou spo s
u cons uc ion me hods (Bigelow and Solda , 2013). Cons uc ion me hods o spo s u
a e o h ee ypes: a) spo u pi ches based on na u al soil wi h no echnical d ainage o jus
essen ial pipe d ainage, b) sand ca pe s– ypically 100–150 mm o sand, o a sand-domina ed
oo zone o e he na i e soil, c) suspended wa e ables, i.e., 300 mm o oo zone ma e ial
o e a g a el d ainage laye o 100–150 mm, and o en an op ional coa se sand in e media e
laye (choke laye ) o 100 mm be ween he oo zone ma e ial and he g a el (Bake , 2006).
The mos widely used me hod, including by he USGA, is he suspended wa e able. The g a el
d ainage laye suppo s apid wa e mo emen o he d ainage lines, while he choke laye
p e en s pa icle mig a ion o ine sand in o he g a el laye (S ewa , 2004). The soil ex u e
di e ence be ween he g a el and he oo zone mix c ea es a capilla y b eak due o he ab up
po e size di e ence be ween he g a el and he oo zone laye o enhance soil mois u e
e en ion in he oo zone (McCa y e al., 2016).
Wa e e en ion in he oo zone laye is de e mined by he physical p ope ies o he
oo zone ma e ial used, i s dep h, he p esence o an in e media e laye , and he coa seness
o he unde lying g a el-d ainage laye (Bake and Binns, 2001). B own and Thomas (1980)
epo ed ha he o al a ailable wa e in a 300 mm oo zone was lowe when an in e media e
laye was included, and he highes when he oo zone was di ec ly ins alled o e a g a el-
d ainage laye . Bake and Binns (2001) ound ha he amoun o ine ma e ial in he
in e media e laye does no a ec he oo zone wa e e en ion abili y bu signi ican ly
in luences he in e media e laye ’s wa e e en ion, which inc eased when sand (g id 0.5–1.0
mm) was added o a 1–4 mm g id. Taylo e al. (1993) calcula ed he wa e e en ion in
di e en oo zone mixes packed o e ou di e en sub-laye designs and ound ha in oo
zone mixes whe e he sand pa icle size is p edominan ly 0.25–1.0 mm in diame e , di e en
sub-laye s inc eased he wa e e en ion a he bo om a ec ed he oo zone mix (250–300
mm dep h), while no signi ican di e ence in wa e e en ion could be de ec ed in he cen e
(125–175 mm dep h) and nea he su ace (0–50 mm dep h).
Impac o oo zone cons uc ion and i iga ion me hods on soil mois u e in spo s ields
unde g eenhouse condi ions
20
Mo eo e , a oo zone’s highes wa e e en ion abili y was de ec ed in oo zone
ma e ials whe e sand (g id 0.1–0.5 mm) was ine and medium-sized.
The commonly used highly unc ional cons uc ion me hods o a spo s u a ea ha e
ad e se e ec s on he e iciency o an i iga ion sys em. Depending on he s uc u e and
physical p ope ies o he cons uc ion ma e ials, di e en soil mois u e dis ibu ions can be
obse ed, i espec i e o he i iga ion sys em (Leinaue and Makk, 2007; S ie e al., 2013).
Till now, how di e en oo zone cons uc ion me hods and hei associa ed i iga ion
sys ems, and occu ing in e ac ions, a ec soil mois u e dis ibu ion and how hese may a ec
i iga ion wa e e iciency, has no been in es iga ed in de ail.
To add ess his knowledge gap, his s udy e alua ed di e en oo zone cons uc ion
me hods o spo s u a eas and associa ed i iga ion sys ems conce ning soil mois u e
dis ibu ion and e en ion. The goal was o in es iga e he basic physical p inciples o wa e
mo emen unde g eenhouse condi ions in un ege a ed expe imen al plo s. In e ac ions
be ween he expe imen al ac o s we e analyzed o p o ide conclusions o he e ec i e and
a ge ed use o wa e esou ces o u g ass i iga ion.
The cons uc ion me hod and i iga ion sys em a e hypo hesized o impac soil mois u e
dis ibu- ion and e en ion s ongly. Pa icula ly in he a ea o subsu ace i iga ion, i is
expec ed ha he cons uc ion me hod o a well-pe o ming SDI- sys em should be op imized
o p o ide su icien capilla y ac ion o homogenous humidi ica ion o he oo zone and
he eby enable e icien and a ge ed use o i iga ion wa e .
Ma e ials and me hods
Expe imen al se up
This s udy was conduc ed unde g eenhouse condi ions using ba e soil p o iles (plo s wi h no
g ass co e ) o in es iga e how di e en oo zone cons uc ion ypes and associa ed i iga ion
sys ems impac soil mois u e dis ibu ion and e en ion. The esea ch a ea (11.94 m x 4.71 m)
was designed as a comple ely andomized 2- ac o ial spli plo wi h h ee eplica ions o each
ea men and comp ised six main plo s. Each main plo (4.11 m x 1.70 m) was epea ed h ice
employing h ee cons uc ion ypes ( wo 2-laye ed, one 3-laye ed design) and wo di e en
i iga ion sys ems (sp inkle and SDI). Each o he six main plo s was subdi ided in o h ee plo s
(1.70 m x 1.37 m) o he h ee eplica ions. Two di e en i iga ion cycles (discha ge amoun
cycle 1 = 10 L m-2, and 2 = 20 L m-2) we e applied. A e i iga ion cycle 1, all plo s unde wen
a d ying phase (abou ou weeks wi h an a e age e apo a ion a e o 3.22 mm day-1) o
achie e a uni o m ini ial soil olume ic wa e con en . The ini ial olume ic wa e con en
was be ween 9 and 10 Vol.-% wi hou any signi ican di e ences be ween he plo s.
A o al o 5 ma e ials–STD, UHFC ( oo zone laye ), URTS F (in e media e laye ), URTS C, and DS
(g a el d ainage laye s) we e used o he h ee cons uc ion ypes. Table 1 lis s he physical
p ope ies o each ma e ial.
Impac o oo zone cons uc ion and i iga ion me hods on soil mois u e in spo s ields
unde g eenhouse condi ions
21
STD is gene ally used o spo s u a eas wi h a common equi emen o unc ionali y and
so p ion capabili y, consis ing o sand, pea , and humus- ich opsoil. The ma e ial UHFC (ul a-
high- unc ion), also consis ing o sand and pea bu wi hou opsoil, has high unc ionali y a
he expense o so p ion capabili y wi h a lowe sil con en compa ed o STD, and a highe
hyd aulic conduc i i y bu wa e holding capaci y ( ield capaci y) simila o STD.
URTSF is an in e media e laye ma e ial consis ing o medium-sized sand (g ain size up o 0.5
mm) wi hou sil , wi h a much highe hyd aulic conduc i i y and lowe wa e holding capaci y
( c) compa ed o STD and UHFC.
DS is a g a el d ainage laye ma e ial wi h a pa icle size dis ibu ion o 0–8 mm, highe
hyd aulic conduc i i y, and lowe sil con en han he oo zone ma e ials (STD and UHFC).
URTS C is a much ine d ainage ma e ial consis ing o e y coa se sand wi h a g ain size o up
o 2 mm, much highe hyd aulic conduc i i y, and lowe bulk densi y han DS.
Table 1 O e iew o ma e ials used and hei associa ed physical p ope ies
Ma e ial
Physical P ope ies
Tex u e
*G id
Bulk
densi y
**Ksa
***Po e
Space
****Field
Capaci y
G a el
Sand
Sil
Clay
(-)
(%)
(mm)
(g cm-3)
(mm h-1)
(% ol)
(% ol)
STD
(-)
89.58
10.42
(-)
0–2
1.55
220
41.5
15.9
UHFC
(-)
98.27
1.73
(-)
0–2
1.46
535
44.9
13.6
URTS C
(-)
99.78
0.22
(-)
0.2–2
1.60
6,081
39.6
4.6
URTS F
(-)
99.58
0.42
(-)
0.1–0.5
1.41
1,465
46.6
6.4
DS
31.54
66.10
2.36
(-)
0–8
1.80
916
32.1
6.5
No es.
* pa icle size dis ibu ion was de e mined acco ding o (DIN EN ISO, 2017)
** hyd aulic conduc i i y Ksa was de e mined in he labo a o y using an Eijkelkamp-Pe meame e (Eijkelkamp, 2017)
*** po e space was de e mined om pa icle densi y using gaspycnome y (DIN, 2019)
**** ield capaci y was de e mined by hanging wa e column in a sand bed acco ding o (DIN EN ISO, 2020)
The cons uc ion laye s had a o al hickness o 24 cm, consis ing o oo zone laye s (0–12 cm),
g a el d ainage laye (12–24 cm) o he 2-laye ed cons uc ions, in e media e laye (12–18
cm) and d ainage laye (18-24 cm) o he 3-laye d cons uc ions, and plus a 26 cm sand ca pe
base wi h a g ain size up o 2 mm o su ace d ainage.
Th ee oo zone cons uc ion me hods we e applied. Two cons uc ion ypes (2LSTD and
2LUHFC) acco ding o he Ge man S anda ds o Spo s G ounds (DIN, 2018) consis ed o a 2-
laye ed design, including a 12 cm pea -amended sandy oo zone (STD o UHFC) o e a 12 cm
g a el d ainage laye (DS) wi h a o al hickness o 24 cm. One cons uc ion me hod comp ised
a 3-laye design based on he guidelines o he Uni ed S a es Gol Associa ion (USGA, 2018)
(3LUHFC) which included a 12 cm oo zone (UHFC) o e a 6 cm in e media e sand laye (URTS
F) and an unde lying 6 cm d ainage laye (URTS C). Figu e 1 p o ides an o e iew o he
cons uc ion ypes, associa ed ma e ials, and i iga ion sys ems. In each case, all ma e ials
Impac o oo zone cons uc ion and i iga ion me hods on soil mois u e in spo s ields
unde g eenhouse condi ions
28
Wi hin he 2-laye a ian s, doubling he i iga ion quan i y did no cause a mo e p onounced
capilla y ise o i iga ion wa e o highe humidi ica ion o he obse a ion a ea. Con a y
beha io was exhibi ed by he 3-laye a ian 3LUHFC, wi h a mo e p onounced capilla y ise
o i iga ion wa e . Fu he , he g aphically p ocessed maps indica e homogeneous mois u e
pene a ion a 12 hou s in combina ion wi h sus ained i iga ion wa e e en ion in he soil
ma ix un il he end o he es . I espec i e o he i iga ion amoun , he g aphically p epa ed
maps indica e an insu icien capilla y ise o i iga ion wa e o humidi ica ion o nea -su ace
a eas in he SDI-i iga ed plo s.
Impac o oo zone cons uc ion and i iga ion me hods on soil mois u e in spo s ields
unde g eenhouse condi ions
29
Figu e 3 Spa io empo al soil mois u e dis ibu ion o sp inkle - and SDI-i iga ed plo s wi hin
i iga ion cycle 1. The illed ci cle shows he posi ion o he SDI-Sys em.
Impac o oo zone cons uc ion and i iga ion me hods on soil mois u e in spo s ields
unde g eenhouse condi ions
30
Figu e 4 Spa io empo al soil mois u e dis ibu ion o sp inkle - and SDI-i iga ed plo s wi hin
i iga ion cycle 2. The illed ci cle shows he posi ion o he SDI-Sys em.
Impac o oo zone cons uc ion and i iga ion me hods on soil mois u e in spo s ields
unde g eenhouse condi ions
31
Wa e balance
The ne wa e alues s o ed in he op 15 cm o he soil p o ile o each i iga ion cycle a e
p esen ed in Table 3 as a unc ion o he di e ence be ween he ini ial amoun (Obse a ion
ime 0) and he amoun a each obse a ion ime.
Table 3 Calcula ed ne wa e alues (mm) s o ed in he op 15 cm o he soil p o ile based on
he a e aged VWC (% ol) a obse a ion dep hs o 3, 6, and 12 cm pe i iga ion cycle and
obse a ion ime. Means ollowed by a common le e (sepa a ely o each obse a ion ime,
discha ge a e and i iga ion sys em) a e no signi ican ly di e en based on Tukey´s HSD es
(p < 0.05)
*IC
***ISYS
**CM
OBSERVATION TIME (h s)
0
4
12
24
48
72
(L m-2)
(-)
(-)
(h s)
10
SPR
2LSTD
0
12.29 b
5.66 b
5.83 b
3.73 b
2.53 b
2LUHFC
0
10.75 a
4.94 a
3.30 a
2.14 a
1.16 a
3LUHFC
0
10.49 a
7.28 b
6.31 b
3.96 b
3.00 b
SDI
2LSTD
0
3.72 a
1.84 a
1.07 a
-0.05 a
0.48 a
2LUHFC
0
5.87 b
2.91 b
1.70 a
0.55 a
0.82 a
3LUHFC
0
7.33 c
7.55 c
6.15 b
4.94 b
3.90 b
20
SPR
2LSTD
0
14.73 b
13.73 b
13.47 b
9.08 c
7.19 a
2LUHFC
0
12.54 a
12.92 a
11.45 a
6.04 a
6.67 a
3LUHFC
0
14.18 b
13.01 a
12.27 ab
7.66 b
6.76 a
SDI
2LSTD
0
5.98 a
2.99 a
3.19 a
1.84 a
1.01 a
2LUHFC
0
5.74 a
4.42 b
3.59 a
3.27 b
3.55 b
3LUHFC
0
10.18 b
10.46 c
9.67 b
8.68 c
6.82 c
No es.
*IC I iga ion Cylec
**CM Cons uc ion Me hod
***ISYS I iga ion Sy em
Wa e balance esul s a y g ea ly depending on soil cons uc ion, pa icula ly he i iga ion
sys em used. I iga ion cycle 1 (10 L m-2) inc eases he amoun o wa e s o ed in he uppe
15 cm soil p o ile o 10.5–12.3 mm a e 4 hou s o he sp inkle i iga ion a ian s. In con as ,
he SDI-i iga ed a ian s show an inc ease be ween 3.7 and 7.3 mm. I iga ion cycle 2 (20 L
m-2) inc eased he alues o 12,5–14.7 mm (sp inkle s) and 5.7–10.2 mm (SDI). In pa icula ,
he esul s o he 2-laye SDI i iga ion a ian s indica e ha when he i iga ion amoun
doubles (10 o 20 L m-2), he o al amoun o wa e s o ed in he op 15 cm inc eases only
sligh ly. Also o no e is he sligh inc ease (0–4 hou s) and dec ease (4–72 hou s) in he SDI-
i iga ed a ian s compa ed o he sp inkle -i iga ed a ian s. F om an obse a ion ime o 12
Impac o oo zone cons uc ion and i iga ion me hods on soil mois u e in spo s ields
unde g eenhouse condi ions
32
hou s, he 3-laye SDI-i iga ed a ian 3LUHFC_SDI shows signi ican ly highe (p < .01) alues
wi hin bo h i iga ion cycles han he 2-laye SDI-i iga ed a ian . Looking a he esul s a he
end o he expe imen wi hin cycle 1, a ian 3LUHFC_SPR shows signi ican ly highe (p < .05)
alues han a ian 2LUHFC_SPR and no signi ican ly highe alues han 2LSTD_SPR. In
con as , wi hin cycle 2 he e a e no signi ican di e ences.
The esul s o he 2-laye a ian s also show ha highe wa e olumes can be de e mined
wi hin bo h i iga ion cycles when using sp inkle s ins ead o SDI (Figu e 5). In addi ion, wi h
subsu ace i iga ion, he highes alues can be achie ed wi h a 3-laye oo zone cons uc ion
(3L_SDI). The esul s also indica e he bene icial e ec o he 3-laye sp inkle i iga ion a ian
(3L-SPR s. 2L_SPR), pa icula ly wi hin i iga ion cycle 1. The di e ences be ween he ne
wa e and he i iga ed amoun s a e due o pe cola ion and e apo a ion losses (Figu e 5).
Figu e 5 Summa ized ne wa e alues (mm) s o ed in he op 15 cm o all obse a ion dep hs
(3 o 12 cm) and obse a ion imes (4 o 72 hou s) o he 2-and 3-laye sp inkle -i iga ed
(2L_SPR, 3L_SPR) and SDI-i iga ed a ian s (2L_SDI, 3L_SDI), sepa a ely o i iga ion cycle 1
(10 L m-2) and i iga ion cycle 2 (20 L m-2)
Impac o oo zone cons uc ion and i iga ion me hods on soil mois u e in spo s ields
unde g eenhouse condi ions
33
Discussion
Rapid d ainage is essen ial o all spo s ields. I quickly emo es la ge amoun s o wa e and
p e en s he cancella ion o games due o wa e logging and uns able playing su aces.
Howe e , he oo zone cons uc ion me hod and he associa ed i iga ion sys em should
suppo a homogeneous soil mois u e dis ibu ion and su icien soil mois u e e en ion o
supplying g ass plan s. The esul s indica e ha he in es iga ed a ian s ha e signi ican ly
di e en cha ac e is ics conce ning soil mois u e dis ibu ion and e en ion. The ma e ial
composi ion, he oo zone cons uc ion me hod, and he i iga ion sys em used a e he
de e mining ac o s. The p e iously desc ibed and analyzed esul s indica e ha he oo zone
cons uc ion me hod pa icula ly signi ican ly in luences soil mois u e dis ibu ion and
e en ion.
Tempo al change o soil mois u e and soil mois u e e en ion
The p esen esul s gene ally show high pe cola ion a es wi hin he 2-laye ed sp inkle -
i iga ed plo s, along wi h low soil mois u e e en ion in he SDI-i iga ed plo s. The 2-laye
a ian s exhibi excellen d ainage p ope ies o elemen a y impo ance o main aining he
unc ion and playabili y o u g ass a eas, especially du ing hea y ain, bu ha e only low
e en ion p ope ies. This indica es a high pe cola ion a e due o he ma e ials' physical
p ope ies (coa se soil ex u e and high sa u a ed hyd aulic conduc i i y), and he indings
ag ee wi h o he s' Fidanza (2023) and Cha zoulakis and Be aki (2015). Con e sely, despi e
he di e ence in pa icle size dis ibu ion be ween he laye s 1 and 2 (STD and DS o UHFC and
DS), i was impossible o achie e i iga ion wa e e en ion in he obse ed a ea. Taylo e al.
(1993) epo ed ha he highes e en ion was ob ained when he oo zone was placed
di ec ly on he g a el laye due o a capilla y b eak on accoun o he ab up po e size
di e ence be ween he g a el and he oo zone laye . Ou esul s do no align wi h his, which
is po en ially due o he di e en ex u e and composi ion o he g a el laye DS which, unlike
he ma e ial used by Taylo e al. (1993), does no consis o 100 % g a el (g id > 2 mm) bu
has 31.5 % g a el, 66 % sand, and 2.5 % sil con en (g id 0–8 mm). In e ms o he cons uc ion
me hod, i can be obse ed ha ei he a high sand con en o insu icien g a el con en in he
DS Laye leads o inc eased po e con inui y wi h he o e laying oo zone laye (STD, UHFC).
This, in u n, enables highe a es o pe cola ion and in il a ion.
Con as ingly, he 3-laye ed a ian s show he a o able e ec s o an in e media e laye on soil
mois u e e en ion, especially in SDI-i iga ed plo s. The esul s o he 3-laye SDI-i iga ed
a ian indica e high wa e e en ion o he in e media e laye URTS F as well as a
homogeneous dis ibu ion o he SDI-i iga ion wa e wi hin he laye . Due o he ex u e and
he domina ing high p opo ion o ine and medium sand (g ain size 0.1–0.5 mm), hese
ma e ial p ope ies ha e a a o able e ec on soil mois u e e en ion, as well as on he
ho izon al wa e mo emen which concu s wi h he indings o Bajpai and Kaushal (2020) and
Bake and Binns (2001), who could achie e imp o ed e en ion p ope ies o he in e media e
laye by adding 0.1–0.5 mm ine sand. Fu he , he signi ican ly highe soil mois u e e en ion
in he in e media e laye indica es a capilla y b eak be ween he uppe URTS F and he lowe
URTS C laye s. The emaining soil mois u e a he end o he ial wi hin bo h i iga ion cycles
indica es he highes soil mois u e e en ion, compa ed o he o he a ian s. The lack o ine
Impac o oo zone cons uc ion and i iga ion me hods on soil mois u e in spo s ields
unde g eenhouse condi ions
34
sand in he URTS C laye (g ain size 0.2–2 mm) is po en ially esponsible o his obse a ion,
as i leads o a limi ed po e con inui y wi hin bo h laye s (URTS F-URTS C) and a
co espondingly highe e en ion beha io in he in e media e uppe laye . Simila ly, he high
p opo ion o ine and medium sand in he oo zone UHFC causes high capilla y ac i i y, which,
on he one hand, allows a co esponding inc ease o i iga ion wa e in he uppe a eas and,
on he o he , also causes mo e p onounced e en ion p ope ies han in he compa ison 2-
laye a ian s. This aligns wi h he esul s o Taylo e al. (1993), demons a ing he highes
e en ion p ope ies o oo zone mixes wi h a dominan 0.1–0.5 mm p opo ion, bu canno
be con i med o he 2-laye oo zone cons uc ion me hod 2LUHFC. P esumably, he
imp o ed e en ion p ope ies o he uppe oo zone can ha e an e ec only i he e is a
co esponding educed pe cola ion o in il a ion beha io caused by capilla y b eak agains
g a i y pull be ween adjacen laye s.
Howe e , om he p esen s udy, i is clea ha al hough high capilla y ac i i ies occu in he
3-laye SDI-i iga ed a ian , a o ce imbalance in a o o he g a i a ional o ce occu s abo e
an obse a ion dep h o 3 cm, p e en ing a u he capilla y ise o he i iga ion wa e . The
esul ing lack o mois u e pene a ion in nea -su ace a eas in SDI will lead o di icul ies in
ge mina ing u g ass seeding Leinaue and Makk (2007) and will s ongly impai he lushing
in o su ace-applied p oduc s (e.g., g anula e ilize and he bicides).
Spa io empo al soil mois u e dis ibu ion and wa e balance
SDI sys ems use i iga ion wa e mo e a ge ed and e icien ly o u g ass i iga ion han he
es ablished sp inkle i iga ion (Fidanza, 2023). Howe e , he wa e balance esul s indica e
ha he amoun o s o ed wa e in he uppe 15 cm wi hin he 2-laye cons uc ion ends o
be highe in he in es iga ed a ea wi h sp inkle -i iga ion han SDI-i iga ion (Figu e 5). The
esul s a e con i med by he spa io empo al soil mois u e dis ibu ion p esen ed in Figu es 3
and 4, which indica e ha he ins alla ion o he SDI sys em in a ma e ial (DS) ha does no
ha e a co esponding capilla y ac ion leading o a apid mo emen o he i iga ion wa e o
deepe soil zones whe e i is no plan -a ailable. Fu he , he esul s e eal ha highe
i iga ion amoun s (10 o 20 L m-2) canno o se his ac and con i m he esul s o Skaggs e
al. (2010) ha an inc easing i iga ion quan i y leads only o mo e p onounced downwa d
i iga ion wa e sp eading. This ac indica es ha a gene al s a emen ega ding an inc ease
in e iciency using an SDI sys em is-à- is a sp inkle sys em does no apply o e e y oo zone
cons uc ion me hod. E ec i e managemen o capilla y ension in he soil ma ix su ounding
he SDI sys em (URTS F) was ound o be c i ical. Ensu ing high capilla y ension oge he wi h
an op imized soil ex u e cha ac e ized by a high p opo ion o small po es in he uppe oo
zone (UHFC) is essen ial. These ac o s a e c ucial in enhancing soil's capilla y o ces agains
he o ce o g a i y and allowing p onounced ho izon al and e ical mo emen in he uppe
oo zone o i iga ion wa e . The spa io empo al esul s isualized he p e iously desc ibed
ac s and con i med he in e p e a ion in he esul s sec ion. Pa icula ly, he homogeneous
wa e dis ibu ion and p onounced e en ion o he 3-laye subsu ace-i iga ed a ian
3LUHFC compa ed o he o he a ian s ega ding he e icien use o he esou ce wa e o
u g ass i iga ion comes in o ocus. Fu he , he homogeneous soil mois u e dis ibu ion o
he 3-laye subsu ace-i iga ed a ian p o ides he basic equi emen s o a uni o m u g ass
quali y aspec .
Impac o oo zone cons uc ion and i iga ion me hods on soil mois u e in spo s ields
unde g eenhouse condi ions
35
Gene ally, he esul s indica e good d ainage p ope ies o he in es iga ed 2-laye and 3-laye
oo zone cons uc ion me hods due o he apid d ying nea he su ace and low mois u e
accumula ion in his zone. Howe e , his can cause apid d ough s ess o he plan s,
especially du ing d y wea he , and i iga ion seems una oidable o main aining he
unc ionali y and aes he ics o he u g ass.
Limi a ions o he s udy and u u e esea ch
As hese esul s we e de e mined unde con olled g eenhouse condi ions wi hou u g ass
co e , he e ec o u g ass on soil mois u e dis ibu ion and e en ion equi es u he ield
in es iga ion.
An in e p e a ion o he esul s om a unc ional pe spec i e o he u g ass a ea indica es
ha he esul s o his s udy canno be used o decide whe he he equi ed highe capilla y
ise o he ine ma e ials can lead o wa e logging p oblems du ing hea y ain all, bu should
be a u he conce n o esea ch. Addi ionally, in he sense o an e icien , a ge ed use o he
esou ce wa e o u g ass i iga ion, on he one hand, a ha moniza ion o he oo zone
cons uc ion me hod and he associa ed i iga ion sys em is necessa y and a hyb id i iga ion
app oach (SDI and sp inkle s) seems ad an ageous o ul illing he en i e equi emen p o ile
o u g ass i iga ion.
Conclusion
Du able and sus ainable u g ass a eas a e essen ial o main aining he playing ac i i y o
nume ous ama eu and p o essional spo clubs. Howe e , like all o he ecosys ems, hey a e
unde inc eased p essu e o deal mo e in ensi ely and speci ically wi h wa e sho ages caused
by clima e change. He e, maximizing i iga ion wa e e iciency is he mos signi ican u u e
challenge and should ideally occu be o e being manda ed by law. Howe e , an inc ease in
e iciency should conside all he equi emen s o use s and manage s o ensu e he u u e
accep ance o a u g ass a ea. The p esen esul s indica e ha inc easing i iga ion wa e
e iciency while main aining unc ionali y seems possible bu equi es a ha moniza ion o he
oo zone cons uc ion me hod and he associa ed i iga ion sys em. Especially in he case o
SDI, complex soil physical p ocesses and he oo zone cons uc ion me hods de i ed
he e om mus be conside ed o ensu e e icien use o he esou ce wa e .
Fu he , i was shown ha he oo zone cons uc ion me hods adap ed o subsu ace i iga ion
allow a mo e a ge ed use o wa e , is-à- is he es ablished s anda d o sp inkle i iga ion.
Howe e , de ici s mus be expec ed he e oo, pa icula ly due o insu icien capilla y mois u e
ise o nea -su ace a eas. The esul s indica e ha a hyb id i iga ion app oach (SDI and
sp inkle ) could be an adequa e solu ion o mee a spo s u a ea's en i e equi emen p o ile
and inc ease i iga ion wa e e iciency.
Impac o oo zone cons uc ion and i iga ion me hods on soil mois u e in spo s ields unde g eenhouse condi ions
36
SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION-Table S1 RESULTS o ANOVA es ing he e ec s o di e en cons uc ion me hods, i iga ion sys ems, discha ge a es,
obse a ion dep hs, obse a ion imes, and hei in e ac ions on he olume ic soil mois u e con en
Main E ec s
Discha ge
a e
OBSERVATION DEPTH (cm)
3
6
12
OBSERVATION TIME (h s)
4
12
24
48
72
4
12
24
48
72
4
12
24
48
72
(-)
(L m -2)
*
**
***
**
NS
*
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
Cons uc ion Me hod
10
*
*
*
*
NS
***
**
**
**
***
***
***
***
***
***
20
*
*
*
*
NS
***
**
**
**
***
***
***
***
***
***
I iga ion Sys em
10
*
NS
*
NS
*
*
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
20
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
NS
NS
*
*
NS
NS
Cons uc ion Me hod x
I iga ion Sys em
10
*
NS
***
**
*
*
**
***
**
**
***
***
***
***
***
20
**
*
*
**
**
**
***
**
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
No e. NS no signi ikan
* Signi ican a he .05 p obabili y le el
** Signi ican a he .01 p obabili y le el
*** Signi ican a he .001 p obabili y le el
Impac o oo zone cons uc ion and i iga ion me hods on soil mois u e in spo s ields
unde g eenhouse condi ions
37
SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION-Table S2 A e age ini ial VWC a 3, 6, and 12 cm obse a ion
dep h
IRRIGATION
CYCLE
CONSTRUCTION
METHOD
IRRIGATION
SYSTEM
MEAN
SD
(-)
(-)
(-)
(%)
(%)
1
2LSTD
SPR
9.18
0.74
SDI
9.24
0.45
2LUHFC
SPR
9.44
0.93
SDI
9.46
0.75
3LUHFC
SPR
9.62
0.81
SDI
10.01
1.04
2
2LSTD
SPR
9.18
0.30
SDI
8.60
1.05
2LUHFC
SPR
8.82
0.41
SDI
8.07
0.82
3LUHFC
SPR
9.29
0.33
SDI
8.55
1.16
Tu g ass i iga ion: Analyzing he e ec s o oo zone cons uc ion and i iga ion
deli e y sys em on wa e e en ion cha ac e is ics and pe ennial yeg ass pe o mance
44
accumula ed e apo anspi a ion. These pe iods we e selec ed based on he ypical clima ic
condi ions a he expe imen al si e, which a e cha ac e ized by low ain all and high
e apo anspi a ion. I iga ion was p o ided on Monday, Wednesday, and F iday a 8:00 a.m.
using ei he a sp inkle (sp inkle main plo ) o a subsu ace d ip i iga ion sys em (subsu ace
d ip main plo ). I iga ion amoun s we e de e mined based on he p e ious days e e ence
e apo anspi a ion ETO (FAO Penman-Mon ei h me hod), as es ima ed by an on-si e wea he
s a ion (iMe os 3.3, Pessl Ins umen s, Weiz, Aus ia). P ecipi a ion o 12.80 mm in 2023 and
16.30 mm in 2024, espec i ely, we e sub ac ed om he i iga ion quan i y applied in each
case (Table 2).
Table 2. I iga ion scheduling, cumula i e e e ence e apo anspi a ion (ETO), p ecipi a ion,
and amoun o i iga ion wa e applied du ing 60% ETO de ici i iga ion ea men s, ac oss
he s udy pe iods 2023 and 2024
Pe iod
Da e
IRRIGATION SCHEDULING
CUMULATIVE VALUES
Quan i y
F equency
Du a ion
ETO
P ecipi a ion
I iga ion
(-)
(-)
(% ETO)
(-)
(weeks)
–––––––––––– mm –––––––––––––
2023
06/26/23
–
07/31/23
60
Mon. – Wed. –
F i.
5
110.6
12.8
53.6
2024
06/24/24
–
07/29/24
60
Mon. – Wed. –
F i.
5
114.9
16.3
52.6
Tu g ass pe o mance e alua ions
Du ing he expe imen , se e al u g ass pe o mance pa ame e s we e e alua ed a he
beginning o each pe iod in 2023 and 2024, ollowed by weekly in e als. Tu g ass quali y and
li ing g ound co e we e assessed using a isual a ing scale ecommended by he Na ional
Tu g ass E alua ion P og am (K ans & Mo is, 2007). Visual u g ass quali y was e alua ed on
a scale o 1 o 9 (quali y and colo ), whe e 1 = comple ely b own, 6 = accep able, and 9 =
op imum quali y, colo , densi y, and uni o mi y. Tu g ass co e age was assessed by isual
es ima ion on a 0 – 100% scale based on he pe cen age o su ace a ea co e ed wi h o iginally
plan ed li ing species, acco ding o he Eu opean S anda d (EN12231, 2003). No malized
di e ence ege a ion indices (NDVI) we e collec ed on he same schedule o quan i y s ess
(Pa k e al., 2004) using a G eenSeeke NDVI handheld c op senso (T imble, Sunny ale, CA,
USA). Addi ionally, d one image da a we e acqui ed a he end o each pe iod using a DJI Ma ic
3 Mul ispec al (DJI, Shenzhen, China) and analyzed using PIX4D ields e sion 2.8.4.
Analysis o soil wa e ension and i iga ion wa e s o age
Soil wa e ension, ep esen ed as an absolu e alue o he ma ic po en ial in non-saline soils
(Shock & Wang, 2011), was used o analyze i iga ion wa e mo emen . The co esponding
ma ic po en ial was pe manen ly measu ed using soil-wa e ension senso s. Fo his
pu pose, 72 Wa e ma k WM-S-100 ma ix po en ial senso s (I ome e Company Inc.,
Ri e side, CA, USA) we e ins alled (nine pe main plo ) a a dep h o 8 cm o desc ibe he wa e
ension a he main oo ing dep h. The calcula ion o i iga ion wa e s o age in he uppe 12
cm oo zone laye was based on he soil olume ic wa e con en (VWC) obse ed in he ield
Tu g ass i iga ion: Analyzing he e ec s o oo zone cons uc ion and i iga ion
deli e y sys em on wa e e en ion cha ac e is ics and pe ennial yeg ass pe o mance
45
plo s a 0–4, 4–8, and 8–12 cm dep hs. A soil sample was used h ough la e al openings wi h
a 50 mm diame e me al ube d i en in o he soil and wi hd awn o ob ain soil samples. Soil
g a ime ic wa e con en was measu ed by o en-d ying he soil samples a 105 °C, and VWC
was calcula ed by mul iplying i wi h he bulk densi y. All da a we e collec ed on he same
schedule as he u g ass pe o mance e alua ion (i.e., once pe week).
Da a analysis
S a is ical analyses we e pe o med based on a 2- ac o ial spli -plo design using RS udio
e sion 1.2.5042. Di e ences among ea men s o each pa ame e we e de e mined ia wo-
way ANOVA (F1 = oo zone cons uc ion me hod, F2 = i iga ion sys em, and yea s as a ixed
ac o ) wi h he unc ion “lme ” using package “ca ”. All da a ul illed he c i e ia o a no mal
dis ibu ion, homogenei y o a iance, and sphe ici y. Tukey’s con as s we e calcula ed o
pai wise compa ison a he 5% le el using he unc ion “cld/emmeans” in package “mul comp”
(Piepho, 2004).
Resul s
Unde 60% ETo de ici i iga ion, ANOVA e ealed signi ican ly di e en beha io s and
in e ac ions ac oss he s udy pe iods in 2023 and 2024. The cons uc ion me hod, i iga ion
sys em, and cons uc ion me hod × i iga ion sys em in e ac ion we e all s a is ically signi ican
o soil wa e ension, oo zone wa e s o age, u g ass quali y, u g ass co e age, and NDVI
(Tables 3, 4, and 5).
De elopmen o soil wa e ension
In a s ic ly physical sense, he ma ix po en ial is nega i e. This s udy used absolu e
alues o he ma ix po en ial, exp essed as soil wa e ension (SWT). The e o e, a high SWT
indica es d y soil, whe eas a low SWT indica es we soil.
Table 3. De elopmen o soil wa e ension (8 cm dep h) and analysis o a iance unde 60%
ETO-de ici i iga ion ac oss he wo i e-week s udy pe iods.
MAIN EFFECTS
Days a e s udy ini ia ion
0
7
14
21
28
35
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– kPa –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
CM
IS
2A
SPRINKLER
6.1 a
7.2 b
8.6 b
11.4 b
17.9 b
25.1 b
2B
SPRINKLER
6.1 a
6.9 b
8.3 b
11.0 b
18.7 b
25.5 b
3
SPRINKLER
6.0 a
7.5 b
8.5 b
8.5 d
15.5 bd
23.3 b
2A
SDI
6.2 a
18.1 a
40.8 a
67.2 a
141.8 a
161.9 a
2B
SDI
6.0 a
19.6 a
33.8 c
56.3c
87.7 c
119.8 c
3
SDI
6.1 a
6.4 b
6.9 b
8.3 d
11.2 d
12.5 d
ANOVA
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– p > F ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
CONSTRUCTION METHOD (CM)
NS
***
***
***
***
***
IRRIGATION SYSTEM (IS)
NS
**
***
***
***
***
YEAR
NS
NS
NS
**
NS
NS
CM x IS
NS
***
***
***
***
***
CM x YEAR
NS
NS
*
***
NS
NS
IS x YEAR
NS
NS
NS
**
NS
NS
Means in he same column ollowed by a common le e a e no signi ican ly di e en based on Tukey´s hones ly signi ican di e ence es (p < 0.05)
No e. NS no signi ican
* Signi ican a he .05 p obabili y le el
** Signi ican a he .01 p obabili y le el
*** Signi ican a he .001 p obabili y le el
Tu g ass i iga ion: Analyzing he e ec s o oo zone cons uc ion and i iga ion
deli e y sys em on wa e e en ion cha ac e is ics and pe ennial yeg ass pe o mance
46
Ac oss he i e-week s udy pe iods in 2023 and 2024, he a e age soil wa e ension
wi hin all plo s a 8 cm dep h ini ially measu ed 6 kPa and subsequen ly inc eased o an
a e age o abou 25 kPa a e 35 days o 60% ETO de ici i iga ion ac oss all sp inkle i iga ed
a ian s. In con as , he 2-laye ed subsu ace d ip i iga ed a ian s 2A-SDI and 2B-SDI became
much d ye , and he ension eached 162 kPa and 120 kPa, espec i ely. The 3-laye ed SDI
i iga ed a ian 3-SDI showed a ela i ely low inc ease, wi h soil wa e ension eaching only
13 kPa.
A ma ked inc ease in soil mois u e ension was obse ed s a ing a 21 days pos -s udy
ini ia ion ac oss he sp inkle -i iga ed a ian s 2A and 2B, whe eas he SDI-i iga ed a ian s
2A and 2B exhibi ed a simila inc ease s a ing a 14 days. The 3-laye ed SDI a ian showed a
e y small inc ease, only s a ing a e 28 days (Table 3).
Roo zone wa e s o age
Gene ally, signi ican ly di e en pa e ns o oo zone wa e s o age (RWS) could be
obse ed du ing he s udy pe iods in 2023 and 2024. In he uppe 12 cm, he ini ial RWS
a e aged 19.64 mm. A 35-day las ing 60% ETO de ici i iga ion ea men caused a subs an ial
dec ease in RWS ac oss all a ian s, wi h he signi ican ly highes dec ease obse ed wi hin
he sp inkle - and 2-laye ed subsu ace d ip i iga ion-i iga ed a ian s and he signi ican ly
lowes dec ease wi hin he 3-laye ed SDI i iga ed a ian 3.
Table 4. De elopmen o oo zone wa e s o age in he uppe 12 cm and analysis o a iance
unde 60% ETO-de ici i iga ion ac oss all i e-week s udy pe iods.
MAIN EFFECTS
Days a e s udy ini ia ion
0
7
14
21
28
35
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– mm ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
CM
IS
2A
SPRINKLER
20.3 a
19.2 b
18.8 b
16.2 b
12.5 b
4.9 a
2B
SPRINKLER
19.6 a
16.6 c
13.8 c
11.9 c
9.1 c
3.6 b
3
SPRINKLER
19.7 a
18.9 bc
17.8 b
18.7 d
11.5 b
5.3 a
2A
SDI
19.3 a
11.1 a
4.9 a
4.6 a
4.4 a
4.3 ab
2B
SDI
19.1 a
12.2 a
5.4 a
5.2 a
4.9 a
4.5 ab
3
SDI
19.7 a
19.1 b
17.9 b
16.7 b
14.8 d
13.5 c
ANOVA
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– p > F ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
CONSTRUCTION METHOD (CM)
NS
***
***
***
***
***
IRRIGATION SYSTEM (IS)
NS
**
***
***
*
**
YEAR
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
CM x IS
NS
***
***
***
***
***
CM x YEAR
NS
NS
NS
*
NS
NS
IS x YEAR
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
Means in he same column ollowed by a common le e a e no signi ican ly di e en based on Tukey´s hones ly signi ican di e ence es (p < 0.05)
No e. NS no signi ican
* Signi ican a he .05 p obabili y le el
** Signi ican a he .01 p obabili y le el
*** Signi ican a he .001 p obabili y le el
A he end o he pe iods, he RWS o he sp inkle -i iga ed and he 2-laye ed SDI-
i iga ed a ian s inally a e aged 4.5 mm (3.6-5.3 mm). In con as , he 3-laye ed SDI-i iga ed
a ian e ealed he signi ican ly highes RWS (13.5 mm) ac oss all a ian s a e 35 days o
ETO 60% de ici i iga ion ea men . Wi h an a e age ETO o 3.2 mm/day, his co esponds o
a wa e s o age o app oxima ely 4.2 days o he 3-laye ed SDI a ian compa ed o sligh ly
mo e han one day o all o he a ian s (Table 4).
Tu g ass i iga ion: Analyzing he e ec s o oo zone cons uc ion and i iga ion
deli e y sys em on wa e e en ion cha ac e is ics and pe ennial yeg ass pe o mance
47
Tu g ass pe o mance
The cons uc ion me hod (CM), i iga ion sys em (IS), and CM × IS signi ican ly a ec ed
u g ass quali y (TQ), u g ass co e age (TC), and NDVI unde a 60% ETO de ici i iga ion
ea men (Table 5). Compa ison o 2023 and 2024 (Figu e 2) e ealed analog pa e ns ac oss
he 2-laye ed sp inkle - and SDI-i iga ed a ian s. Con as ingly, he 3-laye ed sp inkle - and
SDI-i iga ed a ian s exhibi ed sligh ly highe u g ass pe o mance pa ame e s in 2024.
Ac oss bo h pe iods, a apid d op a e s udy ini ia ion in TQ, TC, and NDVI among he 2-laye ed
SDI i iga ed a ian s was obse ed (Figu e 2). Fu he mo e, hese a ian s exhibi ed an
unaccep able TQ (< 6) 14 days a e s udy ini ia ion, in combina ion wi h a signi ican dec ease
in u g ass co e age (24.25%).
The 2-laye ed SPR-i iga ed a ian s (2A-SPR and 2B-SPR) e ealed no signi ican
di e ences ac oss all ea men s. A e 35 days, TQ d opped below 6, a e aging 5.4 (2A-SPR)
and 5.9 (2B-SPR), wi h TC a 78% (2A-SPR) and 81% (2B-SPR). The 3-laye ed a ian s (3-SPR
and 3-SDI) showed a simila end, bu wi h signi ican ly highe u g ass quali y, a e aging 7.7
(3-SDI) and 7.1 (3-SPR). In summa y, only he 3-laye ed a ian s wi h an in e media e laye
achie ed accep able TQ (≥ 6). The NDVI pa e ns mi o ed u g ass quali y and co e age,
showing consis ency wi h he lowes alues in he 2-laye ed SDI i iga ed a ian s. No
signi ican di e ences we e obse ed among he o he a ian s 35 days a e s udy ini ia ion,
al hough he 3-laye ed a ian s showed sligh ly highe NDVI alues (Figu es 2 and 3).
Table 5. Analysis o a iance o he en i e s udy pe iod on u g ass quali y pa ame e s as
a ec ed by 60% ETO-de ici i iga ion.
MAIN EFFECTS
Days a e s udy ini ia ion
0
7
14
21
28
35
ANOVA
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– p > F ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
TURFGRASS QUALITY
CONSTRUCTION METHOD (CM)
NS
***
***
***
***
***
IRRIGATION SYSTEM (IS)
NS
**
***
***
***
**
YEAR
NS
NS
*
NS
NS
NS
CM x IS
NS
***
***
***
***
***
TURFGRASS COVERAGE
CONSTRUCTION METHOD (CM)
**
***
***
***
***
***
IRRIGATION SYSTEM (IS)
NS
**
***
***
***
***
YEAR
*
NS
*
NS
*
NS
CM x IS
**
***
***
***
***
***
NDVI
CONSTRUCTION METHOD (CM)
NS
*
***
**
***
***
IRRIGATION SYSTEM (IS)
NS
*
**
*
**
**
YEAR
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
CM x IS
NS
*
***
***
***
***
No e. NS, no signi ican
NDVI, no malized di e ence ege a ion index
* Signi ican a he .05 p obabili y le el
** Signi ican a he .01 p obabili y le el
*** Signi ican a he .001 p obabili y le el
Tu g ass i iga ion: Analyzing he e ec s o oo zone cons uc ion and i iga ion
deli e y sys em on wa e e en ion cha ac e is ics and pe ennial yeg ass pe o mance
48
Figu e 2. Tu g ass quali y (line deno es an accep able quali y le el o 6), isual u g ass
co e age (%), and NDVI ac oss he s udy pe iods 2023 and 2024, as a ec ed by a 60% ETO
de ici i iga ion ea men . Means ollowed by a common le e sepa a ely o each
assessmen day a e no signi ican ly di e en based on Tukey´s hones ly signi ican di e ence
es (p < 0.05).
Tu g ass i iga ion: Analyzing he e ec s o oo zone cons uc ion and i iga ion
deli e y sys em on wa e e en ion cha ac e is ics and pe ennial yeg ass pe o mance
49
Figu e 3. O e iew o he expe imen al si e wi h sp inkle (SPR) and sub-su ace d ip i iga ion
(SDI) and analysis o he no malized di e ence ege a ion index (NDVI) alues in 2023 u ilizing
mul ispec al d one image y, ollowing 35 days o 60% ETO de ici i iga ion.
Tu g ass i iga ion: Analyzing he e ec s o oo zone cons uc ion and i iga ion
deli e y sys em on wa e e en ion cha ac e is ics and pe ennial yeg ass pe o mance
50
Discussion
P ope d ainage p e en s wa e logging and s abilizes spo s ield su aces. E ec i e
oo zone cons uc ion and i iga ion sys ems op imize wa e use, main ain uni o m soil
mois u e, and enhance u g ass quali y. Supplemen al i iga ion sus ains u heal h,
appea ance, densi y, and esilience o a ic, pes s, and en i onmen al s ess. The e o e,
sus ainable managemen p ac ices and wa e conse a ion s a egies a e i al. Resea ch has
shown ha some cool-season species sus ain accep able quali y wi h <60% ET eplacemen
(B aun e al., 2022). This s udy examined 2- and 3-laye ed oo zone me hods wi h sp inkle
and SDI sys ems unde 60% ETO de ici i iga ion in pe ennial yeg ass, analyzing in e ac ions
be ween oo zones, i iga ion sys ems, and u g ass pe o mance.
The esul s e ealed signi ican di e ences and in e ac ions in i iga ion wa e usage
e iciency and u g ass pe o mance pa ame e s wi hin he e alua ed a ian s. The
de e mining ac o s we e ma e ial composi ion, oo zone cons uc ion me hod, and i iga ion
deli e y sys em.
I iga ion wa e mo emen and oo zone wa e s o age
The esul s demons a ed ha a 60% ETO eplacemen unde sp inkle i iga ion esul ed
in subs an ial dec eases in oo zone wa e s o age and an inc ease in soil wa e ension,
especially in he sp inkle a ian s, wi hin 28 days. This indica es ha unde 60 ETo
eplacemen , insu icien oo zone wa e e en ion p ope ies caused by he physical
p ope ies o he ma e ial (coa se soil ex u e and high sa u a ed hyd aulic conduc i i y),
i iga ion deli e y sys ems (sp inkle ) suscep ibili y o e apo a ion loss, and induced
dis ibu ion inaccu acies which a e consis en wi h Fidanza (2023), Cha zoulakis and Be aki
(2015), and Ca ow e al. (2002). Fu he , Taylo e al. (1993) epo ed ha he highes
e en ion and RWS we e achie ed when he oo zone was placed di ec ly on he g a el laye
because i c ea ed a capilla y b eak owing o he ab up po e size di e ence be ween he
g a el and oo zone laye s. Howe e , he cu en esul s ac oss a ian 2A-SPR a e di e en ,
likely because o he dis inc ex u e and composi ion o he g a el d ainage laye DG, which
consis s o 31.5% g a el, 66% sand, and 2.5% sil (g id 0–8 mm), unlike he ma e ial used by
Taylo e al. (1993), which is made en i ely o g a el (g id > 2 mm).
Subsu ace d ip i iga ion (SDI) sys ems enhance i iga ion e iciency by deli e ing wa e
di ec ly and p ecisely o he oo zone (Fidanza, 2023). Howe e , oo zone wa e s o age wi hin
he 2-laye ed a ian s ends o be signi ican ly highe unde sp inkle i iga ion han unde SDI
i iga ion. The esul s indica e ha he ins alla ion o he SDI Sys em in a laye (DG o CSIL)
cha ac e ized by low e en ion p ope ies and lacking co esponding capilla y ac ion leads o
an insu icien capilla y ise o i iga ion wa e . This ag ees wi h Co e e al. (2003), who
demons a ed ha a g ea e quan i y o wa e is dis ibu ed benea h he emi e plane in a
highly pe meable oo zone ma e ial ha is d ip i iga ed and inc easing he i iga ion amoun s
only esul ed in mo e p onounced downwa d wa e sp eading (Skaggs e al., 2010).
In con as , he 3-laye ed a ian exhibi ed bene icial e ec s o a ine- ex u ed
in e media e laye on soil mois u e e en ion and oo zone wa e s o age, especially unde SDI
i iga ion. The emaining quan i y o s o ed wa e in he oo zone ac oss all assessmen days
Tu g ass i iga ion: Analyzing he e ec s o oo zone cons uc ion and i iga ion
deli e y sys em on wa e e en ion cha ac e is ics and pe ennial yeg ass pe o mance
51
indica ed he highes soil mois u e e en ion compa ed o he o he a ian s. The lack o ine
sand in he 3. laye (CSIL, g ain size 0.2–2 mm) was po en ially esponsible o his obse a ion,
as i esul ed in limi ed po e con inui y be ween laye 2 and laye 3 (FSIL and CSIL) and
co espondingly highe e en ion beha io in he in e media e laye 2 (FSIL). Simila ly, he high
p opo ion o ine and medium sand in he oo zone LSRM (laye 1) esul ed in high capilla y
ac i i y, which allowed a co esponding capilla y ise o i iga ion wa e in he uppe a eas and,
in con as , esul ed in mo e p onounced wa e e en ion han in he compa ison 2-laye
a ian s. This aligns wi h he esul s o Taylo e al. (1993), who demons a ed he highes
e en ion p ope ies o oo zone mixes wi h a dominan 0.1–0.5 mm p opo ion. Howe e ,
his canno be con i med o he 2-laye oo zone cons uc ion me hod 2B wi h an iden ical
oo zone ma e ial (laye 1: LSRM) as a ian 3. P esumably, he imp o ed e en ion p ope ies
o he uppe oo zone can ha e an e ec only i he e is a co esponding educed pe cola ion
o in il a ion beha io caused by a capilla y b eak agains he g a i y pull be ween adjacen
laye s.
Tu g ass quali y pa ame e s unde de ici i iga ion ea men
E alua ing u g ass quali y pa ame e s unde 60% ETo de ici i iga ion among di e en
oo zone cons uc ion me hods and associa ed i iga ion deli e y sys ems esembled he
ends obse ed in i iga ion wa e dynamics. The 2-laye ed SDI i iga ed a ian s e ealed
unaccep able u g ass quali y (<6) 14 days a e s udy ini ia ion due o insu icien oo zone
wa e s o age (uppe 12 cm) as well as high soil wa e ension (a a dep h o 8 cm).
Replacemen s o 60% ETO inc eased soil wa e ension wi hin 2A_SDI and 2B_SDI o a ange
be ween 162 and 120 kPa, consis en wi h A onson e al. (1987), who epo ed unaccep able
u g ass quali y when soil wa e ension ose o mo e han 80 kPa.
B aun e al. (2022) epo ed ha a minimum de ici i iga ion eplacemen o 59% o
e apo anspi a ion is necessa y o main ain a minimum accep able u g ass quali y o ≥ 6 o
pe ennial yeg ass. The esul s pa ially align wi h hese obse a ions; 2-laye ed sp inkle
i iga ed a ian s achie ed a u g ass quali y > 6 wi h a 60% ETO eplacemen only un il 28
days a e s udy ini ia ion. In he emaining ime pe iod, u g ass quali y was insu icien .
No ably, he 3-laye ed sp inkle and SDI a ian s main ained TQ > 6 h oughou he s udy
pe iods. This demons a es he e icacy o hese con igu a ions in sus aining u g ass quali y
unde educed wa e inpu . Unde d ough s ess, plan lea es show a no iceable educ ion in
nea -in a ed (NIR) e lec ion and edde i adiance, dec easing he no malized di e ence
ege a ion index (NDVI). In his con ex , ou esul s align wi h o he s udies (Bell e al., 2002;
T enholm e al., 1999) ha ha e demons a ed ha NDVI alues co ela ed wi h isual
u g ass quali y and colo , as hey exhibi ed signi ican ly lowe alues ac oss he 2-laye ed SDI
i iga ed a ian s as well as signi ican ly highes alues ac oss he 3-laye ed a ian s a 60%
ETO eplacemen .
E iciency o i iga ion wa e usage
The s udy emphasizes he signi ican impac o ma e ial composi ion, oo zone
cons uc ion me hods, and associa ed i iga ion deli e y sys ems on i iga ion wa e -usage
e iciency and u g ass pe o mance. These indings unde sco e he challenge o sandy
oo zone cons uc ion ma e ials, which ha e di icul y e aining i iga ion wa e o plan use
Tu g ass i iga ion: Analyzing he e ec s o oo zone cons uc ion and i iga ion
deli e y sys em on wa e e en ion cha ac e is ics and pe ennial yeg ass pe o mance
52
because o hei low wa e e en ion and high p opo ion o ai - illed po osi y a ield capaci y,
along wi h he need o op imize he i iga ion deli e y sys ems o hei wo king en i onmen .
The esul s e ealed ha ha monizing he oo zone cons uc ion me hod and associa ed
i iga ion deli e y sys ems is c ucial o imp o ing u g ass i iga ion e iciency and
main aining accep able u g ass pe o mance pa ame e s, pa icula ly o subsu ace d ip
i iga ion sys ems. P ope ly ma ching he oo zone medium cha ac e is ics wi h he speci ic
i iga ion me hod is essen ial o maximizing wa e -usage e iciency and sus aining high-quali y
u g ass unde de ici i iga ion condi ions.
Conclusion
Maximizing i iga ion wa e -use e iciency is a signi ican challenge ha should be me
be o e legal manda es. Ou esul s showed ha enhancing i iga ion e iciency while
main aining unc ionali y equi es ha monizing oo zone cons uc ion me hods and i iga ion
deli e y sys ems. Speci ically, SDI sys ems mus add ess complex soil physical p ocesses and
oo zone cons uc ion o op imize wa e use. The 3-laye ed cons uc ion me hod wi h an
in e media e ine - ex u ed laye a op a coa se d ainage laye yielded he mos a o able
esul s. Ha monized oo zone cons uc ion me hods, especially subsu ace d ip i iga ion,
allow mo e a ge ed wa e use han s anda d sp inkle sys ems, al hough hey may lead o
insu icien capilla y mois u e in nea -su ace a eas.
P edic ing wa e dis ibu ion and op imizing i iga ion scheduling in u g ass
managemen using HYDRUS-2D
53
2.3 P edic ing wa e dis ibu ion and op imizing i iga ion
scheduling in u g ass managemen using HYDRUS-2D
J. Co del1, R. Anlau 1, W. P ämaßing1 and G. B oll2
1 Facul y o Ag icul u e Sciences and Landscape A chi ec u e, Osnab ück Uni e si y o
Applied Sciences, Am K ümpel 31, 49090 Osnab ück, Ge many
2 Ins i u e o Geog aphy, Uni e si y o Osnab ück, Semina s . 19, 49074 Osnab ück,
Ge many
Ci a ion:
Co del, J., Anlau , R., P ämaßing, W., B oll, G. (2025): P edic ing wa e dis ibu ion and
op imizing i iga ion managemen in u g ass oo zones using HYDRUS-2D. Hyd ology, 12(3),
53. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/hyd ology12030053
Keywo ds:
u g ass managemen ; u g ass i iga ion; wa e use e iciency; p edic i e models o
i iga ion
Au ho con ibu ions:
Jan Co del: Concep ualiza ion, In es iga ion, Me hodology, Fo mal analysis, Valida ion,
Visualiza ion, W i ing – o iginal d a . Rüdige Anlau : supe ision, w i ing – e iew and edi ing.
Wol gang P ämaßing: w i ing – e iew and edi ing. Gab iele B oll: w i ing – e iew and edi ing.
P edic ing wa e dis ibu ion and op imizing i iga ion scheduling in u g ass
managemen using HYDRUS-2D
60
Figu e 1. O e iew o cons uc ion ypes o he 2-laye (2A, 2B) and 3-laye (3) sys ems
consis ing o 5 oo zone componen s: high-sil oo zone mix u e (HSRM), low-sil oo zone
mix u e (LSRM), coa se sand in e media e laye (CSIL), ine sand in e media e laye (FSIL) and
d ainage g a el (DG) wi h he associa ed i iga ion sys ems: sp inkle (SPR) and subsu ace d ip
i iga ion (SDI). The ci cles indica e he posi ion o he SDI sys em, wi h a spacing o 33 cm and
an ins alla ion dep h o 16.5 cm.
In each case, all ma e ials we e ins alled wi h a bulk densi y o 95% o he s anda d
P oc o densi y (DIN18035-4, 2018) (HSRM = 1.55, LSRM = 1.46, FSIL = 1.41, DG = 1.80, CSIL =
1.60 g cm−3) and wo sys ems used o i iga ion. Due o he plo size and o maximize he
wa e dis ibu ion uni o mi y, SPR-i iga ed plo s we e hand-wa e ed wi h a discha ge a e o
10 mm h−1. The SDI sys em used was a line-sou ce d ip sys em consis ing o po ous pipes
( adius = 0.9 cm) wi h a discha ge a e o 3 L h−1 m−1 (9.09 L h−1 m−2) esul ing om a line
spacing o 33 cm. The SDI ins alla ion dep h was 16.5 cm, and he ope a ing p essu e was
0.2 ba .
Expe imen al Se up and Measu emen s
Expe imen ally measu ed da a we e collec ed unde g eenhouse condi ions using ba e
soil p o iles (plo s wi h no g ass co e ). The esea ch a ea (11.94 m × 4.71 m including non-
conside ed edge a eas o he ac ual es plo s) was designed as a comple ely andomized wo-
ac o ial spli plo wi h h ee eplica ions o each ea men . The o al a ea comp ised six main
plo s (each 4.11 m × 1.70 m; h ee o SPR and h ee o SDI i iga ion). Each o he six main
plo s was di ided in o h ee plo s (1.70 m × 1.37 m) o he h ee cons uc ion ypes ( wo 2-
laye ed and one 3-laye ed design). Two di e en i iga ion cycles wi h discha ge amoun s o
cycle 1 = 10 mm ( he usual i iga ion amoun o u g ass and used o model calib a ion) and
2 = 20 mm (used o model alida ion) we e applied, bo h wi h an in ensi y o 10 mm h−1.
A e i iga ion cycle 1, all plo s unde wen a d ying phase (app oxima ely ou weeks wi h an
a e age e apo a ion a e o 3.22 mm day−1) o achie e a uni o m ini ial soil olume ic wa e
con en . The ini ial olume ic wa e con en was be ween 9 and 10 ol.% wi hou signi ican
P edic ing wa e dis ibu ion and op imizing i iga ion scheduling in u g ass
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61
di e ences be ween he plo s. The collec ed da ase o each e alua ed SPR o SDI i iga ed
a ian (2A, 2B, and 3) comp ised 30 measu emen s (n=30), which we e de i ed om a) h ee
dis inc obse a ion dep hs (3, 6, and 12 cm) and b) en speci ic obse a ion imes (0.00, 0.17,
0.33, 0.50, 2.00, 4.00, 8.00, 12.00, 24.00, 48.00 hou s a e i iga ion ini ia ion). Da a we e
collec ed in wo sepa a e ope a ions du ing bo h cycles and o ensu e an iden ical ini ial
olume ic wa e con en (VWC), i iga ion cycle 2 commenced ollowing a d ying phase o
h ee weeks. Soil samples we e aken wi h a soil sample h ough la e al openings a −3, −6,
and −12 cm using a 50 mm diame e me al ube, which was d i en in o he soil and wi hd awn.
The soil g a ime ic wa e con en was measu ed by o en-d ying he soil samples a 105 °C,
and he VWC was calcula ed by mul iplying i wi h bulk densi y. Fo each eplica ion and
obse a ion ime, a o al o 15 soil samples we e collec ed om i e measu emen poin s
(cen e o he plo abo e he SDI line and a 8.25 and 16.5 cm igh and le o he cen e ; a
simila posi ions o he SPR a ian s) and a dep hs o 3, 6, and 12 cm. The i e wa e con en
alues o one dep h o each sampling we e a e aged. A e sampling, he oids we e e illed
wi h he same soil ma e ial.
Simula ion Model, Ini ial and Bounda y Condi ions
HYDRUS-2D (H2D) ini e elemen model e sion 5.04 (Šimunek e al., 2012), a well-
known pa ame ic model ha connec s olume ic wa e con en o ma ic po en ial, as
p oposed by an Genuch en (Van Genuch en, 1980), was employed o simula e he
dis ibu ion o i iga ion wa e in ba e soil p o iles. The pa ame ic model inco po a es
pa ame e s such as ϴ , ϴs, α, n, and m and is in eg a ed in o he HYDRUS-2D model as ollows:
θ(ψ)=ϴ𝑟+ θs−θ
(1+|𝛼∙ψ|𝑛)𝑚
(1)
whe e ϴψ is he wa e con en a ma ic po en ial ψ; ϴ is he esidual wa e con en
(cm3 cm−3); ϴs is he sa u a ed soil wa e con en (cm3 cm−3); α, n, and m desc ibe he shape
o he unc ion wi hou physical meaning; and m is usually ixed as 1 − 1/n (Anlau e al., 2012).
The p e iously discussed o mula ion can be in eg a ed wi h Mualem’s equa ion
(Mualem, 1976) o elucida e he unsa u a ed hyd aulic conduc i i y unc ion, and i is also
inco po a ed in he HYDRUS-2D model:
wi h
𝑆𝑒=ϴ−ϴ𝑟
ϴ𝑠−ϴ𝑟
(3)
whe e Kψ is he hyd aulic conduc i i y a ma ic po en ial ψ; Ks is he sa u a ed hyd aulic
conduc i i y; Se is he e ec i e wa e con en ; L is a pa ame e desc ibing he po e s uc u e
o he soil, usually se o 0.5; and m is ixed as m = 1 − 1/n (Anlau e al., 2016; Ra i e al.,
2019; Šimůnek e al., 2008).
𝐾ψ=𝐾s∙𝑆𝑒 𝐿∙[1−(1−𝑆𝑒 1
𝑚)𝑚]2
(2)
P edic ing wa e dis ibu ion and op imizing i iga ion scheduling in u g ass
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62
The simula ion was ini ia ed by c ea ing a model se up wi h he co ec ma e ial laye s,
ini ial condi ions, and bounda y condi ions wi hin H2D ha co esponded o he expe imen al
se up. The obse ed olume ic soil wa e con en in he soil p o ile was aken as he ini ial
wa e con en o all simula ed scena ios. The model´s soil su ace was subjec ed o
a mosphe e bounda y condi ions o soil wa e e apo a ion (EV) co esponding o g eenhouse
condi ions wi h 0.013 cm h−1. A ee d ainage bounda y condi ion was imposed a he bo om
o he soil p o ile. On he igh - and le side o he soil p o ile, a no- lux bounda y was used
(Figu e 2).
Figu e 2. T iangula g id used o HYDRUS-2D simula ions o SDI (le ) and SPR ( igh ) a ian s
and ela ed bounda y condi ions.
SPR i iga ion was scheduled in acco dance wi h he expe imen al se up wi h an
in ensi y o 1 cm h−1. Fo SDI, a a iable lux bounda y was used a ound he SDI emi e (Figu e
2). Du ing i iga ion, he d ip pipe bounda y had a cons an wa e lux, which was ob ained by
di iding he emi e discha ge low a e o 3 L (h × m)−1 by he su ace o he d ip pipe as:
𝑞=Emi e discha ge low a e
pipe su ace a ea =( 3000 cm3 (h)−1
2 ∙ 0.9 cm∙ π ∙ 100 cm) =5.306 cm h−1
(4)
Du ing he no-i iga ion pe iod, he lux was kep a ze o.
The simula ion model domain was 50 cm deep. The high di e ences be ween he soil
hyd aulic pa ame e s o he di e en ma e ials, as well as he signi ican empo al-spa ial
a iabili y unde SDI, necessi a ed a node spacing o 0.50 mm, wi h p og essi ely close
spacing down o 0.25 mm a ound he SDI pipe and each laye in e ace.
P edic ing wa e dis ibu ion and op imizing i iga ion scheduling in u g ass
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63
Model Quali y E alua ion C i e ia
The e alua ion o he HYDRUS-2D model encompassed he assessmen o model quali y,
sensi i i y analysis, and model calib a ion based on he p edic ed and measu ed olume ic
soil wa e con en (VWC) da ase (n=30) o each a ian wi hin he uppe 12 cm.
The co ela ion coe icien (R2), oo mean squa e e o (RMSE), mean absolu e e o
(MAE), and Nash-Su cli e e iciency (NSE) we e calcula ed using he ollowing equa ion o
assess he model quali y pa ame e s:
R2=(𝑆𝑋𝑌
𝑆𝑋𝑆𝑌)2
(5)
𝑅𝑀𝑆𝐸=√1𝑁∑(𝑋𝑖 − 𝑌𝑖)2
𝑁
𝑖=1
(6)
𝑀𝐴𝐸= 1𝑁∑|(𝑋𝑖 − 𝑌𝑖)|
𝑁
𝑖=1
(7)
𝑁𝑆𝐸=1−∑(𝑋𝑖 − 𝑌𝑖)2
𝑁
𝑖=1
∑(𝑋𝑖 − 𝑋𝑎𝑣)2
𝑁
𝑖=1
(8)
whe e SXY is he co a iance be ween he a iables X (measu ed da a) and Y (p edic ed
da a). SX and SY a e he s anda d de ia ions o measu ed and p edic ed da a, espec i ely. Xi is
he measu ed da a, Yi = he p edic ed da a, Xa = he a e age o he measu ed da a, and N =
he numbe o obse a ions.
The co ela ion coe icien should be close o 1. The oo mean squa e e o (RMSE) is a
commonly u ilized me ic o e alua ing he ag eemen be ween measu ed and simula ed
alues and should be close o ze o. A widely accep ed s anda d ha does no conside o e -
o unde - o ecas ing is he mean absolu e e o (MAE). In an ideal scena io, he MAE should
be nea ly ze o. Bo h he oo mean squa e e o (RMSE) and mean absolu e e o (MAE) sha e
he same uni s as he measu ed and p edic ed alues (Wallach e al., 2006). Las ly, he NSE
(Nash and Su cli e, 1970) is a no malized s a is ic commonly used o e alua e hyd aulic
models and compa es esidual and measu ed a iance (Mo iasi e al., 2007). The pa ame e
equals ze o when he squa e o he di e ences be ween he measu ed and p edic ed alues
equals he a iabili y in he measu ed da a. I he NSE alue is nega i e, he measu ed mean
is a mo e accu a e p edic o han he model (Ahne e al., 2007). I he model gi es pe ec
esul s, he NSE = 1. An accep able-quali y model should ha e an NSE > 0.5 (Anlau e al., 2012;
Wallach e al., 2006).
Inpu Pa ame e , Pa ame e Sensi i i y, Model Calib a ion and Valida ion
The wa e e en ion d ying cu es we e de e mined using Eijkelkamp s anda d sandbox
appa a us (DINEN13041, 2012) o assess he wa e con en a pF 1, 1.8, and 2.5. The wa e
con en a pF 4.2 was de e mined using a p essu e pla e appa a us, as pe he DIN EN ISO
11274 (2019). The soil wa e e en ion cu es we e hen pa ame e ized acco ding o he an-
Genuch en equa ion (Ha mann e al., 2018) by adjus ing he θ ( esidual wa e con en ), α,
P edic ing wa e dis ibu ion and op imizing i iga ion scheduling in u g ass
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64
and n (shape ac o s) alues using he EXCEL sol e unc ion o ma ch he measu ed wa e
con en and wa e suc ion d ying cu e alues. The sa u a ion wa e con en θs was ixed a
he o al po osi y (TP). The ma e ial´s hys e e ic beha io was e alua ed based on he capilla y
ise o wa e in he ma e ials employed in his s udy wi hin expe imen al con aine s composed
o 10 igid plas ic ings, each measu ing 2 cm in heigh (Anlau e al., 2012). The ings we e
illed wi h he ma e ial o in e es (95% bulk densi y o P oc o densi y DPR), and a looding
dep h o 1 cm was main ained o 48 h be o e he wa e con en was de e mined
g a ime ically. I was assumed ha he wa e ension in he ings is de ined by he dis ance
o he wa e able, and he wa e con en a equilib ium is analogous o he wa e e en ion
cu e (Ra i e al., 2019). The we ing wa e e en ion cu e was ini ially pa ame e ized by
adjus ing and es ablishing he pa ame e α o αw (Šimůnek e al., 2008). The analy ical
de e mined soil pa ame e s used in HYDRUS-2D a e p esen ed in Table 2.
Table 2. Analy ically de e mined soil pa ame e s used in he HYDRUS-2D p og am.
Sensi i i y analyses and model calib a ion ocused on he ma e ials used in he op wo
laye s, including HSRM, LSRM ( oo zone laye s), FSIL (in e media e laye ), and DG (d ainage
g a el laye ) wi hin each cons uc ion me hod (2A, 2B, and 3) and i iga ion sys em (SDI and
SPR). The HYDRUS-2D model was used o analyze he sensi i i y o he soil hyd aulic
pa ame e s θ , α, and n ( ep esen ing he soil wa e e en ion d ying cu e pa ame e iza ion)
while excluding he exac analy ically de e minable pa ame e θs ( ixed a o al po osi y), as
well as he pa ame e s αw and θsw ( ep esen ing he oppo uni ies in he HYDRUS code o
desc ibing ma e ial´s hys e esis beha io ). The s udy e alua ed he impac o a 20 %
inc emen al inc ease in hese pa ame e s on simula ion ou pu (VWC) a e 10 mm i iga ion
(cycle 1) ega ding he de ia ion in model e iciency (NSE).
Fo model calib a ion, he Le enbe g-Ma qua d op imiza ion algo i hm (Ma qua d ,
1963), in conjunc ion wi h he HYDRUS-2D code (Šimůnek e al., 2016), was employed o
in e sely es ima e he desi ed soil hyd aulic pa ame e s. These pa ame e s we e de e mined
h ough he sys ema ic minimiza ion o di e ences be ween obse ed and simula ed s a e
a iables (i.e., VWC). The o al di e ences a e exp essed by an objec i e unc ion, ϕ, which
may be de ined as (Nakhaei and Šimůnek, 2014):
𝜙(𝛽,𝛾)= ∑𝑣𝑗
𝑗=𝑚𝑦
𝑗=1 ∑𝑤𝑖,𝑗[𝑦𝑖∗(𝑧,𝑡𝑖)−𝑦𝑖(𝑧,𝑡𝑖,𝛽)]
𝑖=𝑛𝑗
𝑖=1 ²
whe e he igh side ep esen s he esiduals be ween he measu ed (yi*) and
co esponding model-p edic ed (yi) space- ime a iables using he soil hyd aulic pa ame e s
o he op imized pa ame e ec o , β. The ini ial summa ion agg ega es he esiduals o all
measu emen ypes (my) (i.e., VWC), whe eas he a iable nj in he subsequen summa ion
Pa ame e s
HSRM
LSRM
FSIL
CSIL
DG
ϴs (cm3 cm−3)
0.415
0.430
0.466
0.394
0.321
ϴ (cm3 cm−3)
0.060
0.076
0.011
0.014
0.014
Ks (cm h−1)
22.019
64.854
146.474
608.12
91.612
α
0.089
0.061
0.055
0.228
0.085
αw
0.118
0.119
0.077
0.300
0.156
n
1.728
2.090
2.719
1.929
2.063
l
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
(9)
P edic ing wa e dis ibu ion and op imizing i iga ion scheduling in u g ass
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65
deno es he numbe o measu emen s o a speci ic measu emen ype j. Assuming ha
measu emen e o s wi hin a gi en measu emen ype a e independen and unco ela ed, he
weigh ing ac o alues o j can be chosen o ensu e ei he equal weigh ing o da a ypes
h ough a no maliza ion p ocedu e o weigh ing p opo ional o he ecip ocal o he
measu emen a iance o ype j (Clausni ze and Hopmans, 1995).
The model calib a ion p ocess in ol ed (i) calib a ing sepa a ely he ou soil hyd aulic
pa ame e s iden i ied as mos sensi i e h ough sensi i i y analysis (scena io F1–F4), and (ii)
calib a ing simul aneously, based on p e ious esea ch (Huang e al., 2005; Kool and Pa ke ,
1987; McCoy and McCoy, 2009; Šimůnek e al., 2008), he shape pa ame e s αw and n (scena io
F5) as well as αw and ϴsw (scena io F6). In o al, six dis inc and independen scena ios (F1–F6)
we e u ilized o he calib a ion p ocedu es, each wi hou in e nal weigh ing o in e sion da a.
Following calib a ion, he mos sui able model o simula ion was iden i ied and
subsequen ly alida ed using an independen da ase (i iga ion cycle 2). This alida ion s ep
was conduc ed o e alua e he model's eliabili y.
I iga ion Managemen E alua ion
The HYDRUS-2D code was also used in hypo he ical ins ances o examine he e ec o
i iga ion ea men s, which a e gi en in Table 3. The pa ame e s o he bounda y and low
domain emained unchanged om p e ious desc ip ions. Based on p e ious esea ch (Co del,
2025; Co del e al., 2024) ha demons a ed he a o able wa e e en ion cha ac e is ics o
he h ee-laye ed cons uc ion me hod 3, his me hodology was employed o e alua e he
e icacy o a ious i iga ion app oaches ega ding wa e usage. The analysis ocused on wo
key ac o s in luencing i iga ion e iciency, i.e. d ainage lux and soil wa e s o age wi hin he
simula ion domain (uppe 50 cm). Fou di e en i iga ion app oaches we e assessed. Each
app oach in ol ed applying a o al i iga ion amoun o 10 mm h ough ei he SPR (SPR 1–4),
SDI (SDI 1–4), o HYBRID (HYBRID 1–4) in up o i e i iga ion e en s wi hin a 12 h pe iod.
Table 3. I iga ion managemen pa ame e s wi hin he ou i iga ion app oaches (1-4) unde
SPR, SDI, and HYBRID (SPR+SDI) i iga ion ac oss cons uc ion me hod 3.
I iga ion
app oach
I . e en s wi hin
12 h
Wa e applied pe cha ge (mm)
P opo ion
0
3
6
9
12
SPR
SDI
(-)
(-)
hou s
(%)
(%)
SPR-1
1
10.00
0
0
0
0
100
0
SPR-2
2
7.50
0
2.50
0
0
100
0
SPR-3
3
5.00
0
2.50
0
2.50
100
0
SPR-4
4
5.00
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.25
100
0
SDI-1
1
10.00
0
0
0
0
0
100
SDI-2
2
7.50
0
2.50
0
0
0
100
SDI-3
3
5.00
2.50
2.50
0
100
SDI-4
4
5.00
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.25
0
100
HYBRID-1
1
5.00 (SPR),
5.00 (SDI)
0
0
0
0
50
50
HYBRID-2
2
7.50 (SPR)
0
2.50 (SDI)
0
0
75
25
HYBRID-3
3
5.00 (SPR)
0
2.50 (SDI)
0
2.50 (SDI)
50
50
HYBRID-4
4
5.00 (SPR)
1.25 (SDI)
1.25 (SDI)
1.25 (SDI)
1.25 (SDI)
50
50
P edic ing wa e dis ibu ion and op imizing i iga ion scheduling in u g ass
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66
Resul s
Model Quali y E alua ion
The uncalib a ed model's pe o mance was e alua ed using he model e iciency
pa ame e (NSE). Fu he he esul s we e g aphically isualized by compa ing he obse ed
alues agains he simula ion ou pu di e ences, p esen ed h ough spa ial maps (o dina y
K iging me hod).
Figu e 3 shows he obse ed alues (le ) agains he di e ence alues ( igh ) o
cons uc ion me hods 2A, 2B, and 3 unde SPR i iga ion, each a e aged ac oss he en i e
obse a ion ime 0-48 hou s ollowing 10 mm i iga ion. Figu e 4 is analogous o Figu e 3, bu
in each case unde SDI. The NSEs anged om 0.27 (2A_SDI) o 0.72 (3_SPR), wi h he SPR
a ian s gene ally achie ing NSEs abo e 0.5. Fu he model quali y pa ame e s o he
uncalib a ed models a e depic ed in Figu e 7.
G aphical analysis showed ha , o SPR a ian s 2A and 2B, he model ended o
calcula e highe p edic ed alues han obse ed alues. A an obse a ion dep h o 6 cm, he
a e age o e es ima ion was 0.85 ol. % o 2A and 1.22 ol. % o 2B. A a dep h o 12 cm, he
a e age o e es ima ion was 0.94 ol. % o 2A and 1.55 ol. % o 2B. In he case o SDI, an
a e age o e es ima ion wi hin a ian 2A o 1.27 ol. % (6 cm dep h) and 3.11 ol. % (12 cm
dep h) was obse ed. In con as , a ian 3_SDI exhibi ed a di e en pa e n, wi h he model
gene a ing lowe p edic ed alues han he obse ed ones. The a e age unde es ima ion was
1.54 ol. % a a dep h o 6 cm and 2.27 ol. % a a dep h o 12 cm. Simila o he model’s
pe o mance, a ian 3 showed he mos mino di e ences among SPR a ian s, while 2B
displayed he leas a ia ion among SDI a ian s.
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Figu e 3. Volume ic wa e con en wi hin SPR a ian s 2A_SPR, 2B_SPR, and 3_SPR a
obse a ion dep hs o 3, 6, and 11 cm (a e aged alues ac oss he en i e obse a ion ime 0-
48 hou s) as obse ed alues (le ) and di e ences be ween he obse ed and p edic ed alues
( igh ).
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Figu e 4. Volume ic wa e con en wi hin SDI a ian s 2A_SDI, 2B_SDI, and 3_SDI a
obse a ion dep hs o 3, 6, and 11 cm (a e aged alues ac oss en i e obse a ion ime 0-48
hou s) as obse ed alues (le ) and di e ences be ween he obse ed and p edic ed alues
( igh ).
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Sensi i i y Analysis
The sensi i i y analyses o he 5 pa ame e s ϴ , α, n (no mal d ying WRC), ϴsw , and αw
(we ing WRC) p esen ed in Figu e 5 illus a e he espec i e de ia ions in model e iciency
(NSE) unde a soil hyd aulic pa ame e pe u ba ion o +20 % wi hin each a ian 's uppe wo
laye s (Laye 1 and Laye 2).
Figu e 5. In luence o a 20 % pe u ba ion o soil hyd aulic pa ame e s ϴ , n, ϴsw, αw, and α on
model e iciency de ia ion (NSE) ac oss Laye 1 and Laye 2 o he a ian s (a) 2A_SPR) o ( )
3_SDI du ing i iga ion cycle 1 (10 mm).
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Up o 12 hou s (8 hou s o IA1), he wa e s o age was e y simila wi hin he i iga ion
app oaches wi h a endency o gene ally minimal highe wa e s o age in he SDI a ian s.
Gene ally, he wa e s o age was highe in IA1 and IA2 compa ed o IA3 and IA4. S ong
di e ences could be iden i ied be ween he wa e s o age in he di e en i iga ion sys ems
a e 24 hou s: he SPR a ian always showed he lowes wa e s o age ollowed by he SDI
i iga ion. The hyb id i iga ion sys em always had he highes wa e s o age. The hyb id-
app oach esul s a 48 h we e 3.33 mm (IA4), 3.61 mm (IA3), 2.69 mm (IA2), and 2.39 mm (IA1)
(Figu e 4). Since he cumula i e d ainage is na u ally de e mined by he wa e s o age, hese
alues we e always in e sely ela ed o he s o age (Figu e 4).
In summa y, ocusing on he maximum esidual soil wa e s o age and minimum
d ainage lux o each i iga ion echnique (SPR, SDI, HYBRID) and app oach (IA1—IA4) a an
obse a ion ime o 48 h, he ollowing o de was obse ed o soil wa e s o age:
HYBRID-IA3 (3.61 mm) > SDI-IA4 (2.53 mm) > SPR-IA3 (0.38 mm),
and o d ainage lux:
HYBRID-IA3 (2.57 mm) < SDI-IA4 (3.59 mm) < SPR-IA3 (5.46 mm).
The di e ence o wa e s o age plus d ainage lux o he 10 mm i iga ion is due o he
ac ual e apo a ion du ing he 24 hou s.
Discussion
Tu g ass a eas, including gol cou ses and spo s ields, p o ide essen ial ecosys em
se ices such as ca bon seques a ion, oxygen p oduc ion, wa e pu i ica ion, and hea
dissipa ion, con ibu ing o clima e change mi iga ion and u ban en i onmen al quali y (Bea d,
1973; Bea d and G een, 1994; B aun e al., 2023). I iga ion managemen mus suppo
e icien i iga ion wa e usage, uni o m soil mois u e dis ibu ion, and adequa e soil mois u e
e en ion o main ain accep able u g ass quali y. This s udy e alua ed he HYDRUS-2D model
o simula ing i iga ion wa e dis ibu ion, demons a ing i s e ec i eness while highligh ing
he need o calib a ion in mul ilaye ed oo zone cons uc ion me hods, pa icula ly unde SDI.
Theo e ical Aspec s
The model pe o mance a ied depending on he cons uc ion me hod and he i iga ion
sys em used. The ini ially uncalib a ed model u ilizing analy ical de e mined soil hyd aulic
pa ame e s demons a ed al eady accep able pe o mance o SPR a ian s (NSE 0.58–0.72)
bu subop imal pe o mance o SDI (NSE 0.27–0.52). The model ended o o e es ima e he
wo-laye ed SPR and SDI a ian s, consis en wi h Ghazouani e al. (2019), who epo ed
o e es ima ion o modeled wa e con en alues compa ed o measu ed alues, wi h 2A_SDI
displaying he lowes model accu acy. In con as , he h ee-laye ed SDI a ian no ably
unde es ima ed soil wa e con en , pa icula ly in he lowe pa s o he oo zone (obse a ion
dep hs o 6 and 12 cm).
Sensi i i y analysis o he pa ame e s indica ed ha he shape ac o n exhibi ed he
highes sensi i i y wi hin bo h laye s and ac oss all a ian s, whe eas shape ac o α (d ying
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WC) demons a ed he lowes sensi i i y, which is consis en wi h he esul s o Inoue e al.
(1998). Soil hyd aulic pa ame e ϴsw shows he second highes sensi i i y, aligning wi h he
indings o Abbasi e al. (2003). The sensi i i y analysis u he demons a ed he need o he
p ecise pa ame e iza ion o soil hyd aulic pa ame e s, as cons uc ion me hod 2B/Laye 2
exhibi ed a dec ease in he NSE alue o −0.23 when he shape ac o n was inc eased by 20 %
unde SPR i iga ion. In con as , his modi ica ion inc eased he NSE alue o +0.19 unde SDI
(Figu e 5).
The soil hyd aulic pa ame e s o each ma e ial we e independen ly calib a ed using he
HYDRUS in e se solu ion me hod ac oss he calib a ion scena io F1-F6. Howe e , he esul s
demons a ed ha he model s uc u e signi ican ly in luenced he calib a ed ma e ial's soil
hyd aulic p ope ies.
Gene ally, he calib a ed αw (we ing WRC) alues esul ed in αw/α a ios a e aging 1.90
ac oss all a ian s (calib a ion scena io F1), indica ing subs an ially g ea e αw alues han he
co esponding d ying cu e alues. This inding aligns wi h he s udy o McCoy and McCoy
(2009) and app oxima es he alue o 2 (αw/α a io) sugges ed by Kool and Pa ke (1987) o
es ima ing we ing cu e pa ame e αw. This suppo s using his app oxima ion when
measu ed we ing cu e da a a e una ailable.
Ne e heless, he obse a ions indica ed ha , pa icula ly unde a wo-pa ame e
simul aneous calib a ion (scena io F5 and F6), he model's in e se solu ion es ima ed
pa ame e s exhibi ed high a iabili y, no ably in laye 2 and ma e ial DG. The alues o he
ac o ϴsw showed alues 0.121 and 0.321 cm3 cm-3 wi hin scena io F6 and ma e ial DG. Shape
ac o n showed changeable beha io wi h a pa ially low o s ongly p onounced inc ease and
dec ease depending on he cons uc ion me hod and associa ed i iga ion sys em wi h alues
anging be ween 1.764 and 3.005 (scena io F5, ma e ial DG); hese indings do no ag ee wi h
he esul s o McCoy and McCoy (2009), which showed gene ally lowe n alues when
conside ing he ypical cha ac e is ics o he hys e esis we ing cu e esponse. E en unde
single-pa ame e calib a ion (scena io F2, ma e ial DG) pa ame e s αw alues anged om
0.152 o 0.388 (Table 4).
These adjus men s likely ep esen he model´s a emp o compensa e o e o s
(di e ences be ween obse ed and p edic ed VWC) in laye 1. Gi en his pe spec i e, p io o
u ilizing calib a ed alues ha yield he highes imp o emen in model e iciency, i is
impe a i e o asce ain whe he hese calib a ed pa ame e s all wi hin a physically plausible
ange, especially in he con ex o di ec ly measu able pa ame e s (i.e., ϴ and ϴs).
Fu he mo e, ou indings sugges ha , speci ically unde SDI condi ions, he shape pa ame e
nw (we ing cu e) should be addi ionally conside ed wi hin he HYDRUS code o mo e
accu a ely cha ac e ize he hys e esis beha io o he ma e ial and acili a e a shape ac o -
based model calib a ion app oach.
Fu he mo e, he models e ealed p onounced g adien s a he in e ace be ween
neighbo ing laye s (Laye s 1 and 2) due o ma kedly di e en soil physical p ope ies o he
ma e ials employed. Fo ins ance, in cons uc ion me hod 3, Laye 1 (HSRM) demons a ed a
sa u a ed hyd aulic conduc i i y (Ks) o 649 mm h−1, while Laye 2 (FSIL) showed a alue o
1465 mm h−1. Simila ly, subs an ial wa e con en and wa e suc ion g adien s a e obse ed a
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he in e ace o Laye 1 and 2 in cons uc ion me hod 2A, whe e Laye 1 exhibi ed a Ks o 220
mm h−1 and Laye 2 had a Ks o 916 mm h−1. These indings indica e ha complex model
s uc u es in ol ing mul ilaye ed oo zone cons uc ion me hods comp ising adjacen laye s
wi h signi ican ly di e en soil physical p ope ies and highligh ing he necessi y o model
calib a ion, pa icula ly unde SDI condi ions.
No wi hs anding he obse ed local a ia ions, he NSE alues consis en ly emained
posi i e, indica ing subs an ial ag eemen be ween he measu ed soil wa e con en and he
model’s simula ed alues (Nash and Su cli e, 1970) despi e he complexi y o he condi ions
o which he model was subjec ed, ha is, mul i-laye ed oo zone cons uc ion me hods and
i iga ion sys ems wi h high spa ial a iabili y.
Following calib a ion, he model s ongly ag eed wi h he measu ed da a, achie ing NSEs
up o 0.81 o SDI and 0.75 o SPR a ian s. Calib a ion demons a ed ha SPR a ian s
exhibi ed NSE alues > 0.5 e en unde uncalib a ed condi ions. Ne e heless, i calib a ion o
u he imp o emen is o be conduc ed, he esul s indica ed ha conside a ion o laye 1
ac oss SPR a ian s is su icien (Figu e 6). In con as , unde SDI, a signi ican imp o emen in
model quali y could be obse ed by conside ing bo h laye s (Laye s 1 and 2). A plausible
explana ion is ha du ing SDI, he model p ima ily u ilized he we ing e en ion cu e in Laye
2. Howe e , du ing d ainage and edis ibu ion, bo h laye s and hei co esponding we ing
and d ying cu es and he connec ions be ween hem necessi a ed conside a ion wi hin he
model calib a ion p ocedu e.
P ac ical Signi icance
Despi e disc epancies be ween he calcula ed and measu ed alues o soil wa e
con en , hese a ia ions ypically emained below 4 ol. % and a e consis en wi h s anda d
ield measu emen unce ain ies. These unce ain ies a e signi ican ly in luenced by he
speci ic measu emen echnology employed (e.g., measu emen wi h a equency domain
e lec ome y (FDR) senso ), he measu emen poin 's loca ion, and he measu emen 's
iming. Rega ding p ac ical signi icance, i is essen ial o no e ha he model demons a es
e icacy in mul ilaye cons uc ion me hods wi h highly complex soil physical ela ionships and
unde i iga ion sys ems wi h conside able spa ial a iabili y (i.e., SDI), signi ican ly in luencing
i iga ion wa e dynamics (Dabach e al., 2015). Consequen ly, his ool acili a es he
adap a ion o i iga ion managemen o he speci ic onsi e s uc u al condi ions o spo s u
a eas and enables he implemen a ion o e icien i iga ion p ac ices.
In he con ex o i iga ion managemen e alua ion, he model da a o he h ee-laye ed
a ian (cons uc ion me hod 3) indica ed ha , unde SPR i iga ion, di iding he o al
i iga ion wa e quan i y in o mul iple smalle applica ions (app oaches 3 and 4) gene ally
esul ed in highe soil wa e s o age and lowe d ainage lux compa ed o single la ge
applica ions. Fu he mo e, he model da a unde he hyb id i iga ion app oach indica ed he
mos e icien use o esou ce wa e , cha ac e ized by he highes soil wa e s o age and lowes
d ainage lux compa ed o he o he i iga ion app oaches (Figu e 8). The p ac ical applicabili y
o he equi emen p o ile o an i iga ion echnique should also be emphasized, as
main enance p ac ices ypically conduc ed on u g ass a eas necessi a e su ace i iga ion
(i.e., SPR) o es ablishing seeding o lushing in g anula ed e ilize s. In he con ex o
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u g ass i iga ion, he p ima y ocus emains on he a ge ed applica ion o i iga ion wa e
in o he oo zone, which should ideally be applied wi h minimized e apo a ion loss, su ace
uno , and mois u e pene a ion o he u o educe disease p essu e. The esul s indica e
ha unde a hyb id i iga ion app oach, hese equi emen s a e a ainable, u he
demons a ing he po en ial o HYDRUS-2D as a cos -e ec i e and aluable ool o e alua ing
and op imizing u g ass i iga ion managemen .
Limi a ions o he s udy and u he esea ch
While he calib a ed models exhibi ed s ong o e all pe o mance, some disc epancies
be ween measu ed and p edic ed alues emained, pa icula ly o he h ee-laye ed
cons uc ion unde SDI. This sugges s ha u he e inemen o he HYDRUS code, such as
implemen ing nw as an addi ional shape ac o , may be necessa y o accoun o he ma e ial's
hys e esis beha io mo e p ecisely. Mo eo e , o e alua e he undamen al model
pe o mance ac oss a ious oo zone cons uc ion me hods and i iga ion sys ems, he s udy
was conduc ed on ba e soil p o iles, and he inco po a ion o u g ass and i s associa ed oo
wa e up ake pa e ns would undoub edly in luence wa e dis ibu ion and i iga ion
e iciency.
Fu u e esea ch should inco po a e oo wa e up ake models o p o ide a mo e
comp ehensi e unde s anding o soil-plan -wa e dynamics and ela ionships in mul i-laye ed
cons uc ion me hods o u g ass a eas, whe ein an inc easing complexi y o model
calib a ion could be an icipa ed.
Conclusions
This s udy demons a ed he e icacy o he HYDRUS-2D model in simula ing i iga ion
wa e dis ibu ion ac oss a ious u g ass oo zone cons uc ion me hods. The key indings
include he ollowing: (i) The ini ial model pe o mance a ied depending on he cons uc ion
me hod and i iga ion sys em, wi h accep able o high pe o mance o SPR a ian s (NSE
0.58–0.72) bu subop imal pe o mance o SDI a ian s (NSE 0.27–0.52). (ii) Sensi i i y
analysis e ealed ha he shape ac o n exhibi ed he highes sensi i i y, whe eas he shape
ac o α showed he lowes sensi i i y ac oss all a ian s. Model calib a ion signi ican ly
imp o ed he pe o mance, achie ing NSEs up o 0.81 o SDI and 0.75 o SPR a ian s,
espec i ely. This calib a ion appea s necessa y, pa icula ly unde SDI, o enhance model
quali y among mul ilaye ed oo zone cons uc ion me hods. The calib a ed αw/α a ios
a e aged 1.90 ac oss all a ian s, aligning wi h p e ious esea ch and suppo ing his
app oxima ion when he measu ed we ing cu e da a a e una ailable. (iii) The e alua ion o
i iga ion managemen e ealed ha di iding he o al i iga ion wa e quan i y in o mul iple
smalle applica ions gene ally esul ed in highe soil wa e s o age and lowe d ainage lux
han single la ge applica ions. (i ) A hyb id i iga ion app oach combining SPR and SDI sys ems
showed he mos e icien use o wa e esou ces.
While he calib a ed models demons a ed good o e all pe o mance, some
disc epancies be ween he measu ed and p edic ed alues pe sis ed, pa icula ly o he
h ee-laye ed cons uc ion unde he SDI. This inding sugges s ha u he e inemen o he
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model is necessa y. These indings indica e ha HYDRUS-2D has he po en ial o be an e icien
ool o e alua ing i iga ion s a egies in u g ass a eas. Howe e , u u e esea ch should
inco po a e oo wa e up ake models o p o ide a mo e comp ehensi e unde s anding o soil-
plan -wa e dynamics in mul ilaye ed cons uc ion me hods o u g ass a eas.
O e all, his modeling app oach has he po en ial o op imize i iga ion managemen in
u g ass oo zones, he eby enhancing wa e -use e iciency and minimizing esou ce was age.
Consequen ly, his op imiza ion imp o es he sus ainabili y, capaci y o ca bon seques a ion,
and ecosys em se ices o u g ass, which a e pa icula ly c ucial in u ban se ings.
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Table S1. In luence o 20 % pe u ba ion o soil hyd aulic pa ame e s Θ , n, ϴsw, αw, and α on he absolu e model e iciency de ia ion (ABS NSE-
de ia ion) ac oss Laye 1 and Laye 2 o he a ian s 2A_SPR and 3_SDI, i iga ion cycle 1 (10 mm) including he absolu e an o al absolu e mean pe
soil hyd aulic pa ame e and laye espec i ely.
Soil hyd aulic
pa ame e
2A_SPR
2B_SPR
3_SPR
2A_SDI
2B_SDI
3_SDI
2A_SPR
2B_SPR
3_SPR
2A_SDI
2B_SDI
3_SDI
Absolu Mean
Laye 1
Laye 2
Laye 1
Laye 2
ϴ
0.12
0.14
0.06
0.20
0.07
0.09
0.02
0.00
0.00
0.02
0.03
0.03
0.11
0.02
n
0.01
0.28
0.62
0.22
0.39
0.55
0.10
0.23
0.09
0.02
0.19
0.03
0.35
0.11
ϴsw
0.19
0.15
0.04
0.33
0.02
0.14
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.09
0.11
0.09
0.14
0.05
αw
0.02
0.03
0.06
0.09
0.10
0.18
0.01
0.11
0.06
0.05
0.02
0.00
0.08
0.04
α
-0.02
0.00
-0.03
0.01
-0.01
-0.04
0.01
-0.01
0.00
0.04
-0.01
-0.03
0.02
0.01
To al Absolu Mean
0.14
0.05
Table S2. Model e iciency alues (NSEs) ac oss model calib a ion scena ios (F1 – F6) used in isola ed implemen a ion (Laye 1 and Laye 2), and
combined implemen a ion (Laye 1+2) ac oss a ian s 2A_SPR and 3_SDI, i iga ion cycle 1 (10 mm).
Cons uc ion
me hod
I iga ion
F1
F2
F3
F4
F5
F6
F1
F2
F3
F4
F5
F6
F1
F2
F3
F4
F5
F6
sys em
Laye 1
Laye 2
Laye 1+2
2A
SPR
0.71
0.74
0.70
0.72
0.75
0.75
0.65
0.69
0.68
0.71
0.53
0.67
0.71
0.74
0.70
0.72
0.72
0.75
2B
0.60
0.61
0.60
0.63
0.62
0.60
0.38
0.60
0.59
0.64
0.20
0.57
0.60
0.59
0.60
0.63
0.61
0.61
3
0.72
0.72
0.72
0.72
0.72
0.72
0.70
0.72
0.71
0.71
0.71
0.70
0.72
0.71
0.72
0.72
0.71
0.72
2A
SDI
0.43
0.72
0.70
0.75
0.78
0.68
0.15
0.09
0.11
0.12
0.54
-0.03
0.49
0.72
0.76
0.71
0.79
0.81
2B
0.45
0.37
0.35
0.60
0.54
0.31
0.64
0.64
0.65
0.66
0.73
0.72
0.45
0.34
0.35
0.60
0.81
0.33
3
0.49
0.64
0.49
0.54
0.73
0.54
0.61
0.48
0.58
0.59
0.61
0.61
0.48
0.64
0.49
0.54
0.76
0.57
Mean (SPR)
0.67
0.68
0.67
0.69
0.70
0.69
0.58
0.67
0.66
0.69
0.48
0.65
0.67
0.68
0.67
0.69
0.68
0.69
Mean (SDI)
0.46
0.58
0.51
0.63
0.68
0.51
0.47
0.41
0.44
0.46
0.63
0.43
0.48
0.57
0.53
0.62
0.79
0.57
P edic ing wa e dis ibu ion and op imizing i iga ion scheduling in u g ass managemen using HYDRUS-2D
82
Table S3. De elopmen o soil wa e s o age (uppe 50 cm), cumula i e d ainage lux and co esponding cumula i e e apo a ion o 3-laye ed
cons uc ion me hod 3 and i iga ion app oaches 1-4 unde SPR and SDI i iga ion (Cycle 1 = 10 mm); obse a ion ime: 4, 8, 12, 24, and 48 hou s
a e i iga ion ini ia ion.
Amoun o
i iga ion
I iga ion
app oach
I iga ion
e en s
wi hin
12 hou s
Obse a ion ime (h)
4
8
12
24
48
EVAP
SOIL_S
DFLU
EVAP
SOIL_S
DFLU
EVAP
SOIL_S
DFLU
EVAP
SOIL_S
DFLU
EVAP
SOIL_S
DFLU
(mm)
(-)
(-)
(mm)
10
SPR-1
1
0.54
9.61
0.05
1.07
9.22
1.26
1.61
7.86
0.94
3.22
3.04
4.77
6.44
0.00
6.60
SPR-2
2
0.54
7.13
0.05
1.07
9.25
0.10
1.61
8.80
0.24
3.22
4.90
3.11
6.44
0.00
6.30
SPR-3
3
0.54
4.63
0.05
1.07
6.75
0.10
1.61
6.36
0.15
3.22
6.88
1.15
6.44
0.38
5.46
SPR-4
4
0.54
5.87
0.05
1.07
6.74
0.10
1.61
7.61
0.16
3.22
6.01
1.95
6.44
0.00
5.87
10
SDI-1
1
0.54
9.79
0.05
1.07
9.31
0.24
1.61
8.17
0.55
3.22
5.24
2.84
6.44
1.98
4.64
SDI-2
2
0.54
7.33
0.05
1.07
9.41
0.11
1.61
8.83
0.48
3.22
5.82
2.45
6.44
1.57
4.84
SDI-3
3
0.54
4.87
0.05
1.07
7.00
0.10
1.61
6.61
0.17
3.22
7.08
1.28
6.44
2.01
4.23
SDI-4
4
0.54
6.12
0.05
1.07
7.03
0.10
1.61
7.88
0.18
3.22
6.81
1.59
6.44
2.53
3.59
10
HYBRID-1
1
0.54
9.45
0.05
1.07
9.08
0.11
1.61
8.62
0.32
3.22
6.19
1.79
6.44
2.39
3.26
HYBRID-2
2
0.54
6.98
0.05
1.07
9.29
0.10
1.61
8.92
0.16
3.22
6.79
1.23
6.44
2.69
3.09
HYBRID-3
3
0.54
4.47
0.05
1.07
6.78
0.10
1.61
6.40
0.15
3.22
7.70
0.68
6.44
3.61
2.57
HYBRID-4
4
0.54
5.81
0.05
1.07
6.78
0.10
1.61
7.74
0.15
3.22
7.51
0.63
6.44
3.33
2.64
83
Chap e 3
Gene al Discussion
Gene al Discussion
84
The p esen esea ch aimed o e alua e s a egies o enhancing i iga ion e iciency in
u g ass a eas, ocusing on wo key ac o s: he oo zone cons uc ion me hod and he
i iga ion deli e y sys em. To his end, he s udy employed a combina ion o di e se ield and
g eenhouse expe imen s conduc ed o e se e al yea s, as well as nume ical model-based
simula ions u ilizing he HYDRUS-2D so wa e. In he ollowing chap e , he esul s o hese
a ious expe imen s a e discussed collec i ely in an o e a ching pe spec i e.
In alignmen wi h he o e a ching aim, his discussion is s uc u ed a ound he h ee
cen al esea ch ques ions o mula ed in Sec ion 1.3 (Topics 1–3, pp. 12–13), along wi h hei
co esponding hypo heses. Each esea ch ques ion was add essed h ough speci ic empi ical
s udies, which a e p esen ed in he h ee pape s ha cons i u e his cumula i e disse a ion.
Sec ion 3.1 discussed he indings p esen ed in Pape 1 (Sec ion 2.1) and Pape 2 (Sec ion 2.2)
in ela ion o he hypo hesis associa ed wi h Topic 1. Sec ion 3.2 ocuses on he esul s o Pape
2 (Sec ion 2.2) in he con ex o he hypo hesis o Topic 2. Finally, sec ion 3.3 discussed he
ou comes o Pape 3 (Sec ion 2.3) in ela ion o he hypo hesis o Topic 3.
3.1 Enhancemen o u g ass oo zone wa e e en ion
cha ac e is ics and wa e use e iciency
The p e alen me hods employed in cons uc ing highly unc ional oo zones o
u g ass a eas nega i ely impac he wa e use e iciency o i iga ion sys ems. This e ec is
obse ed ega dless o he i iga ion sys em used, as he s uc u e and physical p ope ies o
he cons uc ion ma e ials in luence a ia ions in soil mois u e dis ibu ion and e en ion
(Clo hie and G een, 1994; Leinaue and Makk, 2007; S ie e al., 2013; Yin e al., 2012).
In all ials, unde g eenhouse and ield condi ions, i was shown ha he oo zone
cons uc ion me hod and he associa ed i iga ion deli e y sys em signi ican ly in luenced
wa e use e iciency and di e en wa e usage cha ac e is ics du ing u g ass i iga ion. Thus,
i was possible o con i m his hypo hesis. The e alua ed esul s in bo h ials (g eenhouse and
ield) demons a ed ha a e sp inkle i iga ion, an inc ease in oo zone wa e s o age
ollowed by a apid dec ease could be obse ed (Sec ion 2.1, Table 3, p.31, Sec ion 2.2, Table
4, p.46). This indica es ha insu icien oo zone wa e e en ion p ope ies caused by he
physical p ope ies o he ma e ial (coa se soil ex u e and high sa u a ed hyd aulic
conduc i i y), he i iga ion deli e y sys ems (sp inkle ), suscep ibili y o e apo a ion loss, and
induced dis ibu ion inaccu acies a e consis en wi h Fidanza (2023), Cha zoulakis and Be aki
(2015), Co dei o e al. (2010), and Ca ow e al. (2002). Taylo e al. (1993) epo ed ha he
highes e en ion and oo zone wa e s o age we e achie ed when he oo zone was placed
di ec ly on he g a el laye because i c ea ed a capilla y b eak owing o he ab up po e size
di e ence be ween he g a el and oo zone laye s. Howe e , he cu en esul s ac oss he
wo-laye ed sp inkle -i iga ed a ian s a e di e en , likely because o he dis inc ex u e and
composi ion o he used g a el d ainage laye . SDI sys ems enhance i iga ion e iciency by
deli e ing wa e di ec ly and p ecisely o he oo zone (Fidanza, 2023). Howe e , wa e s o age
in he uppe 15 cm (Sec ion 2.1, Figu e 5, p.32) and in he uppe 12 cm (Sec ion 2.2, Table 4,
p.46) o he wo-laye ed a ian s ends o be signi ican ly highe unde sp inkle i iga ion han
unde SDI i iga ion. The esul s indica e ha ins alling he SDI sys em in a laye cha ac e ized
Gene al Discussion
85
by low e en ion p ope ies and lacking co esponding capilla y ac ion leads o an insu icien
capilla y ise ega ding i iga ion wa e , which ag ees wi h G abow e al. (2005) and Co e e al.
(2003). Fu he mo e, inc easing he olume o i iga ion wa e om 10 mm o 20 mm does
no mi iga e his issue (Sec ion 2.1, Table 3, p.31 and Figu e 5, p.32), as suppo ed by he
indings o Skaggs e al. (2010). I ul ima ely esul s in a u he signi ican decline in wa e use
e iciency. The h ee-laye ed a ian exhibi ed he bene icial e ec s o a ine- ex u ed
in e media e laye on oo zone wa e s o age in he uppe 15 cm (Sec ion 2.1, Figu e 5, p.32)
and 12 cm (Sec ion 2.2, Table 4, p.46), espec i ely, especially unde SDI i iga ion. These
indings indica e ha e ec i e managemen o capilla y ension in he soil ma ix su ounding
he SDI sys em, as well as capilla y connec ion o he oo zone, was ound o be c i ical; hey
a e c ucial in enhancing soil´s capilla y o ces agains he o ce o g a i y and allowing
p onounced ho izon al and e ical mo emen in he oo zone o i iga ion wa e , wi h he
o e all esul o a signi ican inc ease in wa e use e iciency.
Unde sp inkle i iga ion, signi ican downwa d mo emen o i iga ion wa e was
obse ed, ollowed by apid d ying o nea -su ace a eas. Thus, i was also possible o con i m
his hypo hesis. The pa e ns o i iga ion wa e mo emen unde sp inkle i iga ion a e
con i med by he esul s ob ained om he g eenhouse expe imen , as e idenced by he
empo al changes in soil mois u e wi hin he uppe 12 cm o he oo zone (Sec ion 2.1, Figu e
2, p.25), as well as by he spa io empo al dis ibu ion o soil mois u e (Sec ion 2.1, Figu es 3
and 4, pp.29–30). Th oughou all ials, he wo-laye ed sp inkle -i iga ed a ian s
consis en ly demons a ed high pe cola ion a es. These a ian s, which a e consis en wi h
he na ional s anda d cons uc ion me hod (acco ding o DIN 18035-4), gene ally exhibi ed
supe io d ainage p ope ies, which a e undamen ally c ucial o main aining he unc ionali y
and playabili y o u g ass a eas, pa icula ly du ing pe iods o hea y ain all. Howe e , he
highly pe meable sandy oo zone ma e ials and he associa ed cons uc ion me hods exhibi
low wa e e en ion capabili ies, he eby acili a ing he g a i a ional mo emen o i iga ion
wa e in o plan -una ailable egions. Rega ding he cons uc ion me hod, i is e iden ha
enhancing po e con inui y in adjacen laye s p omo es inc eased a es o pe cola ion and
in il a ion, consequen ly educing wa e use e iciency. This obse a ion is suppo ed by he
model-based analysis u ilizing HYDRUS-2D, which iden i ied he highes d ainage lux and he
lowes soil s o age o i iga ion wa e wi hin he uppe 50 cm o he soil ma ix unde sp inkle
i iga ion (Sec ion 2.3, Figu e 8, p.75). Mo eo e , he ma e ials employed exhibi a low nu ien
adso p ion capaci y due o hei high sand and low clay con en . Coupled wi h he p onounced
downwa d mo emen o wa e unde sp inkle i iga ion, as depic ed by he spa io empo al
soil mois u e dis ibu ion maps (Sec ion 2.1, Figu es 3 and 4, pp.29–30), signi ican leaching o
applied nu ien s is an icipa ed (Dekke and Bouma, 1984). The p esen indings highligh he
challenges associa ed wi h sandy oo zone cons uc ion ma e ials, which exhibi limi ed
capaci y o e ain i iga ion wa e o plan u iliza ion due o hei low wa e e en ion and high
ai - illed po osi y a ield capaci y. This unde sco es he necessi y o op imizing i iga ion
managemen p ac ices, and ou indings ega ding i iga ion wa e mo emen and e en ion
cha ac e is ics in sandy oo zones align wi h he obse a ions o Alhammadi and Al-Sh ou
(2013), Song e al. (2008), and Ca ow e al. (2002). Unde g eenhouse condi ions, he esul s
ocused on he p inciples o wa e mo emen wi hou conside ing ege a ion. Consequen ly,
92
Chap e 4
Conclusions
Conclusions
93
The inc easing s ain on eshwa e esou ces, d i en by clima e change, u ban
expansion, and ising demand o ec ea ional u g ass a eas, has in ensi ied he need o
e icien and sus ainable i iga ion s a egies. This cumula i e disse a ion add esses his
challenge h ough h ee pee - e iewed s udies, each aligned wi h he esea ch ques ions and
co esponding hypo heses ou lined in Sec ion 1.3 (Topics 1–3, pp. 12–13). Topic 1, ocused on
imp o ing oo zone wa e e en ion and wa e use e iciency, was examined in Pape s 1 and 2
(sec ion 2.1 and 2.2). Topic 2, add essing he ha moniza ion o oo zone cons uc ion me hods
and i iga ion deli e y sys ems, was explo ed in Pape 2. Topic 3, in es iga ing model-based
op imiza ion o i iga ion scheduling in u g ass managemen was add essed in Pape 3
(sec ion 2.3).
Ac oss he g eenhouse and ield s udies (Pape s 1 and 2), a consis en pa e n eme ged:
he e ec i eness o any i iga ion sys em hea ily depends on he ha moniza ion o he
i iga ion deli e y sys em and he associa ed oo zone cons uc ion me hod. The s udies
con i med ha , al hough widely used, adi ional sp inkle (SPR) i iga ion exhibi no able
ine iciencies when applied o high-pe meabili y, sand-based oo zones commonly used o
high-quali y spo s acili ies due o hei consis en playing cha ac e is ics. Speci ically, wo-
laye ed SPR-i iga ed a ian s, whe e g a i a ional o ces ou weighed capilla y ac ion,
expe ienced apid pe cola ion losses and subsequen su ace d ying, esul ing in educed
oo zone wa e s o age and lowe u g ass quali y (TQ). In con as , h ee-laye ed SPR-
i iga ed a ian s consis en ly main ained accep able TQ, pa icula ly unde de ici i iga ion
condi ions, speci ically 60% e e ence e apo anspi a ion (ETO), due o he in e media e
laye ´s wa e e en ion p ope ies.
The implemen a ion o a subsu ace d ip i iga ion sys em (SDI) alongside capilla i y-
enhancing h ee-laye oo zone designs signi ican ly imp o ed wa e dis ibu ion, e en ion,
and u iliza ion. These se ups, which inco po a e adequa ely pe o ming en i onmen s o he
SDI sys em, e ec i ely acili a ed upwa d and la e al i iga ion wa e mo emen , esul ing in
mo e homogeneous oo zone we ing and imp o ed wa e a ailabili y h oughou he
u g ass oo ing dep h. No ably, SDI a ian s ins alled in ha monized oo zone cons uc ion
me hods achie ed he highes TQ du ing de ici i iga ion pe iods. While SPR sys ems
pe o med adequa ely in he sho e m, SDI sys ems ensu ed longe - e m TQ esilience when
op imally execu ed. Va ian s wi h misma ched SDI- oo zone combina ions, pa icula ly hose
lacking sui able capilla y ac i i y, exhibi ed s eep declines in TQ, unde sco ing he isks o
employing SDI wi hou p io assessmen o physical soil p ope ies. The indings indica e ha
disc epancies be ween SDI sys ems and inapp op ia e oo zone cons uc ion me hods can
educe bo h i iga ion e iciency and TQ compa ed o con en ional SPR sys ems. These esul s
la gely suppo he hypo heses p oposed in Topics 1 and 2, excep o he h ee-laye ed
sp inkle models. Con a y o he ini ial p edic ion o a apid decline in TQ unde SPR-i iga ion,
hese a ian s main ained accep able TQ ou comes. In u u e esea ch, ollow-up expe imen s
should employ hyb id i iga ion app oaches combining SPR and SDI sys ems o assess wa e
dis ibu ion and i iga ion e iciency o e ex ended es ing pe iods in di e se clima ic
condi ions.
In addi ion o empi ical in es iga ions, he ole o nume ical simula ion models,
pa icula ly HYDRUS-2D, in e alua ing and op imizing i iga ion s a egies in mul i-laye ed
Conclusions
94
u g ass oo zones was examined (Pape 3). Model calib a ion showed ha accu a e
p edic ions o wa e dynamics unde SDI and SPR sys ems equi e he ca e ul pa ame e iza ion
o soil hyd aulic p ope ies. Ne e heless, he calib a ed models exhibi ed a high deg ee o
co ela ion wi h ield da a, demons a ing hei po en ial as eliable ools o guiding i iga ion
managemen , e alua ing sys em designs, and in o ming bes u g ass i iga ion p ac ices. The
indings emphasize he impo ance o a model-based app oach and model-based decision
suppo in u g ass i iga ion. As demons a ed, p edic i e models can simula e complex
in e ac ions be ween oo zone s uc u e, i iga ion dynamics, and en i onmen al condi ions,
insigh s ha a e challenging o ob ain h ough ield expe imen a ion alone. Fu he mo e,
calib a ed models enabled he e alua ion o hypo he ical scena ios, such as he di ision o
i iga ion e en s o hyb id SDI-SPR sys ems, allowing o mo e s a egic and e icien i iga ion
planning. These indings ully con i m he hypo hesis p oposed unde Topic 3. In u u e s udies,
oo wa e up ake models should be in eg a ed o be e unde s and soil–plan –wa e
dynamics in mul i-laye ed u g ass oo zones.
O e all, he esul s o his cumula i e disse a ion indica e ha in eg a ing oo zone
enginee ing, i iga ion deli e y sys em selec ion, and ad anced modeling ep esen s a iable
pa h owa d mo e e icien and sus ainable u g ass i iga ion s a egies. The esul ing
syne gies no only enhance i iga ion e iciency bu also con ibu e o b oade goals such as
esou ce conse a ion, clima e esilience in u ban g een in as uc u e, and he de elopmen
o p ac ical amewo ks o add essing eme ging challenges in u g ass i iga ion unde
changing en i onmen al condi ions.
95
Summa y
Tu g ass sys ems a e a i al componen o u ban g een in as uc u e, p o iding
unc ional, ecological, and aes he ic se ices in ec ea ional, spo ing, and public landscapes.
Howe e , main aining high-quali y u g ass equi es subs an ial wa e , which has become
inc easingly p oblema ic in he con ex o global wa e sca ci y, clima e change, and
en i onmen al egula ions. E icien wa e use has become a p io i y in sus ainable u g ass
managemen . Unlike adi ional ag icul u al sys ems, u g ass a eas p io i ize usabili y, plan
g ow h, and aes he ics. S anda ds o spo s u cons uc ion ocus on soil p ope ies,
d ainage, and mois u e e en ion, bu inc easing d ough and wa e sca ci y demand
inno a i e i iga ion s a egies o main ain unc ionali y. T adi ional i iga ion sys ems,
pa icula ly sp inkle -based me hods, o en esul in ine icien wa e use due o wind d i ,
e apo a ion loss, and echnically induced dis ibu ion inaccu acies. Con e sely, subsu ace
d ip i iga ion o e s a ge ed and po en ially mo e e icien wa e deli e y, hough i poses
challenges in adequa ely we ing he u g ass oo zone. I iga ion deli e y sys ems in e ac
wi h soil physical p ope ies and oo zone cons uc ion me hods, he eby a ec ing wa e
dis ibu ion, e en ion, and u g ass quali y. E icien i iga ion s a egies equi e a nuanced
unde s anding o soil–wa e dynamics, including he impac o oo zone cons uc ion me hods
and i iga ion deli e y sys ems on wa e e en ion cha ac e is ics and soil mois u e
dis ibu ion.
This cumula i e disse a ion add esses he p essing need o enhance i iga ion e iciency
in u g ass a eas by sys ema ically in es iga ing he impac o oo zone cons uc ion me hods
on i iga ion wa e dis ibu ion, e en ion, and u g ass pe o mance. This in es iga ion
ocuses on using adi ional and commonly used sp inkle i iga ion (SPR) o subsu ace d ip
i iga ion (SDI). Mo eo e , he s udy aims o assess he applica ion o nume ical simula ion
models, speci ically HYDRUS-2D, o p edic and op imize i iga ion e iciency unde a ious
oo zone–i iga ion con igu a ions, wi h he o e a ching objec i e o e alua ing s a egies o
enhance i iga ion e iciency in u g ass a eas.
To achie e his objec i e, ials we e conduc ed o e se e al yea s, encompassing h ee
complemen a y s udies: empi ical ( ield and con olled en i onmen , Pape s 1 and 2, sec ion
2.1 and 2.2) and modeling-based (Pape 3, sec ion 2.3). The esea ch sys ema ically explo es
how oo zone cons uc ion in luences i iga ion wa e dis ibu ion, e en ion, and u g ass
quali y, pa icula ly when pai ed wi h ei he SPR-i iga ion o SDI. Fu he mo e, he s udy
e alua es he applica ion o nume ical simula ion models, speci ically HYDRUS-2D, o p edic
and op imize i iga ion e iciency unde a ying soil–i iga ion con igu a ions. The expe imen s
we e conduc ed unde bo h con olled g eenhouse and open ield condi ions. The i s s udy
(Pape 1) was conduc ed unde g eenhouse condi ions using con olled i iga ion cycles and
ba e soil p o iles (wi hou g ass co e ) o isola e and analyze wa e dis ibu ion in esponse o
i iga ion deli e y sys em ype and oo zone cons uc ion me hods. Th ee oo zone
cons uc ions, wo wo-laye ed (analogous o he na ional s anda d) and one h ee-laye ed,
we e e alua ed unde bo h SPR-i iga ion and SDI. The olume ic wa e con en (VWC) was
moni o ed a mul iple dep hs and ime in e als ollowing i iga ion e en s. The second s udy
(Pape 2) in es iga ed u g ass quali y and wa e s o age in a wo-yea ield ial (2023 and
Summa y
96
2024) unde de ici i iga ion condi ions, speci ically 60% e e ence e apo anspi a ion (ETO).
Tu g ass plo s ea u ing pe ennial yeg ass (Lolium pe enne L.) and employing he same h ee
oo zone cons uc ion me hods used in he g eenhouse condi ion we e i iga ed using ei he
SPR o SDI. Key pe o mance indica o s included u g ass quali y (TQ), oo zone wa e s o age
(RWS), and soil wa e ension (SWT). In he hi d s udy (Pape 3), he HYDRUS-2D ini e
elemen model was employed o simula e wa e dynamics wi hin he oo zones and
associa ed i iga ion deli e y sys ems (SPR and SDI) based on he obse ed g eenhouse da a.
The model inco po a ed soil hyd aulic pa ame e s, de e mined h ough labo a o y analysis,
o each ma e ial employed in his s udy. The calib a ion and alida ion o he model we e
conduc ed wi h a ocus on op imizing model quali y and minimizing he disc epancies be ween
obse ed and simula ed ou pu s, pa icula ly in ela ion o olume ic wa e con en .
The esul s o he in es iga ions showed ha he g eenhouse ials e ealed dis inc
pa e ns o soil mois u e dis ibu ion ac oss i iga ion sys ems and oo zone designs. SPR-
i iga ed plo s exhibi ed apid olume ic wa e con en (VWC) inc eases a shallow dep hs (3
cm) ollowed by subs an ial dec eases wi hin 72 hou s, pa icula ly unde wo-laye ed designs.
Th ee-laye ed SDI plo s showed a p onounced capilla y ise in i iga ion wa e combined wi h
sus ained i iga ion wa e e en ion in he soil ma ix, highligh ing he sys em’s e iciency. The
ield ials demons a ed signi ican di e ences in RWS and SWT ac oss oo zone
cons uc ions. Two-laye ed designs unde SDI expe ienced high SWT alues (>120 kPa),
indica ing insu icien mois u e e en ion. In con as , h ee-laye ed designs main ained lowe
SWT (<15 kPa) and highe RWS a e 35 days o 60% de ici i iga ion. TQ declined apidly in
wo-laye ed SDI a ian s, wi h an unaccep able TQ (<6) obse ed 14 days a e s udy ini ia ion.
In con as , h ee-laye ed SDI a ian s achie ed he highes TQ h oughou he s udy,
demons a ing hei esilience unde wa e -limi ed condi ions. SPR-i iga ed a ian s ini ially
exhibi ed accep able TQ bu ailed o main ain i beyond 28 days due o poo wa e e en ion
in sandy oo zones and high e apo a ion loss du ing i iga ion. An excep ion was he h ee-
laye ed SPR a ian s, which main ained an accep able TQ h oughou he es ing pe iod. The
HYDRUS-2D model e ec i ely simula ed wa e dis ibu ion unde bo h SDI and SPR sys ems,
wi h calib a ed pa ame e s yielding imp o ed model quali y alues. Sensi i i y analyses
iden i ied shape ac o s α and n de e mining he soil hyd aulic unc ions as c i ical pa ame e s
in luencing model quali y, pa icula ly unde SDI condi ions wi h high spa ial a iabili y.
Inco po a ing hys e esis e ec s in he model´s soil wa e e en ion unc ion imp o ed he
model's accu acy.
The collec i e esul s unde sco e he complex bu manageable in e play be ween
i iga ion deli e y sys em and oo zone cons uc ion. While e ec i e a ini ial nea -su ace
we ing, sp inkle sys ems ail o p o ide las ing soil mois u e e en ion. Con e sely, SDI
sys ems suppo ed by a h ee-laye ed design ha enhances capilla y ise a e highly e icien .
F om a sus ainabili y s andpoin , he h ee-laye ed SDI a ian s consis en ly demons a ed
supe io wa e e en ion unde con olled condi ions, as well as enhanced RWS and TQ unde
ield condi ions. These con igu a ions enabled homogenous mois u e dis ibu ion, maximized
wa e use e iciency, and main ained high TQ—key goals in sus ainable u ban g een and
u g ass managemen . The calib a ed HYDRUS-2D model demons a ed i s u ili y as a cos -
e ec i e ool o p edic ing wa e dynamics and de eloping e icien i iga ion s a egies.
Summa y
97
Fu u e esea ch should explo e hyb id i iga ion app oaches combining SPR and SDI sys ems
o assess wa e dis ibu ion and i iga ion e iciency unde open ield condi ions. Addi ionally,
model-based app oaches should inco po a e oo wa e up ake models o p o ide a mo e
comp ehensi e unde s anding o soil–plan –wa e dynamics.
The in eg a ed indings o his cumula i e disse a ion con ibu e signi ican ly o
unde s anding how i iga ion sys ems and oo zone cons uc ion in luence soil mois u e
dynamics and u g ass quali y. The e idence unde sco es he bene i s o ha monizing he
oo zone cons uc ion me hod wi h he co esponding i iga ion deli e y sys em o achie e
uni o m mois u e dis ibu ion and enhanced wa e use e iciency, pa icula ly in he con ex
o SDI. Mo eo e , simula ion ools like HYDRUS-2D e ec i ely suppo u g ass i iga ion
managemen and wa e conse a ion e o s when app op ia ely calib a ed. The syne gy
be ween empi ical indings and modeling esul s suppo s a pa adigm shi owa d p ecise,
si e-speci ic i iga ion s a egies ha enhance i iga ion e iciency in u g ass a eas.
None heless, u he ials in u ban and spo s u en i onmen s a e essen ial o acili a e he
b oade implemen a ion o hese s a egies.
98
Zusammen assung
Rasen lächen s ellen einen essenziellen Bes and eil de s äd ischen g ünen In as uk u
da und bie en unk ionale, ökologische und äs he ische Leis ungen in E holungs-, Spo - und
ö en lichen G ünanlagen. Die P lege quali a i hochwe ige Rasen lächen is jedoch mi
einem e heblichen Wasse e b auch e bunden. Angesich s global zunehmende
Wasse knapphei , des Klimawandels sowie s enge we dende Umwel o gaben s ell dies
eine wachsende He aus o de ung da . Eine e izien e Wasse nu zung ha sich dahe zu einem
o angigen Handlungs eld im nachhal igen Rasenmanagemen en wickel . Rasen lächen
un e scheiden sich in ih en Zielen on adi ionellen landwi scha lichen Sys emen, wobei die
Haup ziele die S apazie ähigkei , das P lanzenwachs um und die Äs he ik sind. Na ionale und
in e na ionale S anda ds geben o , wie Rasen lächen zu bauen sind. De Fokus lieg dabei au
den bodenphysikalischen Eigenscha en de Baus o e, insbesonde e au de en
Wasse in il a ionsleis ung. Angesich s zunehmend ockene Somme mona e und beg enz e
Wasse essou cen sind jedoch inno a i e Be egnungss a egien e o de lich, die einen
e izien en Einsa z de Ressou ce Wasse e möglichen und zugleich die Funk ionali ä und
Belas ba kei de Rasen lächen e hal en. T adi ionelle Be egnungsme hoden, insbesonde e
übe lu basie ende Sp inkle bewässe ung (SPR), üh en au g und on Windd i ,
Ve duns ungs e lus en und echnisch beding en Ve eilungsungenauigkei en o zu eine
ine izien en Wasse nu zung. Die un e i dische T op bewässe ung (SDI) s ell demgegenübe
eine zielgenaue e und po enziell e izien e e Wasse zu uh da , is jedoch mi de
He aus o de ung e bunden, die Be euch ung de Rasen agschich sowie de
Haup wu zelzone de Raseng äse aus eichend siche zus ellen. Die In e ak ion de
Bewässe ungssys eme mi den bodenphysikalischen Eigenscha en und de Bodenbauweise
ü Rasen lächen beein luss die Wasse e eilung, - e en ion und Quali ä de Rasendecke.
E izien e Be egnungss a egien e o de n ein di e enzie es Ve s ändnis de Boden-Wasse -
Dynamik, einschließlich de Auswi kungen de Bodenbauweise und des Bewässe ungssys ems
au die Wasse e en ionseigenscha en und die Boden euch igkei s e eilung.
Die o liegende kumula i e Disse a ion widme sich de d ingenden No wendigkei , die
E izienz de Be egnung au Rasen lächen zu op imie en. Zu diesem Zweck we den die
Auswi kungen de Bauweisen ü Rasen lächen au die Ve eilung, Speiche ung und E izienz
des applizie en Bewässe ungswasse s sys ema isch un e such . De Fokus lieg au de
Anwendung adi ionelle und häu ig eingese z e Sp inkle bewässe ung (SPR) sowie
un e i dische T op bewässe ung (SDI). Ein wei e e Fokus lieg au de Bewe ung de
Anwendung nume ische Simula ionsmodelle, insbesonde e HYDRUS-2D, zu Vo he sage und
Op imie ung de Be egnungse izienz un e e schiedenen Bauweisen-Bewässe ungssys ems-
Kon igu a ionen. Das übe geo dne e Ziel diese Un e suchung bes eh in de E aluie ung on
S a egien zu S eige ung de Be egnungse izienz au Rasen lächen.
Zu E eichung dieses Ziels wu den übe meh e e Jah e Ve suche du chge üh , die d ei
sich e gänzende S udien um ass en: empi ische (Feld- und kon ollie e Umgebung, Pape 1
und Pape 2, Abschni 2.1 und 2.2) und modellbasie e S udien (Pape 3, Abschni 2.3).
Un e suchungsgegens and wa de Ein luss un e schiedliche Bauweisen on Rasen lächen au
die Wasse e eilung, -speiche ung und die Quali ä de Rasendecke, insbesonde e in
Zusammen assung
99
Kombina ion mi Sp inkle bewässe ung (SPR) bzw. un e i dische T op bewässe ung (SDI).
Da übe hinaus bewe e die S udie den Einsa z nume ische Simula ionsmodelle,
insbesonde e HYDRUS-2D, zu Vo he sage und Op imie ung de Be egnungse izienz un e
a iie enden Bodenbauweisen und Bewässe ungssys emen. Die Expe imen e wu den sowohl
un e kon ollie en Gewächshausbedingungen als auch un e F eilandbedingungen
du chge üh . Die e s e S udie (Pape 1) and im Gewächshaus s a und nu z e kon ollie e
Bewässe ungszyklen sowie ege a ions eie Bodenp o ile (ohne Rasendecke), um die
Wasse e eilung isolie in Abhängigkei on Bewässe ungssys em und Bauweise de
Rasen läche zu analysie en. Hie zu wu den d ei Bauweisen un e such : zwei zweischich ige
Va ian en, analog zum na ionalen S anda d, sowie eine d eischich ige Bauweise. Die
Bewe ung e olg e un e Einsa z sowohl on Sp inkle bewässe ung (SPR) als auch on
un e i dische T op bewässe ung (SDI). De olume ische Wasse gehal (VWC) wu de nach
den jeweiligen Bewässe ungs o gängen in meh e en Boden ie en und Zei in e allen e ass .
Die zwei e S udie (Pape 2) un e such e die Quali ä de Rasendecke sowie die
Wasse speiche ung inne halb de Rasen agschich im Rahmen eines zweijäh igen
Feld e suchs (2023 und 2024) un e Bedingungen de De izi bewässe ung, konk e bei 60 %
de Re e enz-E apo anspi a ion (ETO). Die mi Deu schem Weidelg as (Lolium pe enne L.)
bes ock en Ve suchs lächen wu den, analog zu den im Gewächshaus e wende en d ei
Bauweisen, en wede mi els Sp inkle bewässe ung (SPR) ode un e i dische
T op bewässe ung (SDI) bewässe . Die wich igs en Leis ungsindika o en um ass en die
Rasenquali ä (TQ), die Wasse speiche ung (RWS) sowie die Bodensaugspannung (SWT) in de
Rasen agschich . In de d i en S udie (Pape 3) wu de das Fini e-Elemen e-Modell HYDRUS-
2D eingese z , um die Wasse dynamik inne halb de Rasen agschich sowie de zugehö igen
Bewässe ungssys eme (SPR und SDI) au G undlage de im Gewächshaus e hobenen
Beobach ungsda en zu simulie en. Die Modellie ung de Wasse e eilung basie e au
bodenhyd aulischen Pa ame e n, die du ch Labo analysen ü die in diese S udie
e wende en Ma e ialien e mi el wu den. Die Kalib ie ung und Validie ung des Modells
ziel en da au ab, die Modellquali ä zu op imie en und die Abweichungen zwischen
gemessenen und simulie en olume ischen Wasse gehal en zu minimie en.
Die E gebnisse de Un e suchungen zeigen, dass die Gewächshaus e suche deu liche
Un e schiede in den Mus e n de Boden euch igkei s e eilung in Abhängigkei on
Bewässe ungssys em und Bauweise e kennen lassen. In den mi Sp inkle n bewässe en
Pa zellen wu de ein asche Ans ieg des olume ischen Wasse gehal s (VWC) in
obe lächennahe Tie e (3 cm) beobach e , dem inne halb on 72 S unden ein deu liche
Rückgang olg e, insbesonde e bei zweischich igen Kons uk ionen. Demgegenübe zeig en die
d eischich igen Bauweisen mi un e i dische T op bewässe ung (SDI) einen ausgep äg en
kapilla en Au s ieg des applizie en Wasse s sowie eine hohe Re en ion in de Bodenma ix,
was die E izienz diese Sys emkon igu a ion un e s eich . Die Feld e suche zeig en
signi ikan e Un e schiede in de Wasse speiche ung (RWS) und Bodenwasse spannung (SWT)
in Abhängigkei on de Bauweise de Rasen läche. Bei zweischich igen Kons uk ionen un e
SDI wu den hohe SWT-We e (>120 kPa) gemessen, was au ein unzu eichendes
Re en ions e hal en hinweis . Im Gegensa z dazu zeig en d eischich ige Au bau en nach 35
Tagen un e 60 % De izi bewässe ung deu lich nied ige e SWT-We e (<15 kPa) sowie eine
e höh e Wasse speiche ung (RWS). Bei den zweischich igen, mi SDI bewässe en Va ian en
Zusammen assung
100
kam es zu einem aschen Rückgang de Rasenquali ä (TQ), wobei be ei s 14 Tage nach
S udienbeginn inakzep able TQ-We e (<6) es ges ell wu den. Im Gegensa z dazu zeig en die
d eischich igen SDI-Va ian en wäh end de gesam en Ve suchsdaue höchs e TQ-We e. Die
mi Sp inkle n bewässe en Va ian en e eich en zu Beginn eben alls akzep able TQ-We e,
konn en diese jedoch au g und unzu eichende Wasse e en ion in den sandbasie en
Rasen agschich en und hohe Ve duns ungs e lus e wäh end de Bewässe ung nich länge
als 28 Tage au ech e hal en. Hie on abweichend zeig en die d eilagigen SPR-bewässe en
Va ian en übe den gesam en Ve suchszei aum hinweg akzep able TQ-We e (>6).
Das HYDRUS-2D-Modell simulie e die Wasse e eilung sowohl un e SDI- als auch
un e Sp inkle bewässe ungssys emen zu e lässig, wobei die Kalib ie ung de
Modellpa ame e zu eine deu lichen Ve besse ung de Modellquali ä üh e. Im Rahmen de
Sensi i i ä sanalysen e wiesen sich die Fo mpa ame e α und n de Wasse e en ions unk ion
als k i isch ü die Modellquali ä , insbesonde e un e Bedingungen de un e i dischen
T op bewässe ung (SDI). Die Modellquali ä konn e du ch die In eg a ion on
Hys e esee ek en in den Simula ionsp ozess deu lich ges eige we den.
Die Gesam e gebnisse e deu lichen die komplexen, jedoch sys ema isch e assba en
In e ak ionen zwischen de Bewässe ungsme hode und de Bauweise on Rasen lächen. Die
Sp inkle bewässe ung e weis sich zwa als wi ksam bei de ini ialen, obe lächennahen
Du ch euch ung, is jedoch nich in de Lage, eine nachhal ige, p lanzen e ügba e
Wasse speiche ung im Wu zel aum de Raseng äse siche zus ellen. Abweichend hie zu
zeigen SDI-Sys eme, die im Rahmen eine d eischich igen Bauweise den kapilla en Au s ieg des
applizie en Be egnungswasse s ö de n, eine deu lich höhe e E izienz hinsich lich de
Wasse e ügba kei im Wu zel aum. Aus de Analyse geh he o , dass die d eischich igen
SDI-Sys eme sowohl un e kon ollie en als auch un e Feldbedingungen du chweg höhe e
Wasse e izienzen und Rasenquali ä en als die Ve gleichs a ian en au wiesen. Diese
Kon igu a ionen e möglichen eine homogene Wasse e eilung, maximie en die
Wasse nu zungse izienz und gewäh en selbs bei eine De izi bewässe ung on 60% eine
hohe Quali ä de Rasendecke. Das kalib ie e HYDRUS-2D-Modell ha sich als kos engüns iges
Ins umen zu Vo he sage de Wasse dynamik und zu In o ma ion übe e izien e
Be egnungss a egien bewäh . Zukün ige Fo schungsa bei en soll en hyb ide
Bewässe ungskonzep e un e suchen, die SPR- und SDI-Sys eme kombinie en, um die
Wasse e eilung und Be egnungse izienz wei e gehend zu analysie en. Da übe hinaus
soll en modellbasie e Ansä ze Modelle zu Wasse au nahme de Rasenwu zeln einbeziehen,
um ein um assende es Ve s ändnis de Boden-P lanze-Wasse -Dynamik zu e möglichen.
Die in eg ie en E gebnisse diese d ei S udien agen wesen lich zum Ve s ändnis bei,
wie Bewässe ungssys eme und die Bauweise on Rasen lächen die Bodenwasse dynamik
sowie die Quali ä de Rasendecke beein lussen. Die E gebnisse be onen die Vo züge eine
Ha monisie ung de Bauweise de Rasen läche mi dem en sp echenden
Bewässe ungssys em, um eine gleichmäßige Wasse e eilung und eine op imie e
Wasse nu zungse izienz zu e zielen, insbesonde e im Kon ex de un e i dischen
T op bewässe ung. Da übe hinaus un e s ü zen Simula ionswe kzeuge wie HYDRUS-2D bei
en sp echende Kalib ie ung e ek i das Be egnungsmanagemen und die Bemühungen zu
Wasse einspa ung. Die Syne gie zwischen empi ischen und modellie en E gebnissen
Zusammen assung
101
begüns ig einen Wandel hin zu p äzisen, s ando spezi ischen Be egnungss a egien, die eine
S eige ung de Be egnungse izienz au Rasen lächen e möglichen. Dennoch sind zusä zliche
Ve suche in ö en lichen G ün- und Spo anlagen ü die e ek i e Umse zung diese S a egien
e o de lich.
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