Modern and Holocene sedimentation patterns in the Persian Gulf
Abstract
Lahijani, Hamid A. K., Lak, Razyeh, Amjadi, Sedigheh, Pourkerman, Majid, Beni, Abdolmajid Naderi, Azizpour, Jafar, Saleh, Abolfazl (2025): Modern and Holocene sedimentation patterns in the Persian Gulf. Geodiversitas 47 (14): 623-640, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17182601, URL: https://sciencepress.mnhn.fr/sites/default/files/articles/pdf/geodiversitas2025v47a14.pdf
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KEY WORDS
Pe sian Gul ,
sedimen a ion,
ca bona e,
hypoxia,
clima e change.
u n:lsid:zoobank.o g:pub:F76C75A2-3975-4847-8AEE-D61A0626BB62
Lahijani H. A. K., Lak R., Amjadi S., Pou ke man M., Nade i Beni A., Azizpou J. & Saleh A. 2025. — Mode n and Holo-
cene sedimen a ion pa e ns in he Pe sian Gul . Geodi e si as 47 (14): 623-640. h ps://doi.o g/10.5252/geodi e si-
as2025 47a14. h p://geodi e sias.com/47/14
ABSTRACT
The Pe sian Gul (PG) being a shallow ma ginal sea in he no hwes Indian Ocean expe iences ex eme
en i onmen al condi ions (high seawa e empe a u e and salini y) ha impac on bo om sedimen-
a ion. To deciphe he con olling pa ame e s on sedimen a ion in he en i onmen o he PG we
ha e used a o al o 25 su ace sedimen s and h ee sho co es, 22 coas al sedimen s as well as wa e
column p ope ies ( empe a u e, salini y dissol ed oxygen) and hyd odynamics (cu en eloci y and
di ec ion). We applied sedimen ological (g ain size and ype o sedimen a y ac ions), mine alogical
( hin-sec ion, SEM/EDS, XRD, polished-sec ions), and geochemical analyses (XRF co e scanning).
The sedimen s a e mainly composed o sil , howe e sand ac ion pa ially ele a es up o a ound
80% and clay o 10%. Calcium ca bona e and o ganic ma e ials compose up o 18% and 52% o
he bulk sedimen s, espec i ely. Sea loo su ace sedimen s a ies in di e en ac ions, always wi h
high amoun o ca bona es. De i al ca bona es and aluminum silica e mine als a e mo e common
in he beaches and a ound islands wi h exposed pa en ocks. The co e ha co e s he sedimen a ion
in he Pe sian Gul since he end o he Ea ly Holocene encompasses acies ep esen ing a highe
Hamid A. K. LAHIJANI
I anian Na ional Ins i u e o Oceanog aphy and A mosphe ic Science (INIOAS),
no. 3, E emadzadeh S ., Fa emi A e, Teh an (I an)
and Ins i u e o Tibe an Pla eau Resea ch,
Chinese Academy o Sciences, Beijing, 100101 (China)
[email p o ec ed] (co esponding au ho )
Razyeh LAK
Resea ch Ins i u e o Ea h Sciences, Geological Su ey o I an, Teh an (I an)
[email p o ec ed] (co esponding au ho )
Sedigheh AMJADI
I anian Na ional Ins i u e o Oceanog aphy and A mosphe ic Science (INIOAS),
no. 3, E emadzadeh S ., Fa emi A e, Teh an (I an)
Majid POURKERMAN
Resea ch Ins i u e o Ea h Sciences, Geological Su ey o I an, Teh an (I an)
Abdolmajid NADERI BENI
Ja a AZIZPOUR
Abol azl SALEH
I anian Na ional Ins i u e o Oceanog aphy and A mosphe ic Science (INIOAS),
no. 3, E emadzadeh S ., Fa emi A e, Teh an (I an)
Submi ed on 7 Feb ua y 2024 | accep ed on 16 Sep embe 2024 | published on 23 Sep embe 2025
Mode n and Holocene sedimen a ion pa e ns
in he Pe sian Gul
624 GEODIVERSITAS • 2025 • 47 (14)
Lahijani H. A. K. e al.
INTRODUCTION
The Pe sian Gul (PG) is a shallow, semi-enclosed basin in
he no hwes Indian Ocean. I is loca ed a he hea o
he global dese bel in an a id/hype a id clima e. The PG
expe iences an unp eceden ed dus emission and empe a-
u e inc ease (20% o wo ld dus mission is in his a ea, ai
empe a u e ise is wice he global a e age), which makes i
a po en ial model o s udying he e ec s o u u e clima e
change on o he wa e bodies (Pous e al. 2015; Saleh Abol azl
e al. 2021; Zi is e al. 2022). The basin exhibi s a ela i ely
as gene al wa e ci cula ion, which is mainly d i en by a
high a e o e apo a ion (Pous e al. 2015). Meanwhile, he
coas al a eas, especially he sou he n coas o he PG along
he A abian Peninsula, unde go a shallow wa e ca bona e
p ecipi a ion (Shinn 1973; Wagne & Van de Tog 1973).
The bo om mo phology inhe i ed om long geological his-
o y o comp ession p ocesses be ween A abian and Eu asian
pla es while sedimen a y and hyd oclima ic p ocesses exe
seconda y impac s on shaping he basin (Kenne & Ken-
ne 2007; O ang e al. 2018). The PG ecei es e igenous
sedimen om lu ial sys ems ha mainly o igina e om he
no he n pa . These sys ems ca y sedimen om he Zag os
and Tau us moun ains(Ga zan i e al. 2016). In addi ion o
he lu ial sys ems, eolian deposi s wi h annual 89million
on a e a signi ican componen o e igenous sedimen s ha
a e mainly supplied om he su ounding dese s by p e ail-
ing winds (Kukal& Saadallah 1973; Al-Dousa i e al. 2017;
Gha a ian e al. 2022).
The mode n sedimen a y p ocesses o he PG ha e been
s udied by se e al schola s, mainly o coas al u ban de el-
opmen e.g., Hassan (2018), oil and gas explo a ions e.g.,
Wa en (2010) and en i onmen al pu poses (e.g., Houbol
1957; Sugden 1963; E ans e al. 1969; Kendall& Skipwi h
1969). Howe e , hese s udies a e sca ce in he no he n pa
o he PG, whe e de i al sedimen a ion is mo e common.
Hamzeh (2021) epo ed ha he su ace sedimen p ope ies
in he no he n PG a e a ec ed by he s ong bo om cu en
o cing, e igenous sedimen supply, bo om opog aphy
and clima e. The sedimen a ion in he no he n pa o he
PG is domina ed by e igenous ma e ial, which g adually
changes o ca bona e p ecipi a ion in he sou he n coas .
The g ain size also inc eases om no h o sou h (Bal ze &
Pu se 1990), which con adic s he classical dep h- ela ed
MOTS CLÉS
Gol e Pe sique,
sédimen a ion,
ca bona e,
hypoxie,
changemen clima ique.
biogenic ca bona e signa u e in he base, ollowed by mo e de i al and o ganic ma e in he middle.
Sea le el a ia ions a e in e p e ed as he p ima y d i e o such sedimen ological a ia ions: pe iods
o high le el a o ed s agnan wa e condi ions and s a i ica ion, which allowed o inco po a e highe
p opo ion o o ganic ma e in coa ed g ains. Bo h mode n and Holocene sedimen a ions display
s ong imp in o basin pa ame e s (mainly wa e s a i ica ion and ci cula ion) in sedimen g ains
and composi ion. Sedimen inpu s om he PG ca chmen led o mixed (in si u biogenic p ecipi a-
ion dilu ed by de i al supply) sedimen a ion in he no he n pa o he PG.
RÉSUMÉ
Sédimen a ion mode ne e holocène dans le gol e Pe sique.
Le gol e Pe sique (PG), une me ma ginale peu p o onde si uée au no d-oues de l’océan Indien,
es soumis à des condi ions en i onnemen ales ex êmes ( empé a u es e salini é éle ées de l’eau de
me ) qui in luencen la sédimen a ion du ond. Pou déchi e les pa amè es con ôlan la sédi-
men a ion dans l’en i onnemen du PG, nous a ons analysé un o al de 25 sédimen s de su ace,
ois ca o es cou es, 22 sédimen s cô ie s, ainsi que les p op ié és de la colonne d’eau ( empé a u e,
salini é, oxygène dissous) e l’hyd odynamique ( i esse e di ec ion du cou an ). Nous a ons e ec ué
des analyses sédimen ologiques (g anulomé ie e ype de ac ions sédimen ai es), miné alogiques
(lames minces, SEM/EDS, XRD, plaques polies) e géochimiques (scan XRF des ca o es). Les sédi-
men s son p incipalemen composés de sil , mais la ac ion de sable peu a eind e en i on 80% e
l’a gile jusqu’à 10%. Le ca bona e de calcium e les ma iè es o ganiques ep ésen en espec i emen
jusqu’à 18% e 52% des sédimen s. Les sédimen s de su ace du ond ma in a ien en di é en es
ac ions, oujou s a ec une quan i é éle ée de ca bona es. Les ca bona es dé i iques e les miné aux
aluminosilica és son plus équen s su les plages e au ou des îles aux oches mè es exposées. La
ca o e qui cou e la sédimen a ion dans le gol e Pe sique depuis la in de l’Holocène in é ieu com-
p end des aciès ep ésen an une signa u e ca bona ée biogénique plus éle ée à la base, sui ie de plus
de ma iè e dé i ique e o ganique au milieu. Les a ia ions du ni eau de la me son in e p é ées
comme le p incipal mo eu de ces a ia ions sédimen ologiques : les pé iodes de ni eau éle é on
a o isé les condi ions d’eau s agnan e e la s a i ica ion, pe me an ainsi une inco po a ion plus
éle ée de ma iè e o ganique dans les g ains en obés. Les sédimen a ions écen es mon en une o e
emp ein e des pa amè es du bassin (p incipalemen la s a i ica ion e la ci cula ion de l’eau) dans
les g ains e la composi ion des sédimen s. Les appo s de sédimen s p o enan du bassin e san du
PG on condui à une sédimen a ion mix e (p écipi a ions biogéniques in si u diluées pa un appo
dé i ique) dans la pa ie no d du PG.
625
Mode n and Holocene sedimen a ion pa e ns in he Pe sian Gul
GEODIVERSITAS • 2025 • 47 (14)
sedimen dis ibu ion pa e n. The no he n pa is close o
he Zag os Moun ains hyd ological d ainage and has a mixed
sedimen a ion due o he ela i ely deepe sub-basin, mo e
lu ial supply and less ca bona e sedimen a ion which is mo e
e iden in he sil ac ion (Seibold e al. 1973).
Despi e he impo ance o he PG as a classic amp sys em
o ca bona e p ecipi a ion du ing he Holocene (Gischle &
Lomando 2005), he e a e s ill e y ew s udies co e ing his
pe iod: Pu se (1973) desc ibed he ca bona e sedimen a ion
and diagenesis, while (Uchupi e al. 1996, 1999) mos ly ocused
on es ic ed coas al a eas. In he absence o paleoen i onmen al
s udies, he econs uc ion o he Holocene e olu ion o he PG
basin is s ill only based on geophysical models (Lambeck 1996).
Clima e change is expec ed o al e sedimen a ion a es
and sedimen a y p ocesses in a ious wa e bodies. Fo exam-
ple, in wa m a id clima es (e.g., he PG), inc eased eolian
sedimen a ion and consequen ly highe biop oduc i i y a e
an icipa ed (Beni e al. 2021). This si ua ion could lead o
g ea e p ese a ion o o ganic ma e and a mo e s able wa e
column (Mahowald e al. 1999; Ka s e al. 2017). To moni o
hese changes, i is impo an o s udy he sedimen s o he
coas al and o sho e a eas. The I anian Na ional Ins i u e o
Oceanog aphy and A mosphe ic Science (INIOAS) has been
ca ying ou egula oceanog aphic expedi ions since 2012
o measu e he wa e p ope ies and he possible changes in
he sedimen p ope ies in he no he n pa o he PG. To
iden i y any changes in sedimen p ope ies du ing he indus-
ial pe iod, we need o compa e he su ace sedimen s wi h
he p e-indus ial ones. Fo his pu pose, we ha e collec ed a
se ies o sho sedimen co es om di e en sub-basins o he
PG. In his s udy, we ha e h ee objec i es: 1) o p esen he
o sho e sedimen dis ibu ion pa e n and hei p o enance
using sedimen a y analyses on su ace sedimen samples; 2) o
de ec changes in sedimen p ope ies by compa ing he su ace
sedimen s wi h Holocene deposi s along he co es; and 3) o
examine any ela ionship be ween he wa e p ope ies and
sedimen dis ibu ion pa e n using physical oceanog aphy
and hyd odynamic da a ob ained by INIOAS expedi ions.
STUDY SITE
GeoG aphy and Geomo pholoGy
The PG is an epicon inen al sea o he no hwes e n Indian
Ocean, which ex ends longi udinally o abou 1000km wi h
a maximum wid h o 350km. I has an a e age dep h o 40m
and a maximum dep h o 180m nea he no he n sho es (Ghaz-
ban 2009; Pous e al. 2013). I has an asymme ic mo phology
along i s longi udinal axis, wi h a s eep slope on he no he n
sho e adjacen o he Zag os Moun ains and a gen le slope on
he sou he n and no hwes e n pa s, belonging o he A abian
Peninsula. Seibold& Vollb ech (1969) di ided he basin in o six
sub-basins: he Mesopo amian shallow shel a he wes e nmos
head, he A abian shallow shel a he sou h, he wes e n sub-basin
and he cen al sub-basin. The cen al swell sepa a es he wes e n
sub-basin om he cen al one, and he eas e n swell sepa a es
he cen al sub-basin om he S ai o Ho muz (Fig. 1B).
The PG is a shallow ma ginal sea ha has been looded
se e al imes du ing he Qua e na y due o he eus a ic
sea le el changes (Lokie e al. 2015; Nade i e al. 2024).
Howe e , he ec onic se ing o he basin has also sig-
ni ican ly a ec ed i s accommoda ion space and he a e
o looding o e geological ime (Konyuho & Maleki
2006). The main sou ces o eshwa e o he PG a e he
Zag os and Tau us Moun ains, which mainly supply wa e
o he Mesopo amian Shallow Shel . The Mesopo amian
i e sys em consis s o he Euph a es and Tig is i e s,
which join in he sou he n Mesopo amian plain and o m
he Sha al-A ab Ri e . This i e also ecei es wa e and
sedimen om he Ka un Ri e be o e discha ging in o he
no hwes e n PG (Fig. 1). The Tig is and Euph a es i e s
o igina e in sou he n Tu key in he Tau us Moun ains, low-
ing h ough Sy ia and I aq be o e con e ging in sou he n
I aq o o m he Sha al-A ab Ri e . The Tig is Ri e has
a ca chmen a ea o 472 000km², spanning Tu key, Sy ia,
I aq, and I an, wi h a leng h o 1 718km. The mean i e
discha ge was 815m³/s du ing 1931-2006, which educed
o app oxima ely 100m³/s be o e joining he Sha al-A ab.
The Euph a es Ri e has a ca chmen a ea o 444 000km²
and a leng h o 2 718km, d aining egions in Tu key, Sy ia,
I aq, and Saudi A abia. The mean wa e discha ge du ing
1930-1999 was 559m³/s, which dec eased o 153m³/s.
High discha ge ypically occu s in Ap il and May, while
low discha ge is obse ed in Augus and July (Saleh D. K.
2010; Al-Ansa i e al. 2015).
Two i e s om I an, he Ka un and Ka kheh, also join
he Sha al-A ab, bo h o igina ing om he Zag os Moun-
ains. The ca chmen a eas and leng hs o he Ka un and
Ka kheh a e 72 000km² and 51 000km², and 867km and
964km, espec i ely. The wa e discha ge o he Ka un Ri e
is 777m³/s, and ha o he Ka kheh Ri e is 184m³/s
(UN-ESCWA& BGR 2013). The Ka kheh Ri e joins he
ma shlands on he eas e n side o he Sha al-A ab, while
he Ka un Ri e bi u ca es in o wo channels, one joining
he Sha al-A ab and he o he lowing di ec ly in o he
PG. The a e age annual sedimen discha ge o he Ka un
Ri e is 45million ons (Naja pou e al. 2016).
Ex ensi e cons uc ion o dams and hyd aulic s uc u es
has al e ed he wa e and sedimen discha ge egimes
downs eam o he Sha al-A ab’s main ibu a ies (Tig is,
Euph a es, Ka un, and Ka kheh i e s), esul ing in educed
discha ge and a smoo hed annual hyd og aph. The Medi e -
anean clima e domina es he ca chmen a ea, cha ac e -
ized by ho , d y summe s and we , cold win e s. Snowmel
and ain all de e mine peak discha ge du ing Ap il-May,
accoun ing o hal o he o al discha ge. App oxima ely
90% o sedimen s a e supplied om he Ana olian and
Zag os moun ain bel s (Al-Ansa i e al. 2015; Ga zan i
e al. 2016; Naja pou e al. 2016). The Sha al-A ab is a
192km long i e lowing along he I an-I aq bo de o
he no he n PG. Se e al i e s d aining om he sou h-
e n lank o he Zag os Moun ains low di ec ly in o he
PG, collec i ely con ibu ing an annual wa e discha ge o
app oxima ely 3.5km³
626 GEODIVERSITAS • 2025 • 47 (14)
Lahijani H. A. K. e al.
Clima e
Clima e o he PG is a id o hype a id wi h a e age annual
p ecipi a ion o c.100mm and e apo a ion o 2000mm (Pous
e al. 2013). The p ecipi a ion inc eases om sou h o no h and
along he I anian coas eaching o annual a e age o 225mm,
maximum 324mm and minimum 110mm (Beni e al. 2021).
The Shamal wind (A abic o “no h”) is a s ong no h-
no hwes e ly wind ha a ies by season and d i e . In summe
(June-July), i esul s om he p essu e di e ence be ween
a empo al high-p essu e sys em o e he A abian Peninsula
and a he mal low-p essu e sys em mainly o e I an. These
sys ems and he posi ion o he in e opical con e gence
zone (ITCZ) a ec he wind’s onse , du a ion, and di ec-
ion. This ho and d y wind a ec s only he wes o he PG,
whe e i ca ies dus om he dese s o Le an and I aq. In
win e (Janua y-Feb ua y), i is mainly d i en by he Sibe ian
High p essu e sys em, which pushes cold ai sou hwa d. The
Zag os Moun ains channel his ai owa ds he wa me PG,
c ea ing s ong wa es in he cen al basin (Kam anzad e al.
2013). Besides he Shamal wind, o he egional winds such as
sou he ly Ghows blow o e he PG b inging high humidi y o
he no h coas . These winds a ise om he in e ac ion o he
egion’s majo clima ic sys ems, he Indian Ocean Monsoon
(IOM) and he Mid-la i ude Wes e lies (MLW).
Legend
Sedimen Samples
A B
C
Physical Oceanog aphy
Coas al Type
Geog aphical Fea u es
Co e Sample
49°E
300 km
30°N
29°
28°
27°
26°
25°
24°
50°51° 52°53° 54°55° 56°57°
N
CTD T ansec
Moo ing
Cli
G a el
Sand
Mud
Main Ri e
Mino Ri e
In e na ional Bo de
Geomo phological Dis ic
Wa e shed A ea
Ba hyme y
G ab Sample
Coas al Sample
Dep h
(m)
SAUDI ARABIA
QATAR
UNITED ARAB EMIRATES
IRAN
I aq
Kuwai
BAHRAIN
OMAN
Banda Abbas
Zag os Moun ains
Khu an S ai
Qeshm Isl.
060 120
Abu Musa Isl.
Ho muz Isl.
Kish Isl.
Hendo abi Isl.
Euph a es
ig. 1. — A, O e all iew o he Pe sian Gul and su ounding a eas; B, main i e s lowing in o he Pe sian Gul and subdi ision o he Pe sian Gul basin based
on he ba hyme ic cha ac e is ics; C, loca ion o su icial samples and s udied co es, CTD p o iling pa h and cu en me e s a ions.
627
Mode n and Holocene sedimen a ion pa e ns in he Pe sian Gul
GEODIVERSITAS • 2025 • 47 (14)
Sedimen oloGy
The Tau us and Zag os Moun ains a e majo sou ces o sedi-
men s lu ial sys ems o Tig is, Euph a es, and Ka un i e s
which make Sha el A ab Ri e en e ing om no hwes
in o he PG. Du ing he Qua e na y glacial pe iods, he sea
le el was lowe and he i e s we e lowing on he exposed
basin o he PG, en e ing o he Gul o Oman h ough S ai
o Ho moz. The Tig is Ri e sedimen s ha e ou di e en
sou ces, h ee o which a e ela ed o basal ic, g ani ic, and
me amo phic ocks om he Tau us Moun ains and he ou h
belongs o Zag os ca bona e o ma ions (Awadh e al. 2011;
Ga zan i e al. 2016). The sedimen s o Sha el A ab ha e
a simila composi ion o he Tig is Ri e ’s sedimen s (Philip
1968). The Zag os Moun ains is a majo sou ce o wea he ed
ca bona e, ma l, sands one and conglome a e (Aghaja i and
Bakh ia i Fo ma ions) as well as wea he ed ophioli ic ocks
in o he no he n PG (Be y e al. 1970; Pu se & Seibold
1973; Moghadam& S e n 2011; Sah aeyan 2013).
The sedimen a ion a e a ies be ween c.0.1 and 5mm
in he PG, depending on he geomo phological and geo
-
g aphic posi ion (Al-Ghadban e al. 1998). Sedimen a ion
a e has also changed o e ime; du ing he La e Holocene,
he ange a ied be ween 0.13 and 0.74mm.y
–1
in he S ai
o Ho muz and om 0.18 o 2mm.y –1 in he cen al basin
(Al-Ghadban e al. 1998). Acco ding o hese s udies he a ea
o in e es (Co e S 99) has a ough es ima ion o 0.15mm.
y –1 du ing he Holocene (Hamzeh e al. 2021), indica ing
ha he base o he co es could each o he Ea ly Holocene
(>7500 c.y BP). The highes sedimen a ion a es occu ed
a he no hwes coas s o he PG whe e se e al epheme al
i e s low in o he gen le coas al slopes and ma shlands
(Hamzeh& Lahijani 2022) (Fig. S1.1). These coas al a eas
a e classi ied as i e - and ide-domina ed coas s by Pou ke -
man e al. (2020), whe e hyd odynamically has lowe ene gy
han o he pa s o he Gul .
oCeanoG aphy
Physical oceanog aphy
The PG exhibi s signi ican annual a ia ions in sea su ace
empe a u es (SST), wi h mon hly mean SST clima ologies
anging om 19.6 °C in Feb ua y o 33.2 °C in Augus (NOAA
2024). (Fig.S1.2). Addi ionally, ex ensi e a eas o hype saline
wa e wi h salini y le els su passing 42 p ac ical salini y uni
(psu) a e p e alen . Du ing summe , he g ea es dispa i y in
densi y be ween he su ace and bo om laye s occu s e.g.,
anging om 23.74 o 27.10 Kg/m³ (+ 1000) (Azizpou e al.
2014; Saleh e al. 2021). This di e ence diminishes no ably
du ing he win e season. In he summe mon hs, he he -
mocline dep h is p ima ily ound be ween dep hs o 25 and
50me e s, esul ing in a wa e column cha ac e ized by wo
laye s (Reynolds 1993). Th oughou he summe , he s a i-
ica ion o he wa e column hinde s he swi exchange o
deep wa e due o he weake Shamal wind and consequen
limi ed e ical mixing, spanning ac oss mos o he PG. This
s a i ied condi ion endu es in he cen al and wes e n sec o s
un il mid-au umn. Con e sely, in win e , as he ai g adually
cools and su ace laye empe a u es d op, he densi y o he
su ace laye inc eases. This p omp s an ex ension o e ical
mixing in o he adjacen nea -bo om laye ha is s eng h-
ened by mo e in ensi e Shamal wind. The esul is a nea ly
uni o m densi y ac oss he wa e column in he PG and he
S ai o Ho muz s a ing om Janua y (Saleh e al. 2021).
The ci cula ion pa e ns wi hin he PG a e p ima ily in lu-
enced by a e e se-es ua ine Medi e anean- ype low. This
ci cula ion in ol es he expo o high-densi y hype saline
PG wa e (PGW) along he sou he n edge o he S ai o
Ho muz in o he Gul o Oman (Kämp & Sad inasab 2006).
Simul aneously, a su ace in low o less saline and lowe den-
si y wa e s o igina ing om he Indian Ocean Su ace Wa e
(IOSW) occu s along he no he n side o he s ai . This
phenomenon has been documen ed by Chao e al. (1992),
Reynolds (1993), and Swi & Bowe (2003).
In he PG, hypoxia (de ined as dissol ed oxygen (DO)
le els less han 2mg.l–1, o 61µmol.kg–1) om summe o
au umn appea s o be a ecu ing e en , p ima ily occu ing
a dep hs o ≥ 50me e s down o he sea loo . This seasonal
hypoxia ini ia es in la e summe and eaches i s peak se e i y
du ing mid-au umn, co e ing an a ea o up o 50 000km²
wi hin he PG (Saleh e al. 2021). In he S ai o Ho muz,
seasonal hypoxia likely eme ges in ea ly summe , pa icula ly
in he lowe mos pa o he eas e n egion on he I anian
side. This a ea is less in luenced by he high-salini y ou low
o wa e om he PG (Saleh e al. 2021). Wi hin he hypoxic
and low-oxygen zones, esea che s disco e ed ele a ed le els
o phospha e and ni a e concen a ions, along wi h low pH
alues (Al-Ansa i e al. 2015; Saleh e al. 2021). These indings
indica e he subs an ial gene a ion o nu ien s and dissol ed
ino ganic ca bon h ough he decomposi ion and emine -
aliza ion o subme ged o ganic ma e ial in laye s benea h he
he mocline. The obse ed educed pH alues in he hypoxic
wa e s o he PG eached le els compa able o he p edic ions
o he su ace ocean by he yea 2100 unde he condi ions o
ocean acidi ica ion (Saleh e al. 2021). Lachka e al. (2022)
unde ook he ask o econs uc ing he dissol ed oxygen
ends wi hin he PG om 1982 o 2010 and in es iga ing
he unde lying ac o s go e ning hese changes. Thei esea ch
unco e ed a no able decline in oxygen le els ac oss he s udy
pe iod. The oxygen con en wi nessed a dec ease o almos
1% pe decade, while he nea -bo om oxygen concen a ion
dwindled by 10 o 30mmol.m–3 in he deepe egions o he
PG om he ea ly 1980s o he la e 2000s.
Hyd odynamics
The gene al wa e ci cula ion in he PG is ela ed o he excess
e apo a ion om he PG su ace, which causes an in lux o
less saline Indian Ocean Su ace Wa e (IOSW) h ough he
no he n pa s o he S ai o Ho muz and he o ma ion
o dense wa e on he no hwes pa o he PG and A abian
shallow shel as a e e se es ua y (Kämp & Sad inasab 2006).
The wa e ci cula ion is also in luenced by winds, ides, and
i e ine eshwa e in lux, among which idal cu en s ha e
he g ea es ole in ene gy o wa e mo ion (Reynolds 1993;
Pous e al. 2015). Di e en cu en s ha e a di e en ime scale:
ides a y a diu nal o semi-diu nal pe iods; wind d i en
628 GEODIVERSITAS • 2025 • 47 (14)
Lahijani H. A. K. e al.
cu en s de elop o e some days; and densi y-d i en cu en s
change weekly o seasonally (Reynolds 1993). The PG is a
shallow sea and wind-d i en cu en s ha e subs an ial ole in
gene a ing cu en s in he whole basin. Densi y-d i en, idal,
and wind-d i en cu en s seem o play an impo an ole in
sedimen anspo (Li e al. 2015). Tidal cu en s dis u b and
mobilize sedimen s and esidual and densi y-d i en cu en s
anspo hem. P e ious s udies o cu en dynamics in he PG
and he S ai o Ho muz (Reynolds 1993; Johns e al. 2003;
Azizpou e al. 2016) show ha idal cu en s a e dominan
in his a ea, ollowed by wind-d i en and densi y-d i en cu -
en s. Fig.S1.3 shows he cu en speed o a s a ion nea he
Abu-Musa Island in he PG and he p ominen ole o idal
cu en . The cu en speed inc eases om wes o eas (Johns
e al. 2003; Azizpou e al. 2016). The mean speed o esidual
(o densi y-d i en) cu en is abou 30cms–1 (FigsS1.3-S1.6).
MATERIAL AND METHODS
A o al o 50 su ace sedimen samples and wo sedimen co es
om he PG ob ained du ing he PGE-19 oceanog aphic
expedi ion in 2019 by he I anian Na ional Ins i u e o
Oceanog aphy and A mosphe ic Science (INIOAS) (Fig. 1C)
using VanVeen g ab sample and g a i y co e , espec i ely.
Mo eo e , 26 su icial coas al sedimen samples ha e been
collec ed using a sho el along he no he n coas o he PG
(Fig. 1C).
Magne ic suscep ibili y (MS) o he co es was measu ed a
he INIOAS labo a o y using a Ba ing on Magne ic Suscep i-
bili y Me e MS2C in wo cm in e al and high a iabili y o
da a no malized ega ding he mean alue o each co e. XRF
scanning has been done on one co e using an ITRAX co e
scanne a CEREGE labo a o y, Aix- Ma seille Uni e si y.
A o al o 223 sedimen sub-samples om he co es,
ma ine su ace samples and coas al samples ha e been ana-
lysed o sedimen ological in es iga ion (Table 1). P io
o he sample ea men s, all he samples we e o en d ied
a 60°C. G ain size, calcium ca bona e, and OM con en s
we e measu ed o all he samples. The la ge biogenic ca -
bona e emo ed and o ganic ma e - ee sedimen samples
we e g anulome ically cha ac e ised by s anda d sie ing a
Lase -Pa icle-Size (F i sch Analyse e Com o 22, analys-
ing ange o 0.04 o 2000µm). Calcium ca bona e con en
was de e mined using a Be na d calcime e and exp essed
as d y sedimen weigh . The OM con en was measu ed by
we diges ion h ough oxida ion in hyd ogen pe oxide on
bulk samples (Schumache 2002).
Fo he auna iden i ica ion, 100 sub-samples we e examined
i s ly o mac o auna and hen hey we e we sie ed using
a mesh size o 125µm and d ied o s udy unde he op ical
mic oscope. Scanning Elec on Mic oscope (SEM) and Ene gy
Dispe si e Spec oscopy (EDS) o Geological Su ey o I an
(GSI) we e u ilized o 10 samples o iden i y sedimen g ain
analysis and diagenesis. As he majo i y o he ma ine samples
a e ine-g ained sedimen , he e o e he mine alogical iden-
i ica ions we e based on XRD analysis on 21 ep esen a i e
bulk samples and clay mine alogy. Analysis o he XRD has
been done in Kanpazhuh Co. Lab. Finally, he sand ac ion
was s udied op ically using Zeiss Axio Lab mic oscope. Twen y
sedimen blocks we e p ese ed in epoxy esin. Fi een o which
we e moun ed on hin sec ions. We ocused ou analysis on
he li hoclas s. A o al o 1750 li hoclas s ha e been classi ied.
Mo eo e , i e sub-samples we e p epa ed o polish sec ion o
be s udied using e lec i e pola izing mic oscope. The polish
sec ions and hin sec ions we e p epa ed a he labo a o y o
Facul y o Geology, Uni e si y o Teh an.
RESULTS
Su aCe Sedimen S
G ain size
The dis ibu ion o su ace sedimen s shows ha coa se-g ained
sedimen s o g a el and sand a e mainly accumula ed in he
middle pa o he PG. Clay con ibu es less han en pe cen
(a e age 2.5%) o he su ace sedimen s con en (Figs 2; S2.1).
The su ace sedimen s in he no hwes e n pa o he PG a e
mainly composed o medium sil o medium sand. The su ace
sedimen s in he no hwes e n pa o he PG ha e simila
amoun s o sand and sil (48% and 47%, espec i ely), and
a low pe cen age o clay (abou 11%).
The sedimen s nea he no h-eas e n I anian sho es a e
mos ly composed o ine o medium sil , which becomes
coa se owa ds he deepe pa . Sil is he dominan sedi-
men ac ion, making up abou 80% o g ains. Sand is a
mino componen , wi h less han 20%. Howe e , ine sand
becomes mo e abundan nea he seasonal and pe manen
i e s (such as Hilla, Mand and Meh an) (Figs 2; S2.1). The
sedimen composi ion changes o g a elly sand in deepe
pa s o he S ai o Ho muz. The g a el componen consis s
mos ly o shell deb is, which has he highes p opo ion nea
Ras-e Mo a in he wes and Hendo abi Island in he Eas
(Figs 2; S2.1). Sand is he main sedimen ac ion in his
a ea, and i is o en in e y coa se class. The sand po ions
ha e wo di e en sou ces: shell agmen s in he Wes and
Eas o he PG up o 86%, and ooid pa icles in he cen al
basin. The sedimen s ge coa se in he eas e n pa o he
S ai o Ho muz.
The sedimen g ain size in Khu an mang o e o es s is mainly
ine sil and sand (Figs 2; S1.1). The sedimen becomes ine
in he middle pa s o he Qeshm mang o e o es s. Howe e ,
he banks o Khami and he Meh an Ri e del a ha e coa se -
g ained sedimen o sandy sil and sil y sand. The dis ibu ion
o sedimen s on he (Folk 1980) e na y diag ams (Fig.S2.2)
shows ha mos o he su ace sedimen s a e sil and sandy sil
(Fig. 2). The no he n coas s o he PG ha e sandy-g a elly
sedimen , which changes o ocky sho es in some pa s o
he no h PG coas . Muddy sho es a e ound in low-ene gy
en i onmen s in he no hwes e n PG (Figs 2; S2.1).
O ganic ma e
The amoun o OM in su ace sedimen s a ies om 5% o
18%. The highes abundance o OM has been obse ed in
629
Mode n and Holocene sedimen a ion pa e ns in he Pe sian Gul
GEODIVERSITAS • 2025 • 47 (14)
he wes o he PG, sou h o Qeshm Island and eas o Kish
Island. The lowes alues o OM a e in he a eas o Lawan,
Hendo abi, and Abu Musa islands (Fig.S2.1A).
Calcium ca bona e
The calcium ca bona e con en a ies om 12% o 52% in
su ace sedimen s. The highes alues o calcium ca bona e a e
able 1. — Sampling loca ions in his esea ch, and analysis applied o hem. Fo he su ace samples in he Pe sian Gul and
wa e measu emen s only shown in he Figu e 1C.
En i onmen ID Coo dina es (X, Y)
Dep h
(m)
Thin
sec ion
XRD SEM
Polish
sec ion
Coas al Mogham 26°58’11”N, 53°28’11”E ×– – –
Zia a 27°6’0”N, 53°5’24”E ×– – –
Kala 28°23’59”N, 51°8’59”E ×– – –
Del a 28°45’0”N, 51°2’59”E ×– – –
Kangan 27°49’47”N, 52°2’59”E ×– – –
Bus anu 27°7’12”N, 53°1’48”E ×– – –
Kuhes ak 27°7’47”N, 56°6’0”E ×– – ×
Asaluye 27°38’59”N, 52°22’11”E ×– – –
Oli 27°50’23”N, 51°52’48”E ×– – –
A ab 26°43’48”N, 53°57’0”E × × –×
Khun So kh 27°7’47”N, 56°6’0”E ×– – ×
Dopalangan 27°50’23”N, 51°39’35”E ×– – ×
Homei an 26°41’59”N, 55°6’0”E × × –×
Bashi 28°40’47”N, 51°4’12”E ×– – –
Kong 26°34’47”N, 54°55’47”E ×– – ×
Cha ak 26°43’48”N, 54°16’12”E × × –×
Abomusa 25°53’24”N, 55°1’48”E ×– – –
Fa u 26°19’12”N, 54°31’12”E ×– – –
Ga daney-e Mogham 27°1’11”N, 53°17’59”E ×– – ×
La e 28°15’0”N, 51°16’12”E ×– – ×
Moallem 26°38’24”N, 55°2’23”E × × –×
Kish 26°33’0”N, 54°1’12”E ×– – –
Ma ine (G ab) 104 25°40’47”N, 54°25’12”E –59 ×– – –
90 26°19’12”N, 53°48’36”E –90 ×–×–
J26°5’23”N, 54°5’24”E –84 ×– – –
121 26°50’23”N, 56°15’35”E –49 × × × –
116 26°37’12”N, 55°49’12”E –34 ×– – –
114 26°4’12”N, 55°17’23”E –86 ×– – –
G26°44’23”N, 53°13’11”E –83 × × × –
TS 26°11’59”N, 55°9’35”E –107 ×– – –
64 27°15’36”N, 51°3’36”E –69 × × – –
62 27°29’23”N, 51°12’36”E –74 ×– – –
54 28°0’0”N, 50°53’59”E –61 × × – –
28 29°5’23”N, 50°6’35”E –42 × × – –
30 28°53’59”N, 49°52’48”E –44 ×– – –
56 27°48’0”N, 50°42’0”E –65 ×– – –
42 28°38’24”N, 50°23’59”E –49 × × – –
88 26°34’47”N, 53°51’0”E –54 ×– – –
84 26°41’24”N, 53°28’47”E –58 × × – –
44 28°26’24”N, 50°11’23”E –55 ×– – –
51 28°14’23”N, 50°32’59”E –60 ×– – –
118 26°27’36”N, 55°55’12”E –59 × × – –
123 26°40’47”N, 56°20’24”E –71 ×– – –
D25°43’48”N, 53°5’24”E –64 – ×– –
92 26°3’0”N, 53°46’12”E –75 – ×– –
108 26°7’47”N, 54°55’12”E –82 × × – –
26 29°19’12”N, 50°18’36”E –27 ×– – –
Co e T5s4 9-11 26°4’47”N, 53°46’12”E –74 ×– – –
15-17 × × – –
19-21 ×– – –
21-23 ×– – –
25-27 – ×– –
29-31 – ×– –
31-33 ×– – –
Co e T5s3(2) 13-15 26°21’0”N, 53°48’36”E –86 – ×– –
31-33 – – – –
59-61 – ×– –
81-83 – ×– –
Co e S 99 67-69 26°30’0”N, 55°17’59”E –75 – – ×–
101-103 – – ×–
636 GEODIVERSITAS • 2025 • 47 (14)
Lahijani H. A. K. e al.
Ex emely wa m clima e o he PG egion du ing he summe
causes s agnan wa e in deep a ea o he PG ha is associ-
a ed wi h oxygen de iciency in he nea bo om a eas (Saleh
e al. 2021) (Fig.S1.2). Oxygen de iciency educes o ganic
ma e ial decomposi ion ha lead o OM inc ease in hese
a eas. The ho wea he condi ion is also p e alen du ing he
Holocene ha in u n has led o he o ma ion o o ganic
ma e coa ed g ains (Fig. 4).
Despi e o high sedimen supply by no he n i e s and dus
inpu as well as high biop oduc i i y, he sedimen a ion a e
is no high in he PG excep in i e mou hs and embaymen
a eas (Hamzeh & Lahijani 2022). High enewal a e o he PG
wa e (Vaezi& Lak 2023) (PGW) (Pous e al. 2015) and wa e
ci cula ion pa e n could a ec sedimen dis ibu ion pa e n.
The ines sedimen g ain sizes a e obse ed in he no he n a eas
o he wes e n and cen al basins o he Gul whe e he bo om
cu en eached o i s minimum. P esence o he coa se g ain
sedimen s in some deep pa s o he PG could be a ibu ed
o he impac o densi y d i en cu en s ha a e heo e ically
be able o emo e he ine po ion o he sedimen s (Hamzeh
2021). Howe e , Pous e al. (2015) demons a ed ha he densi y
d i en cu en s in he PG a e oo weak o mobilize he bo om
sedimen s; ins ead he densi y d i en cu en s play a majo
ole in lushing away he suspended and dissol ed ma e ials.
Spa io- empo al changes in nea bed u bulence signi ican ly
could change he h eshold shea o sedimen esuspension
(Yang e al. 2019). Es ima ed nea -bed shea s ess based on
cu en measu emen s in Chahpahn s a ion in he PG dem-
ons a e he h eshold o bo om e osion (Fig. 7). Mo e in si u
measu emen s equi ed o quan i ica ion o bo om sedimen
e osion and emo al om he PG.
The mine alogical da a sugges ed ou impo an e es ial
sou ces o sedimen in he PG: 1) Mesopo amia (aeolian); 2)
Aghaja i Fo ma ion o Zag os (allu ial); 3) Ho muz se ies
(sal dome e osion); and 4) Ta us moun ains ( lu ial). Aeo-
lian impo s unde he in luence o he summe Shamal wind
ac i i ies could be he mos impo an ex a-basin sou ce o
sedimen . Mine alogical composi ion in he coas al a ea is
mo e dependen on li hological and mo phological p ope -
ies. In he no he n PG om he eas o he wes low-lying,
low ene gy i e -domina ed coas s changed o s eep slopes,
high ene gy o ocky coas s (Bal ze & Pu se 1990; Pou ke -
man e al. 2020). The ene gy o en i onmen and e osion o
bed ocks con ibu ed o he mine alogical composi ion ha
is di e en in he no hwes compa ed o he no heas PG.
Geochemical and op ical mine alogical analyses in high-ene gy
del aic sys ems e eal he p esence o nume ous ewo ked
hea y mine als, such as ch omi e. These mine als a e likely
de i ed om he Oligo-Miocene sequences o he Zag os
(Aghaja i Fo ma ion). The Aghaja i Fo ma ion, cha ac e ized
by i s hick clas ic deposi s, comp ises lu ial sedimen s ha
ha e unde gone signi ican wea he ing and e osion (Bah ami
2009; Pou ke mana e al. 2017; Vaezi& Lak 2023).
The co ela ion ma ix o ma ine su ace and coas al sedi-
men s (Fig. 8A) e eals bo h posi i ely and nega i ely co -
ela ed mine al g oups. Some clay mine als, such as kaolini e
and dicki e, exhibi posi i e associa ions bu display nega i e
co ela ions wi h calci e. The weak associa ion be ween calci e
and a agoni e may indica e wo dominan sou ces: e igenous
o calci e and in biochemical sou ce o a agoni e. Mine als
o igina ing om c ys alline ocks o m h ee posi i ely co -
ela ed g oups, which include some ca bona e mine als. These
g oups may ep esen he su ounding ca chmen a eas and
upli ed islands in he PG. Some upli ed islands expose he
P ecamb ian se ies (Ho moz Complex), which a e ich in sal
as well as magma ic and me amo phic ocks. Thei mine al
signa u es, such as obe mo i e, a e highligh ed in he sedi-
men s a ound hese islands.
The mine als ha e been ca ego ized in o ou g oups and u ilized
in e na y diag ams (Fig. 8B-E) o ma ine su ace and coas al
sedimen s, as well as wo sho co es. These diag ams indica e
mo e di e si ied sou ces o he mode n sedimen s, wi h domi-
nan con ibu ions om eolian and e igenous sou ces, likely
o igina ing om he upli ed islands and he Zag os Moun ains.
Finally, coas al sedimen in he eas e n pa o he PG is asso-
cia ed by calci e, dolomi e and anhyd i e ha gene ally esul ed
om sal domes e osion. Clay mine alogical s udies o he PG
demons a ed ha palygo ski e, smec i e, illi e, and chlo i e a e
he main mine als o ac ions smalle han 2µm. Meanwhile,
he abundance o kaolini e in he s udied sedimen , especially
in he coas al a ea, could be he esul o shale li hoclas s ha
we e anspo ed om he ma l sec ion o Aghaja i Fo ma ion.
Abundance o kaolini e in his pa o he PG could be a ibu ed
o he anspo a ion o shell agmen s o m ma ly sec ions o
he Aghaja i Fo ma ion, whe e we could see ac i i ies o sal
domes in he coas al zone. The p esence o ch omi e mine al on
he sho es o Dopalangan is ano he p oo o sedimen ans e
om he Zag os (Aghaja i Fo ma ion).
ig. 7
. — Nea bed shea s ess es ima ed based on he Chahpahn s a ion
( a he no hwes pa o he PG) cu en da a in: A, sp ing ide; B, neap ide.
Bo om sedimen esuspension
Time (h)
2016.12.31-2017.01.01
Time (h)
2016.01.06/07
Sp ing ide
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.5
0.6
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
06 09 12 15 18 21 00 03 06 09
1215 18 15
18
21 00 03 06 09
A
B
Neap ide
Shea S ess (N m–2)Shea S ess (N m–2)
Bo om sedimen
esuspension
637
Mode n and Holocene sedimen a ion pa e ns in he Pe sian Gul
GEODIVERSITAS • 2025 • 47 (14)
Mo ing coa se sedimen s o e ma ine bed by subma ine
cu en s is main eason o gene a ion coa ing g ains. P es-
ence o dissolu ion aces o e and inside ooids is a es ed
by pe iodically en i onmen al changes . Du ing pe iods o
s agnan wa e condi ions, hypoxic o anoxic en i onmen s
de elop, leading o he p ecipi a ion o o ganic ma e on o
sedimen g ains. Con e sely, when e ical mixing in ensi-
ies, he inc eased wa e mo emen enhances oxygen le els,
esul ing in he oxida ion o he o ganic ma e coa ing he
sedimen g ains (Can ield 1993; Lau e al. 2024).
Sedimen a y en i onmen SinCe mid-holoCene
The Holocene sedimen s in he PG display ole o basin
mo phology and go e ning clima e, whe e in he sou he n
pa s a e composed mo e ca bona e and e apo i e and in he
no h a e mixed clas ic and ca bona e (Shinn 1973; Wagne &
Van de Tog 1973; Bal ze & Pu se 1990). Signa u e o he
pas clima e e en s is e lec ed as changes in dus , clas ic and
biogenic and ca bona e componen s. The Holocene sedimen-
a ion in he PG began when he sea le el ose and looded
he low-land dese a ea ha was c ossed by i e s lowing
o he Gul o Oman (Kenne & Kenne 2007; Hosseinya
e al. 2021). F om 7500 o 6500 cal y BP, he cen al basin
had a wa m shallow ma ine en i onmen wi h a id clima e
condi ions (high dus s o m e en s). Du ing his ime, ma ine
cemen wi h e igenous sil was o med. Be ween 6500 and
5200 cal y BP, he sea le el in he PG ose apidly and c e-
a ed an anoxic condi ion a he basin loo . This esul ed in a
dec ease in ben hos species and an inc ease in coa ed g ains.
This end con inued un il 4200 cal y BP, when he ela i e
sea le el eached i s maximum.
The sea le el in he cen al pa o he PG eached i s high-
es poin in 6500 cal y BP, bu he e idence o highs and was
ound la e , be ween 5290 and 4570 cal y BP, in he sou he n
PG (Lokie e al. 2015; Pou ke man e al. 2020). The sea le el
in he PG d opped a ound 4200 cal y BP. The coas al co es
show e idence o a sea le el d op be ween 2500 and 1400 cal
y BP. The sea le el in he PG was 3me e s lowe han he
cu en le el a mos du ing his pe iod, acco ding o Pou ke -
man e al. (2021). The sea le el s a ed o ise a e 1400 cal
y BP and a e a highs and in 1000 cal y BP (Damien e al.
2020), he sea le el in he PG a he cu en le el.
0.333
1
Anke i e
A agoni e
Augi e
Calci e
Diopside
Dolomi e
Magnesi e
Mone i e
Mo deni e
Pumpellyi e
Qua z
Mg Calci e
Kaolini e
Musco i e
Mic ocline
Aegi ine
Clinozoisi e
Plagioclase
Polyhali e
Chalcopy i e
Dicki e
Nepheline
Smec i e
Hali e
Non oni e
Ni a ine
Kaini e
Chlo i e
Ano hi e
Tobe mo i e
Epido e
Albi e
Ch omi e
Ho nblende
Ca nalli e
Chalcoci e
Lepidoli e
Anke i e
A agoni e
Augi e
Calci e
Diopside
Dolomi e
Magnesi e
Mone i e
Mo deni e
Pumpellyi e
Qua z
Mg calci e
Kaolini e
Musco i e
Mic ocline
Aegi ine
Clinozoisi e
Plagioclase
Polyhali e
Chalcopy i e
Dicki e
Nepheline
Smec i e
Hali e
Non oni e
Ni a ine
Kaini e
Chlo i e
Ano hi e
Tobe mo i e
Epido e
Albi e
Ch omi e
Ho nblende
Ca nalli e
Chalcoci e
Lepidoli e
–0.333
–1
B
A
Clay Mine als Clay Mine als Clay Mine als Clay Mine als
De i al
Ca bona es
Siliciclas ic
Mine als
50 50
50
Siliciclas ic
Mine als
Siliciclas ic
Mine als
Siliciclas ic
Mine als
Basinal
Ca bona es
50 50
50
C
De i al
Ca bona es
50 50
50
D
0
33.3
66.6
100
Basinal
Ca bona es
50 50
50
E
T5S3-60
T5S3-82 T5S3-82
T5S3-14 T5S3-14
T5S4-30
T5S3-60
T5S4-26
T5S4-16
T5S4-16
TS4-30
TS4-26
ig. 8. — A, Co ela ion ma ix o mine als o ma ine su ace and coas al sedimen s; B, C, e na y diag ams o ma ine su ace and coas al sedimen s; D, E, e -
na y diag ams o ma ine co es. He e mine als a e g oped in ou ollowing ca ego ies: 1) basinal ca bona es (A agoni e, Mone i e, Polyhali e, Chalcopy i e, Hali e,
Ca nalli e, Chalcoci e, and Ni a ine); 2) siliciclas ic mine als (Plagioclase, Diopside, Mo deni e, Pumpellyi e, Qua z, Mic ocline, Aegi ine, Clinozoisi e, Nepheline,
Kaini e, Ano hi e, Tobe mo i e, Epido e, Albi e, Ch omi e, Ho nblende, Lepidoli e, Bio i e, Amesi e); 3) clay mine als (Kaolini e, Musco i e, Dicki e, Smec i e,
Non oni e, Lepidoli e); and 4) de i al ca bona es (Anke i e, Calci e, Dolomi e, Magnesi e, Mg calci e).
638 GEODIVERSITAS • 2025 • 47 (14)
Lahijani H. A. K. e al.
CONCLUSION
The composi ion and pa icle size o he bo om sedimen s
in he PG we e in es iga ed and ound o be in luenced by
ac o s wi hin he basin (such as en i onmen al ene gy and
wa e column s a i ica ion) and sedimen supply om he
ca chmen a ea (including i e s and islands). The majo
sou ces o e igenous sedimen s a e om Zag os and Tau us
moun ains. Oli ine and moissani e mine als ha e been ound
in he su ace sedimen s o he PG, which ha e no been seen
in coas al sedimen s. This phenomenon shows ha hei o i-
gin is p obably om he Ta us and Zag os ophioli es, which
en e he PG h ough he Ka un, Tig is and Euph a es i e s.
Also, his phenomenon shows ha he o igin o coas al and
sea bo om sedimen s has pa ially di e en sou ces.
The sedimen g ain size and mine alogical p ope ies in he
middle pa o he PG a e con olled by coas al ene gy and mo -
phology. In his sec ion, s eep coas s and cli s a e dominan . The
coa se-g ained sedimen s o he deep bo om a ea o he PG ha e
a high pe cen age o o ganic ma e . S agnan wa e condi ion
due o wa ming caused oxygen de iciency in deep bo om a eas
ha led o p ese a ion o OM in he mode n sedimen s and
in he Middle Holocene. The sedimen co es showed signs o
educ ion condi ions ha associa ed wi h bu ied OM a ound
he sedimen g ains. The abundance o coa ed g ains in he
cen al basin could indica e a apid ise o sea le el in he PG.
Also, we ound ha some pa s o he PG ha e low amoun
o clay sedimen whe e high ene gy idal cu en p e en s
calm en i onmen al condi ion o sedimen a ion and apid
lushing anspo s ine ma e ials in o he Gul o Oman.
The PG sedimen composi ion displays s ong imp in o
dominan en i onmen al condi ions bo h in he PG i sel and
in he ca chmen basin. In he no he n PG i shows mixed
sedimen a ion o ca bona e and clas ic sedimen s. The cu en
global wa ming and egional en i onmen al changes could
a ec on he u u e sedimen a ion in he PG by educ ion
in lu ial supply, ele a ed dus sou ces and p ese a ion o
biogenic sedimen s.
Acknowledgemen s
This esea ch has been suppo ed by he I an Na ional Science
Founda ion (INSF) om he p ojec “Sedimen a y A las o
he no he n hal o he Pe sian Gul ” numbe : 99001588, as
well as esea ch acili ies om he I anian Na ional Ins i u e
o Oceanog aphy and A mosphe ic Science (INIOAS). Two
anonymous e e ees a e also hanked o hei ema ks on a
p e ious e sion o he a icle.
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Submi ed on 7 Feb ua y 2024;
accep ed on 16 Sep embe 2024;
published on 23 Sep embe 2025.
appenDix 1. — Supplemen a y Figu es associa ed o he a icle: h ps://doi.o g/10.5852/geodi e si as2025 47a14_s1