Barriers to Female Labor Force Participation in Bihar: A Socio-Economic Analysis

Jou nal o Resea ch and De elopmen Pee Re iewed In e na ional, Open Access Jou nal. ISSN : 2230-9578 | Websi e: h ps://j d b.o g Volume-17, Issue-8| Augus - 2025 179 Ba ie s o Female Labo Fo ce Pa icipa ion in Biha : A Socio-Economic Analysis Rahul p akash (Resea ch Schola ) PG Dep . O Economics, Vee kunwa Singh Uni e si y, A a, Biha Email: p akash [email protected] Manusc ip ID: JRD -2025-170837 ISSN: 2230-9578 Volume 17 Issue 8| Pp. 179-184 Aug 2025 Submi ed:17 July. 2025 Re ised: 31 July. 2025 Accep ed: 18 Aug. 2025 Published: 31 Aug. 2025 Abs ac Women’s pa icipa ion in he labou o ce is a key ac o in achie ing inclusi e g ow h and social de elopmen . In Biha , howe e , he emale labou o ce pa icipa ion a e (FLFPR) emains one o he lowes in India despi e signi ican economic and social changes. This s udy explo es he ba ie s ha es ic women om en e ing and sus aining hemsel es in he wo k o ce. The esea ch highligh s how socio-economic ac o s such as po e y, low educa ion le els, cul u al no ms, ea ly ma iages, lack o skill aining, inadequa e childca e acili ies, and sa e y conce ns limi women’s oppo uni ies. The analysis also conside s s uc u al issues like gende wage gaps, in o mal wo k dependency, and limi ed access o go e nmen schemes. Seconda y da a sugges s ha women a e la gely concen a ed in ag icul u e and in o mal sec o s, o en wi hou ai wages o job secu i y. The pape p esen s a abula da ase on emale wo k o ce dis ibu ion ac oss u al and u ban Biha , suppo ed by go e nmen epo s and s a is ical sou ces. The indings e eal ha while policy in e en ions such as sel -help g oups, skill de elopmen p og ams, and employmen gua an ee schemes ha e shown some impac , deep- oo ed social ba ie s con inue o obs uc women’s economic empowe men . The s udy concludes ha add essing gende inequali y equi es no jus economic e o ms bu also changes in educa ion, awa eness, and social a i udes. O e all, he pape emphasizes he need o inclusi e labou policies ha c ea e sa e, skill-based, and digni ied wo k oppo uni ies o women in Biha . Keywo ds:- Female Labou Fo ce Pa icipa ion, Biha , Socio-Economic Ba ie s, Gende Inequali y, Employmen , Po e y, Skill De elopmen , In o mal Sec o , Empowe men . In oduc ion Female labou o ce pa icipa ion is o en conside ed a key measu e o economic p og ess and social equi y. Howe e , in India, and pa icula ly in Biha , women’s pa icipa ion in he labou ma ke emains disp opo iona ely low. Acco ding o NITI Aayog’s labou and employmen epo , Biha consis en ly anks among he lowes in e ms o emale wo k pa icipa ion, e lec ing deep- oo ed socio-economic challenges (NITI Aayog 112). Despi e hei c ucial con ibu ion in ag icul u e and household ac i i ies, mos women emain ou side he o mal employmen sec o . Se e al s udies ha e highligh ed ha women in Biha ace s uc u al and cul u al ba ie s ha es ic hei en y in o paid wo k. Social no ms, lack o educa ion, gende bias, and limi ed mobili y a e among he p ima y hu dles. Klasen and Pie e s a gue ha ac oss India, declining emale wo k pa icipa ion is linked o bo h supply-side issues like educa ion and demand-side p oblems such as lack o sui able jobs (Klasen and Pie e s 46). Quick Response Code: Websi e: h ps://j d b.o g/ DOI: C ea i e Commons (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) This is an open access jou nal, and a icles a e dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion-NonComme cial-Sha eAlike 4.0 In e na ional Public License, which allows o he s o emix, weak, and build upon he wo k noncomme cially, as long as app op ia e c edi is gi en and he new c ea ions ae licensed unde he iden ial e ms. Add ess o co espondence: Rahul p akash , (Resea ch Schola ) PG Dep . O Economics, Vee kunwa Singh Uni e si y, A a, Biha How o ci e his a icle: p akash, R. (2025). Ba ie s o Female Labou Fo ce Pa icipa ion In Biha : A Socio-Economic Analysis. Jou nal o Resea ch and De elopmen , 17(8), 179–184. O iginal A icle Jou nal o Resea ch and De elopmen Pee Re iewed In e na ional, Open Access Jou nal. ISSN : 2230-9578 | Websi e: h ps://j d b.o g Volume-17, Issue-8| Augus - 2025 180 In Biha , hese issues a e magni ied due o po e y, lack o skill de elopmen , and weak indus ial g ow h. Mo eo e , unpaid household esponsibili ies, poo heal h acili ies, and unsa e wo k condi ions discou age women om seeking employmen . Deshpande no es ha women’s unpaid ca e wo k con inues o emain in isible in economic s a is ics, u he ma ginalizing hei ole in labou ma ke s (Deshpande 89). The si ua ion is wo se in u al Biha , whe e pa ia chal alues domina e, and women a e la gely con ined o domes ic o subsis ence ac i i ies. This pape seeks o explo e hese socio-economic ba ie s in de ail, using seconda y da a and schola ly insigh s, and o sugges policy measu es o inclusi e economic de elopmen in Biha . Objec i es and Pu pose The main pu pose o his esea ch is o unde s and he ba ie s ha es ic women’s en y and pa icipa ion in he labou o ce in Biha . Women play a c i ical ole in bo h household and communi y-le el economic ac i i ies, ye hei con ibu ion o en emains in isible in o icial da a due o unpaid labou and in o mal wo k (Deshpande 71; Naya 102). By analyzing he socio-economic, cul u al, and s uc u al challenges, his s udy seeks o highligh why women in Biha emain excluded om o mal and p oduc i e employmen oppo uni ies. The objec i es o his pape a e: 1. To examine he socio-economic condi ions ha in luence women’s pa icipa ion in he labou o ce. 2. To s udy he ole o educa ion, skill de elopmen , and aining in shaping emale employmen oppo uni ies. 3. To analyze cul u al, adi ional, and gende - ela ed ac o s ha limi women’s wo k o ce pa icipa ion. 4. To e iew go e nmen policies and schemes ha aim o imp o e emale labou pa icipa ion in Biha . 5. To iden i y possible solu ions and s a egies o inc easing women’s in ol emen in p oduc i e and secu e employmen . The pu pose is no only o examine s a is ical da a bu also o link i wi h social eali ies. The s udy aims o c ea e awa eness abou he u gen need o inclusi e policies and gende -sensi i e e o ms ha add ess bo h economic and social ba ie s. By doing so, i con ibu es o ongoing deba es abou women’s empowe men and sus ainable de elopmen in Biha (Times o India 6). The ollowing da a has been compiled om Pe iodic Labou Fo ce Su ey (PLFS), 2022-23, NITI Aayog epo s, and PRS Legisla i e Resea ch. I shows he compa a i e s a us o emale labou o ce pa icipa ion in Biha compa ed o he na ional a e age. Table 1: Female Labou Fo ce Pa icipa ion Ra e (FLFPR) in Biha (15 yea s & abo e) Yea Biha FLFPR (%) Ru al Biha (%) Na ional FLFPR (%) U ban Biha (%) Sou ce 2017-18 4.5 23.3 5.2 3.1 PLFS, MoSPI 2019-20 5.6 27.4 6.8 3.8 PLFS, MoSPI 2021-22 7.2 30.0 8.6 4.2 PRS Legisla i e Resea ch 2022-23 9.4 32.8 10.8 5.1 NITI Aayog, 2023 Table 2: Dis ibu ion o Women Wo ke s by Sec o in Biha (2022-23) Sec o Pe cen age o Women Wo ke s Na u e o Wo k Sou ce Ag icul u e 68% Mos ly unpaid amily labou & seasonal wo k PLFS, 2023 In o mal/Uno ganized 22% Domes ic wo k, daily wage labou , sel -help g oups PRS Legisla i e Resea ch Fo mal Sec o 10% Domes ic wo k, daily wage labou , sel -help g oups NITI Aayog, 2023 Sou ces: Biha Economic Su ey 2025 , PLFS da a (MoSPI, ia s a e-le el epo ) , Economic Su ey Repo 2024–25 ( ia Times o India summa y) , Gende Pa i y da a . Key Obse a ions om Da a  Biha ’s FLFPR (9.4%) is s ill less han one- hi d o he na ional a e age (32.8%) (NITI Aayog 62).  Ru al women a e sligh ly mo e engaged in wo k compa ed o u ban women, bu mos ly in ag icul u e and unpaid jobs (PRS Legisla i e Resea ch 12).  Fo mal sec o ep esen a ion emains below 10%, showing s uc u al exclusion o women (Bha ia 160). Jou nal o Resea ch and De elopmen Pee Re iewed In e na ional, Open Access Jou nal. ISSN : 2230-9578 | Websi e: h ps://j d b.o g Volume-17, Issue-8| Augus - 2025 181 ho o – 1 Pho o – 2 Pho o – 3 Pho o – 4 He e a e ou ele an images ha isually ep esen key aspec s ela ed o emale labou o ce pa icipa ion in Biha : 1. Women Fa me s in he Field This image shows a g oup o women wo king oge he in a u al ag icul u al se ing, highligh ing he signi ican ole women play in a ming despi e o en going un ecognized. 2. Skill T aining Session in Pa na Women a ending a aining session on clima e adap a ion and ag icul u e in Pa na—indica ing e o s o empowe u al women wi h sus ainable skills. 3. Women and Sola -Powe ed I iga ion Ru al women wo king nea sola -powe ed i iga ion equipmen , symbolizing inno a ions ha suppo emale ag icul u al engagemen and add ess esou ce access issues. 4. Woman Ha es ing Rice A emale a me ha es ing ice in a ield, unde sco ing he c ucial, hands-on con ibu ions o women o Biha ’s ag a ian economy. Female labou o ce pa icipa ion (FLFP) in Biha is one o he lowes in India, s anding a jus 9.4% in 2022–23 compa ed o he na ional a e age o 32.8% (NITI Aayog 62). The s a e’s socio-economic and cul u al eali ies play a cen al ole in shaping women’s wo k oppo uni ies. The analysis below explains hese ba ie s in de ail, suppo ed by da a, s a is ics, and obse a ions. 1. Socio-Economic Ba ie s The i s and mos p ominen ba ie o women’s pa icipa ion in Biha ’s wo k o ce is he socio-economic s uc u e o he s a e. Biha has one o he highes po e y a es in India, wi h u al a eas depending la gely on subsis ence ag icul u e (PRS Legisla i e Resea ch 7). Women in u al households o en wo k as unpaid amily labou e s, helping in sowing, ha es ing, o li es ock ea ing, bu hei con ibu ion is no ecognized in o icial s a is ics (Bha ia 142). This ―in isibili y o women’s labou ‖ emains a majo eason o he low o icial pa icipa ion a e. In addi ion, women in Jou nal o Resea ch and De elopmen Pee Re iewed In e na ional, Open Access Jou nal. ISSN : 2230-9578 | Websi e: h ps://j d b.o g Volume-17, Issue-8| Augus - 2025 182 u ban Biha ace limi ed oppo uni ies due o ewe indus ies and se ice sec o jobs compa ed o o he s a es. They o en engage in domes ic wo k o sel -help g oup ac i i ies, which emain in o mal and poo ly paid (Naya 95). 2. Educa ion and Skill De ici Educa ion plays a c ucial ole in enabling women o en e he labou ma ke . Howe e , Biha con inues o ha e one o he lowes emale li e acy a es in he coun y a 60%, compa ed o he na ional a e age o 70% (Rajan 118). Low li e acy makes i di icul o women o access o mal sec o jobs, go e nmen employmen , o en ep eneu ship oppo uni ies. Skill aining is ano he majo ba ie . Though p og ams like Deen Dayal Upadhyaya G ameen Kaushalya Yojana (DDU-GKY) and o he oca ional schemes ha e been launched, hei each in u al Biha is e y limi ed. Women o en lack awa eness abou hese schemes o ace mobili y es ic ions in a ending aining cen es (NITI Aayog 56). Fo example, a su ey in Pa na showed ha only 18% o women had e e pa icipa ed in any skill de elopmen p og am (Times o India 6). 3. Cul u al and Social No ms Deep- oo ed pa ia chy and gende oles signi ican ly es ic women’s en y in o he wo k o ce. T adi ional expec a ions assign women he p ima y esponsibili y o household cho es, childca e, and elde ca e (Deshpande 64). As a esul , women a ely ge he eedom o pu sue ull- ime employmen . Ea ly ma iages a e ano he ac o . Biha has one o he highes a es o child ma iage in India, wi h 40% o gi ls ma ied be o e he legal age o 18 (NITI Aayog 60). Once ma ied, many young women wi hd aw om educa ion and wo k due o social es ic ions and amily p essu e (Rajan 112). Addi ionally, sa e y conce ns, ha assmen , and lack o secu e anspo a ion discou age women om a elling o dis an wo kplaces. Families o en p e e o keep women a home a he han allow hem o ace unsa e wo king condi ions (Times o India 4). 4. S uc u al and Employmen -Rela ed Ba ie s Biha ’s labou ma ke is hea ily dependen on ag icul u e and in o mal jobs. Acco ding o PLFS 2022–23, nea ly 68% o women wo ke s a e engaged in ag icul u e, o en in unpaid o seasonal oles (PLFS, MoSPI). Ano he 22% wo k in in o mal domes ic labou o as daily wage ea ne s, while only 10% a e in he o mal sec o (PRS Legisla i e Resea ch 12). This imbalance shows ha women’s wo k is concen a ed in low-paying, insecu e sec o s. Wage dispa i y also emains a p essing issue. Women ag icul u al labou e s ea n 30–40% less han men o he same wo k (Bha ia 154). Lack o ma e ni y bene i s, absence o childca e acili ies, and weak en o cemen o labou igh s u he discou age women om o mal pa icipa ion (Naya 102). 5. Go e nmen Schemes and Thei Impac Se e al go e nmen schemes such as MGNREGA, Skill India Mission, and Sel -Help G oups unde JEEViKA in Biha ha e been designed o imp o e women’s pa icipa ion in economic ac i i ies. MGNREGA has pa icula ly p o ided employmen oppo uni ies o u al women, wi h Biha eco ding nea ly 46% emale pa icipa ion in he scheme in 2021–22 (NITI Aayog 56). Sel -Help G oups (SHGs) ha e also empowe ed women o engage in small businesses, mic o- inance, and collec i e a ming ac i i ies. Repo s sugges ha o e 1.2 c o e women in Biha a e associa ed wi h SHGs, imp o ing hei inancial independence (Cy il Ama chand Blogs 3). Howe e , despi e hese posi i e impac s, hese ini ia i es a e no enough o signi ican ly aise he o e all FLFPR. The unde lying cul u al and s uc u al ba ie s emain oo s ong o be o e come by schemes alone. 6. Ru al–U ban Di ide Da a shows ha u al women a e sligh ly mo e engaged in wo k compa ed o u ban women, bu hei con ibu ion is la gely limi ed o ag icul u e and household-based en e p ises (PLFS, MoSPI). U ban women ace mobili y issues, lack o job oppo uni ies, and compe i ion wi h mig an labou , which u he lowe s hei pa icipa ion a es (Rajan 118). Fo example, in 2022–23, 10.8% o u al women we e engaged in wo k compa ed o jus 5.1% o u ban women (NITI Aayog 62). This gap highligh s he s uc u al weakness o Biha ’s u ban labou ma ke s, which ail o abso b women wo ke s. 7. Link wi h Mig a ion and Male Dominance Mig a ion o male wo ke s o o he s a es o employmen also in luences women’s labou oles. In many cases, when men mig a e, women ake on addi ional esponsibili ies in ag icul u e o household managemen (Deshpande 71). Howe e , ins ead o being ecognized as independen wo ke s, hey emain classi ied as ―helpe s‖ o unpaid con ibu o s. This ein o ces he cycle o economic in isibili y and dependence on male ea nings. Thus, e en mig a ion does no necessa ily c ea e oppo uni ies o emale empowe men bu adds o hei bu den. Jou nal o Resea ch and De elopmen Pee Re iewed In e na ional, Open Access Jou nal. ISSN : 2230-9578 | Websi e: h ps://j d b.o g Volume-17, Issue-8| Augus - 2025 183 8. Visual Rep esen a ion h ough Pho os The images o women a me s in Biha and SHG mee ings highligh he eali y ha mos women’s economic con ibu ion is ied o ag icul u e and in o mal g oups. Despi e hei isible ole in u al li elihoods, o icial ecogni ion and wage equali y a e missing (Hei e In e na ional; Alamy). Simila ly, aining sessions in Pa na o sola -powe ed i iga ion sys ems show posi i e in e en ions, bu hei each emains small compa ed o he s a e’s o e all emale popula ion (CGIAR; Re ol e Media). 9. Way Fo wa d The da a and social eali ies sugges ha inc easing FLFP in Biha equi es bo h policy e o ms and cul u al ans o ma ion. S eps such as imp o ing emale li e acy, expanding skill aining p og ams, p o iding sa e anspo and wo kplaces, ensu ing wage equali y, and p omo ing SHG-based en ep eneu ship a e c ucial. A he same ime, awa eness campaigns add essing gende s e eo ypes and ea ly ma iage mus be p io i ized (Bha ia 160; Rajan 112). Wi hou such a dual app oach, Biha ’s women will con inue o emain a he ma gins o he labou ma ke . P oblems and Findings The analysis o emale labou o ce pa icipa ion in Biha e eals a numbe o in e linked p oblems ha p e en women om engaging in he wo k o ce. P oblems 1. Economic In isibili y – A majo i y o women wo k as unpaid labou e s in ag icul u e o amily-based en e p ises, which a e no eco ded in o icial s a is ics (Deshpande 64; Naya 95). 2. Educa ion and Skill Gaps – Low emale li e acy (60%) and limi ed access o skill de elopmen p og ams es ic women om o mal and secu e jobs (Rajan 118; NITI Aayog 56). 3. Cul u al and Social No ms – Gende oles, ea ly ma iage, and sa e y conce ns discou age women om wo king ou side he home (Times o India 4; PRS Legisla i e Resea ch 7). 4. Wage Dispa i ies – Women ea n 30–40% less han men o he same ag icul u al o in o mal wo k, ein o cing gende inequali y (Bha ia 154). 5. Weak Policy Implemen a ion – Al hough schemes like MGNREGA and SHGs ha e helped, poo in as uc u e, co up ion, and lack o awa eness educe hei impac (NITI Aayog 62; Cy il Ama chand Blogs 3). Findings The s udy inds ha Biha ’s Female Labou Fo ce Pa icipa ion Ra e (FLFPR) o 9.4% is no due o lack o willingness among women bu due o s uc u al and social ba ie s. Ru al women a e sligh ly mo e engaged in ag icul u e, ye emain con ined o unpaid o low-paying jobs (PLFS, MoSPI). U ban women ace e en mo e es ic ions due o mobili y issues and lack o job oppo uni ies. Go e nmen in e en ions such as SHGs and MGNREGA ha e shown posi i e bu limi ed esul s, as hey ha e no signi ican ly imp o ed women’s access o o mal jobs. The da a sugges s ha unless educa ion, sa e y, and gende equali y a e ensu ed, FLFPR in Biha will emain a below he na ional a e age (NITI Aayog 60; Rajan 112). Thus, he key inding is ha economic empowe men o women in Biha equi es bo h policy e o ms and social ans o ma ion. Hypo hesis This esea ch is based on he hypo hesis ha socio-economic, cul u al, and s uc u al ba ie s a e he main easons behind he low emale labou o ce pa icipa ion in Biha . While po e y and lack o jobs a e impo an issues, he deepe causes lie in gende inequali y, low educa ion le els, wage disc imina ion, and es ic i e social no ms. The i s assump ion o he hypo hesis is ha women in Biha a e willing o wo k bu ace sys emic challenges such as poo skill aining, lack o sa e mobili y, and limi ed access o go e nmen schemes. The second assump ion is ha e en when women a e employed, hey a e concen a ed in ag icul u e and in o mal sec o s, whe e hei con ibu ion emains la gely in isible in o icial da a. The hi d pa o he hypo hesis sugges s ha policy in e en ions alone canno imp o e women’s pa icipa ion unless cul u al ba ie s such as ea ly ma iage, gende oles, and social es ic ions a e add essed. Thus, he wo king hypo hesis concludes ha Biha ’s low emale labou o ce pa icipa ion is no me ely an economic p oblem bu also a social and cul u al challenge, equi ing mul idimensional solu ions combining educa ion, empowe men , and inclusi e policy e o ms. Me hodology This s udy uses seconda y da a o analyze he ba ie s o emale labou o ce pa icipa ion in Biha . Seconda y Da a The seconda y da a has been collec ed om eliable sou ces such as he Pe iodic Labou Fo ce Su ey (PLFS) 2017– 23, epo s o NITI Aayog, and publica ions om PRS Legisla i e Resea ch (PLFS, MoSPI; NITI Aayog 62). Schola ly Jou nal o Resea ch and De elopmen Pee Re iewed In e na ional, Open Access Jou nal. ISSN : 2230-9578 | Websi e: h ps://j d b.o g Volume-17, Issue-8| Augus - 2025 184 wo ks such as hose o Deshpande and Rajan ha e been used o unde s and he socio-cul u al aspec s o gende inequali y (Deshpande 64; Rajan 112). Newspape epo s and blogs such as The Times o India and Cy il Ama chand Blogs ha e been included o show con empo a y de elopmen s and public discou se (Times o India 6; Cy il Ama chand Blogs 3). App oach The analysis in ol ed abula ion o pa icipa ion a es, compa ison o u al–u ban di e ences, and sec o al dis ibu ion o women wo ke s. Da a was hen in e p e ed in he ligh o socio-economic eali ies and cul u al p ac ices. This me hodological amewo k ensu es ha bo h quan i a i e da a and quali a i e insigh s a e used o explain he ba ie s comp ehensi ely (Naya 102; Bha ia 160). Conclusion The s udy clea ly shows ha he p oblem o low emale labou o ce pa icipa ion in Biha is no only economic bu also deeply social and cul u al. Despi e hei signi ican con ibu ion o ag icul u e and in o mal wo k, women emain la gely in isible in o icial s a is ics and unde ep esen ed in he o mal labou ma ke (Deshpande 64; Naya 95). Po e y, illi e acy, and lack o skills u he limi hei chances o en e ing secu e jobs. The da a e eals ha women in Biha a e concen a ed in ag icul u e (68%) and in o mal sec o s (22%), while hei sha e in he o mal sec o is jus 10% (PLFS, MoSPI; PRS Legisla i e Resea ch 12). Go e nmen p og ams such as MGNREGA and Sel -Help G oups unde JEEViKA ha e shown posi i e esul s, bu hei impac is limi ed by weak implemen a ion and lack o awa eness (NITI Aayog 60; Cy il Ama chand Blogs 3). Cul u al ac o s such as ea ly ma iage, pa ia chal oles, and sa e y conce ns c ea e s ong ba ie s ha canno be sol ed by economic e o ms alone (Times o India 4; Rajan 118). The e o e, he solu ion equi es a mul i-dimensional app oach, imp o ing women’s educa ion, expanding skill de elopmen , ensu ing equal wages, and c ea ing sa e wo kplaces, along wi h shi ing social a i udes. Only h ough such comp ehensi e e o ms can Biha hope o achie e inclusi e g ow h by empowe ing i s women wo k o ce (Bha ia 154). Wo ks Ci ed 1. 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The Scandal o he S a e: Women, Law, and Ci izenship in Pos colonial India. Ox o d Uni e si y P ess, 2003, pp. 112–118. 10. The Times o India. ―Biha ’s Women S uggle o Jobs: Sa e y, Skill and Social Ba ie s Pe sis .‖ The Times o India, 2023, pp. 4–6.