Landscape Research V
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LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V Editors Öner DEMİREL Ertan DÜZGÜNEŞ Lyon 2025
LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V Editors Öner DEMİREL Ertan DÜZGÜNEŞ Lyon 2025
Landscape Research V Editors • Prof. Dr. Öner DEMİREL• Orcid: 0000-0002-8102-5589 Prof. Dr. Ertan DÜZGÜNEŞ• Orcid: 0000-0002-1523-9722 Cover Design • Motion Graphics Book Layout • Motion Graphics First Published • September 2025, Lyon e-ISBN: 978-2-38236-897-8 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17181944 copyright © 2025 by Livre de Lyon All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without prior written permission from the Publisher. The author or authors of the relevant section are responsible for any copyright infringement that may occur due to the images and graphics used in the book. The editor or publisher does not assume responsibility in this regard. Publisher • Livre de Lyon Address • 37 rue marietton, 69009, Lyon France website • http://www.livredelyon.com e-mail • [email protected]
I ·He was born in Ardahan in 1964. He graduated from Ege University Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Landscape Architecture in 1985. In 1988, he completed his Master’s Degree in Landscape Architecture at Ege University Institute of Science and Sciences. and in 1997, he completed his PhD in Landscape Architecture at K.T.U. Science Institute. ·Between 1987 and 1992, he worked at the T.C Ministry of Forestry. Between 1992 and 2017, he served as an academician at Karadeniz Technical University. He was appointed Assistant Professor in 1998, Associate Professor in 2000 and Professor in 2007. ·Between 1990-91, he received the CIHEAM Scholarship, Montpellier (France) and from 1991-92 he received the CIHEAM Scholarship and the Saragosa (Spain) Scholarship. He was granted three Belgian Government scholarships in 1994, 1996 and 2000. Ağustos Between 2001 and June 2002, he conducted research at Arizona State University. Between August 2011 and February 2012, he conducted research at Northern Arizona University with the support of the Research Abroad Project. In 2015, he was granted a 1-year TUBITAK Postdoctoral Research Fellowship (Purdue University/USA). ·In addition to environmental and nature protection organizations, he also served voluntarily in non-governmental organizations and served as of various non-governmental organizations president (President of Belediyespor Tennis Club, TEMA Provincial Representative, TMMOB Trabzon Chamber of Landscape Architects Provincial Representative, Head of Mountain Protection Platform). ·In addition to the research projects supported by Corporate organizations, TUBITAK, Universities and various research Institutions, which he has managed and completed with wide participation at home and abroad as director and researcher, there are books and book chapters that he has edited and he also serves on the editorial board in scientific journals published at home and Prof.Dr.Öner DEMİREL, Landscape Architect, T.C. Kırıkkale University Head of Department of Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Fine Arts
II LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V abroad. He has served on the scientific committees of international and national conferences, congresses and symposiums, and has published articles in indexed journals and numerous papers presented abroad and at home. ·Öner Demirel has been serving as head of the Department of Landscape Architecture at The Faculty of Fine Arts, Kırıkkale University since January 2018. He speaks fluent English and French and is married with two children.
III He was born in Ankara in 1982. After completion of his elementary, middle and high school education in Trabzon, he got his Bachelors degree from Karadeniz Technical University, School of Forestry, Landscape Architecture Department in 2005. In 2007, he was appointed as a research assistant at the Department of Landscape Architecture at the Faculty of Forestry of K.T.U. In the same year, he worked on “Contradictions Strategy in Protected Areas” and “Negative Effects of Tourism on Highland Areas” for six months at Bodenculture University (Vienna-AUSTRIA) with the ERASMUS program. Then, he got his Masters degree in 2009 and Ph.D. degree in 2015 from Karadeniz Technical University, Institute of Natural and Applied Sciences. He is now working as Assoc. Prof. at Karadeniz Technical University in Trabzon since 2018. He has several studies and papers published in various academic journals in English and in Turkish on his primary research interests, which are including nature conservation, protected areas, national parks, visitor management in national parks, conflict strategies, participatory approach, tourism and recreation planning, alternative tourism. Prof. Dr. Ertan DÜZGÜNEŞ Karadeniz Technical University, School of Forestry, Department of Landscape Architecture 61080, Trabzon, TÜRKİYE Phone: +90 462 377 40 80 e-mail: [email protected]
xı REFEREE BOARD 1.Prof. Dr. Işık SEZEN 2. Prof. Dr. Murat YEŞİL 3. Prof. Dr. Pervin YEŞİL 4. Prof. Dr. Turan YÜKSEK 5. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Meryem Bihter BİNGÜL BULUT 6. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mustafa ÖZGERİŞ 7. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Sultan Sevinç KURT KONAKOĞLU 8. Asst. Prof. Dr. Bige ŞİMŞEK İLHAN 9. Asst. Prof. Dr. Gülşah Bilge ÖZTÜRK
1 CHAPTER I THE IMPORTANCE OF THE ADAPTATION PRINCIPLES FOR CLIMATE CHANGE AND RESILIENCE IN LANDSCAPE PLANNING Kadir Tolga CELIK 1, Sultan Sevinc KURT KONAKOGLU 2 1 (Asst. Prof.), Department of Urban Design and Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Architecture, Amasya University, Amasya, Türkiye Orchid: 0000-0002-3036-4206 1 (Assoc. Prof.), Department of Urban Design and Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Architecture, Amasya University, Amasya, Türkiye Orchid: 0000-0001-5383-0954 *Corresponding author, first author 1. Introduction 1.1.ClimateChangeandItsImpact Climate change (CC), which varies across temporal and spatial scales, directly influences human activities and generates vulnerabilities in areas such as social life, industry, agriculture, and water management (Liang and Gong, 2020; Şen, 2022). These effects are projected to intensify further in the coming years, leading to profound and cumulative consequences of CC and other environmental factors on nations, regions, and cities (Connolly et al., 2020). The cascading effects of CC have disrupted the ecological balance. Meanwhile, industrialization, population growth and intensified economic activity have contributed to increased fossil fuel consumption, resulting in higher greenhouse gas emissions and rising global temperatures. Rising temperatures and unpredictable rainfall patterns damage ecosystems and negatively impact people’s physical, mental, and financial well-being, thereby reducing their overall quality of life (Akay, 2019; Demirdöven and Kayaer, 2023). Furthermore, urban areas have recently become increasingly exposed to natural and human-made
2 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V disasters such as earthquakes, floods, pandemics, hurricanes and wildfires. This growing exposure makes cities particularly susceptible to the impacts of CC (World Health Organization, 2018; Short and Farmer, 2021; Hamza Çelikyay and Küçük Bayraktar, 2023). In this regard, cities are a crucial arena for engaging in combat with climate change (Pasquini, 2019), and one of the most prominent and effective approaches to address vulnerability and fragility is the concept of urban resilience. 1.2.UrbanResilienceandGovernance Urban resilience is about more than just recovering from disasters; it’s also about how well cities can adapt to uncertainty and change. In this sense, the ability to anticipate and prepare for shocks—through robust infrastructure, effective governance mechanisms, and empowered communities merging as a fundamental component in the development of resilient cities (Singh, 2024). In this regard, CC constitutes not only an environmental threat, but also a structural challenge that undermines urban resilience, necessitating multi-scalar strategies at global, national, regional and local levels (Yao et al., 2017; Dai et al., 2018; Hamza Çelikyay and Küçük Bayraktar, 2023). Consequently, enhancing urban resilience capacity requires inclusive and effective governance structures. Considered one of the most pressing global challenges facing humanity in the 21st century (Zhou et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2021), CC is intricately linked to the complex transformation processes experienced by societies, exerting multidimensional impacts on human life and projected to escalate to potentially uncontrollable levels in the near future. The trajectory and resolution of this anthropogenic issue will be shaped by decisions and actions undertaken in the coming years (Alves and Schmidt, 2022). These decisions and actions must be framed within a collaborative governance approach, grounded in the active participation of diverse stakeholders, including governmental institutions, the private sector, and civil society organizations (Cho et al., 2023). Moreover, CC adaptation strategies must be adapted to local and regional contexts, informed by thorough analyses of diverse types of CC, disaster scenarios and environmental risks (Dong, 2014; Shi et al., 2016). At the international level, these strategies are operationalized through a range of formal agreements. 1.3.InternationalFrameworksandStudyContribution Several international initiatives have been established to address CC, including the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change,
THE IMPORTANCE OF THE ADAPTATION PRINCIPLES FOR CLIMATE CHANGE . . . 3 which was signed in 1992; the Kyoto Protocol, which was adopted in 1997; and the Paris Agreement, which was signed in 2015 (Ünsal, 2024; Directorate of Climate Change, 2025a; Directorate of Climate Change, 2025b). According to the World Economic Forum’s Global Risks Report (2022), insufficient climate action, extreme weather events, and biodiversity loss pose serious threats not only to ecosystems but also to human populations and settlements. In reaction to these risks, strengthening urban resilience to CC has been recognized as a central goal within the United Nations’ 2030 Agenda and Sustainable Development Goals. Among the core strategies for addressing CC, adapting to its impacts is considered equally important as reducing greenhouse gas emissions (Tuğaç, 2022). The study offers guidance for developing effective adaptation strategies. The approach is structured around six core principles, 26 actions and 111 indicators, and encompasses key components such as identifying and prioritizing climate risks, financing mechanisms, resilient infrastructure, ecosystem-based solutions, building institutional capacity and monitoring impact. This systematic framework empowers landscape planners to design sustainable adaptation strategies across different regions and sectors. The chapter outlines the impacts of CC on landscape systems, emphasizes the need for adaptation and highlights the contributions of the World Bank to this process. 2. Principles and Actions for Climate Change and Resilience The six core principles and twenty-six concrete actions, identified as priority areas for climate change adaptation and resilience policy (Figure 1), are articulated in this section (Hallegatte et al., 2020; Directorate of Climate Change, 2023).
4 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V Figure 1: Summary Scheme of Principles and Actions for CC and Resilience 2.1.Foundations-Rapid,Robust,andInclusiveDevelopment One of the most effective policy pathways for reducing poverty and fostering economic development is to minimize vulnerability to CC. This can be achieved by ensuring equitable access to healthcare, infrastructure and financial services, and by providing individuals with the institutional, technical and financial capacities necessary for adaptation. The actions related to this policy pathway are as follows (Hallegatte et al., 2020): · 1st Action: Strengthen economic productivity and promote growth, while maintaining mechanisms that can mitigate the impact of sudden adverse
THE IMPORTANCE OF THE ADAPTATION PRINCIPLES FOR CLIMATE CHANGE . . . 5 developments and economic shocks. Traditional stabilization tools and macroeconomic buffers play a crucial role in reducing national vulnerability to external stresses. · 2nd Action: Ensure that economic growth is inclusive and reaches all segments of society. Recognizing the critical importance of every individual is essential, as rapid development can obscure substantial disparities across regions and socioeconomic groups. Providing smallholder farmers with access to livelihood opportunities and extending infrastructure services and risk management tools, such as health insurance, to the wider population, helps to mitigate the long-term effects of CC and disasters. 2.2.PriorityArea1–FacilitatetheAdaptationofPeopleandFirms The private sector faces multiple barriers to adaptation, including behavioral biases, insufficient information, and financial constraints. To minimize these obstacles, enhance the economy’s adaptive capacity, and mitigate the impacts of CC and natural hazards, governments must work to remove these barriers. The actions related to this policy pathway are as follows (Hallegatte et al., 2020): · 3rd Action: Ensure that risks are assessed and that relevant information is made publicly accessible. To effectively adapt to CC and manage natural hazards, governments must provide open access to diverse, practical datasets on topics such as natural threats, sector-specific vulnerabilities and food prices. Furthermore, plausible climate scenarios and associated uncertainties must be communicated clearly, transparently and accessible to the public. · 4th Action: Responsibilities must be clearly defined, and incentives must be aligned with resilience and adaptation objectives. When managing climate risks and natural disasters, governments must explicitly outline the roles and obligations of households and private sector stakeholders and share this information with all relevant parties. Furthermore, private enterprises should be made aware of their current level of disaster protection. · 5th Action: Improve access to technology by implementing trade policies and investing in research and development. Successful adaptation in sectors such as agriculture and healthcare depends on technologies that can mitigate the impacts of CC being deployed. However, barriers such as limited knowledge sharing, inadequate capacity, trade restrictions and difficulties accessing technology can hinder this process. Innovation in this area is predominantly concentrated in high-income countries, while low-income
6 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V nations often experience significant deficits. Consequently, it is vital to invest in the development of local technologies, facilitate technology transfer, reform trade policies and implement capacity-building initiatives. · 6th Action: Equitable access to financial resources must be ensured, and the poorest and most vulnerable groups must be supported. Private sector entities, particularly those with limited access to credit, and low-income households often struggle to implement adaptation measures due to high costs or financing gaps. Social protection mechanisms and targeted subsidies therefore play a critical role in reducing vulnerability among these populations. · 7th Action: Promote structural transformation within the economic system. While CC adversely affects certain sectors, it may simultaneously create opportunities for others. Therefore, governments are expected to actively manage and facilitate economic transition. This involves supporting emerging sectors to maximize their potential, facilitating smooth transitions for declining industries and fostering economic diversification to build resilience against climate-related risks. 2.3.PriorityArea2–AdaptLandUsePlansandProtectCriticalPublic Assets and Services In addition to supporting businesses and households, countries hold a transformative role in CC adaptation by securing fundamental public services such as infrastructure, healthcare, education, and security throughout the adaptation process. It is crucial to align urban and land use plans with climate risks; otherwise, populations may settle in high-risk zones, thereby exacerbating structural vulnerabilities. The actions related to this policy pathway are as follows (Hallegatte et al., 2020): · 8th Action: Identify critical public assets and services. Given the high costs associated with reconstructing essential public services linked to societal welfare, it is imperative to comprehensively evaluate and manage climate risks. Within this framework, developing an inventory of public assets becomes critical, allowing precise determination of the location, condition, and criticality of these assets—an essential step for strategic planning. · 9th Action: Design and implement a government-led strategy to enhance the resilience of infrastructure and public assets. Disruptions to infrastructure incur multi-billion-dollar losses for countries, while maintenance deficiencies increase system vulnerabilities. Therefore, leadership through an integrated state approach is vital for ensuring the durability of critical infrastructure.
THE IMPORTANCE OF THE ADAPTATION PRINCIPLES FOR CLIMATE CHANGE . . . 7 · 10th Action: Review and revise land use and urban plans to make them more sensitive to risk. Land markets typically fail to account for CC and natural disaster risks when addressing development demands, resulting in construction within hazardous areas. Appropriate land use regulations can mitigate risks and help prevent material and psychological damage caused by natural disasters. Furthermore, as infrastructure investments influence spatial development, population density and employment distribution, directing such investments towards safe areas can encourage healthier urbanization patterns. 2.4.PriorityArea3–HelpFirmsandPeopleManageResidualRisks andNaturalDisasters Although effective risk reduction significantly decreases losses and damages, some natural disasters remain highly destructive and unavoidable. Consequently, governments must develop strategies that enable individuals and businesses to cope with the devastating impacts of these disasters and recover rapidly. The actions related to this policy pathway are as follows (Hallegatte et al., 2020): · 11th Action: Loss of life and property can be prevented through hydrometeorological monitoring, early warning systems and emergency management frameworks. Weather forecasts facilitate the early detection of extreme events, enabling timely evacuations that save lives. Additionally, early warnings and preventive measures reduce physical damage and economic losses. Providing adequate shelter and organizing these spaces are also critical components. · 12th Action: Provide firms and households with risk management tools tailored to their needs. It is essential to recognise the differing requirements of affluent and low-income households. Flexible strategies are necessary to enhance individuals’ ability to withstand shocks and respond appropriately to various disaster scenarios. · 13th Action: Foster the development of the insurance sector through collaboration between public and private stakeholders. Local insurance schemes, such as Türkiye’s Natural Disaster Insurance Institution (DASK) and Mongolia’s Livestock Insurance Pool, help to make populations and businesses more resilient in the event of a disaster. However, insurance markets face challenges in low-income regions, and voluntary participation remains limited where insurance is not mandatory. · 14th Action: Set up a social protection system that can respond quickly to sudden shocks. Low-income households often lack the means to save for
8 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V emergencies or purchase private insurance. Therefore, adaptable social protection mechanisms are needed to support vulnerable groups, allocate resources effectively and prevent long-term setbacks to adaptation following shocks. · 15th Action: Support businesses in developing continuity plans and financial preparedness. Firms must possess business continuity plans to enhance disaster readiness and resilience. These plans detail the actions that both the company and its employees should take in an emergency, ensuring that operations can continue without interruption. · 16th Action: Robust post-disaster reconstruction requires pre-established action plans and financing resources. Disaster reconstruction may not always be possible due to time and resource constraints; therefore, having a well-designed pre-crisis action plan is essential. 2.5.PriorityArea4–ManageFinancialandMacrofiscalIssue CC has a significant impact on the economy, influencing economic activities, tax revenues, sectors, the trade balance and capital flows. Given the inherent uncertainty surrounding these impacts, governments must approach risk management with caution and flexibility. The actions related to this policy pathway are as follows (Hallegatte et al., 2020): · 17th Action: Plan for economic liabilities arising from natural disasters or environmental shocks and integrate them into budgetary processes. In order to maintain economic preparedness against climate and disaster risks, governments should incorporate contingent liabilities, such as post-flood repairs, into fiscal planning. · 18th Action: Develop financial strategies employing a combination of instruments to manage contingent liabilities. Emergencies following disasters generate urgent needs for intervention and humanitarian aid, which may be constrained by liquidity shortages, adversely affecting short-term responses. Therefore, fiscal space should be created during normal periods, a resilient tax system established, and diverse financing mechanisms utilized concurrently. Post-disaster expenditure must be planned and executed via disaster-sensitive public economic management systems. · 19th Action: Anticipate and plan for long-term macroeconomic effects. In light of the risks posed by CC to tax revenues and economic growth, governments must formulate appropriate strategies. Risk evaluations guiding revenue and expenditure planning should be informed by analyses such as the World Bank and IMF’s Climate Change Policy Assessments.
THE IMPORTANCE OF THE ADAPTATION PRINCIPLES FOR CLIMATE CHANGE . . . 9 · 20th Action: Transparently disclose the exposure of financial sectors and pension systems to disaster and climate risks and implement measures to reduce these risks. Transparency aids in minimizing potential future losses by providing information on risk exposure, enabling investors and decision-makers to adjust portfolios accordingly. Furthermore, regulatory frameworks should require firms to effectively manage climate risks and ensure these regulations are enforced. 2.6. Application – Prioritization, implementation, and monitoring progress issues Effective institutional and legal frameworks must be established to ensure that public institutions adopt adaptation strategy decisions, and that governments can monitor, evaluate the impact of these decisions and actions, and take preventive measures against potential challenges. The actions related to this policy pathway are as follows (Hallegatte et al., 2020): · 21st Action: Facilitate stakeholder participation in order to develop a robust institutional and legal infrastructure. For climate policies to be effective, a legal and institutional framework must be established to ensure stakeholder engagement. Existing institutions should be adapted or new ones established, as necessary, to create coordination mechanisms that enable the active involvement of all relevant stakeholders. · 22nd Action: Prioritize key actions to develop adaptation and resilience strategies. Due to limited resources, governments cannot implement all measures simultaneously. Therefore, it is critical to identify which interventions hold priority. Short-term priorities must be aligned with long-term planning frameworks. · 23rd Action: Direct sector-specific steps by defining concrete objectives for relevant ministries. Responsible ministries and local governments should implement adaptation and risk reduction measures. Assigning clear targets and responsibilities fosters accountability. Obtaining parliamentary approval for these objectives enhances accountability and the effectiveness of the strategy, while regular reporting institutionalizes the process. · 24th Action: Evaluate public policies and expenditures through the lens of disaster and climate risks and align them with adaptation goals. Effective adaptation requires investment and planning decisions to incorporate climate risk considerations. Governments should oversee policies and their implementation, managing public investments in a way that is sensitive to climate and disaster risks, and ensuring that adaptation is integrated into all institutions and projects.
16 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V · Incorporating climate-resilient infrastructure and ecological corridors into urban development strategies, · Promoting multi-level and cross-sectoral collaboration, from local organizations to national and international institutions, · Expanding urban green infrastructure to mitigate heat islands, improve stormwater management, and strengthen ecosystem services, · Supporting knowledge-sharing systems and participatory governance to ensure adaptation strategies are socially inclusive and contextually appropriate. Empirical studies show that adaptation strategies focusing on agricultural production, water resource management, and urban green infrastructure achieve positive outcomes when supported by strong local engagement. However, the long-term success of these strategies depends on embedding landscape-based principles into formal governance and policy frameworks, thereby ensuring continuity, accountability, and scalability. In conclusion, landscape planning is a vital means of adapting to climate change, offering multifunctional, flexible and locally sensitive solutions. This emphasizes the importance of adopting a holistic and participatory approach to enhancing urban resilience in the face of climate hazards. Strengthening green infrastructure and applying nature-based strategies are essential. References Akay, A. (2019). İklim değişikliğinin neden olduğu afetlerin etkileri. Access Address (19.07.2025): https://www.iklimin.org/moduller/afetmodulu.pdf Albert, C., Zimmermann, T., Knieling, J., and Von Haaren, C. (2012). Social learning can benefit decision-making in landscape planning: Gartow case study on climate change adaptation, Elbe valley biosphere reserve. Landscape and Urban Planning, 105(4), 347–360. Online ISSN: 1872-6062. Access Address (19.07.2025): https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2011.12.024 Alves, F., and Schmidt, L. (2022). Editorial: Climate change and society. Frontiers in Sociology, 7, 991193. Online ISSN 2297-7775. Access Address (15.07.2025): https://doi.org/10.3389/fsoc.2022.991193 Baack, F., Halman, J., Vinke-de Kruijf, J., Ozerol, G., and Kuks, S., (2024). Dutch municipalities tackling climate change adaptation to heat stress through mainstreaming across sectors (February). Environmental Science & Policy, 160, 103845. Online ISSN: 1873-6416. Access Address (20.07.2025): https://doi. org/10.1016/j. envsci.2024.103845
THE IMPORTANCE OF THE ADAPTATION PRINCIPLES FOR CLIMATE CHANGE . . . 17 Bradaschia, M. G., Longato, D., Maragno, D., and Musco, F. (2024). Climate change adaptation mainstreaming through strategic environmental assessments. An in-depth analysis of environmental indicators from spatial plans in Friuli Venezia Giulia Region (Italy). Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 109, 107650. Online ISSN: 1873-6432. Access Address (19.07.2025): https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eiar.2024.107650 Cao, L. (2021). Study on the utilization of rainwater resources in urban green space landscape planning based on GIS technology. Desalination and Water Treatment, 241, 236–242. Online ISSN: 1944-3986. Access Address (19.07.2025): https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2021.27785 Chapman, S., Watson, J.E M., Salazar, A., Thatcher, M., and McAlpine, C.A. (2017). The impact of urbanization and climate change on urban temperatures: A systematic review. Landscape Ecology, 32, 1921–1935. Online ISSN: 1572-9761. Access Address (20.07.2025): https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10980-017-0561-4 Chaudhary, B. R., Acciaioli, G., Erskine, W., Piya, L., and Joshi, N. P. (2025). Adaptation to climate change by the indigenous farmers in the western Tarai of Nepal. Climate Services, 38, 100559. Online ISSN: 2405-8807. Access Address (19.07.2025): https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cliser.2025.100559 Cho, B., Chung, J., and Song, C. (2023). National climate change governance and lock-in: Insights from Korea’s conservative and liberal governments’ committees. Energy Strategy Reviews, 50, 101238. Online ISSN: 2211-4688. Access Address (15.07.2025): https://doi.org/10.1016/j. esr.2023.101238 Connolly, P., Zari, M.P., and Southcombe, M. (2020). Toward an ecologies design practice. In. M.P. Zari, P. Connolly, & M. Southcombe (Eds.), Ecologies design: Transforming architecture, landscape, and urbanism Chapter 1, (p.1-9). ISBN 9780367491055. London and New York: Routledge. Dai, Z., Guldmann, J.M., and Hu, Y. (2018). Spatial regression models of park and land-use impacts on the urban heat island in central Beijing. Science of the Total Environment, 626, 1136–1147. Online ISSN: 1879-1026. Access Address (20.07.2025): https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.01.165 Dastgerdi, A.S., Sargolini, M., Allred, S.B., Chatrchyan, A.M., Drescher, M., and DeGeer, C. (2022). Climate change risk reduction in cultural landscapes: Insights from Cinque Terre and Waterloo. Land Use Policy, 123, 106359. Online ISSN: 1873-5754. Access Address (20.07.2025): https://doi.org/10.1016/j. landusepol.2022.106359
18 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V Demırdöven, N., and Kayaer, M. (2023). Investigation of the potential role of climate change awareness of university students in social development. Jomelips - Journal of Management Economics Literature Islamic and Political Sciences, 8(2), 41-63. Online ISSN: 2547-9512. Access Address (11.07.2025): https://doi.org/10.24013/jomelips.1358637 Directorate of Climate Change (2023). İklim değişikliğine uyum stratejisi ve eylem planı (2024-2030). Access Address (19.07.2025): https://iklim.gov.tr/db/turkce/icerikler/files/%C4%B0klim%20 De%C4%9Fi%C5%9Fikli%C4%9Fine%20Uyum%20Stratejisi%20ve%20 Eylem%20Plan_%202024-2030.pdf Directorate of Climate Change (2025a). Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Environment, urbanization and climate change, Kyoto protocol. Access Address (11.07.2025): https://iklim.gov.tr/en/kyoto-protocol-i-118 Directorate of Climate Change (2025b). Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Environment, urbanization and climate change, Paris agreement. Access Address (11.07.2025): https://iklim.gov.tr/en/paris-agreement-i-117 Dong, L., Xiaolong, F., and Wei, S. (2025). The adaptation level and mechanism of grain production to climate change in China. China Economic Quarterly International, 5(1), 1–22. Online ISSN: 2666-9331. Access Address (18.07.2025): https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceqi.2025.03.001 Dong, W., Liu, Z., Zhang, L., Tang, Q., Liao, H., and Li, X. (2014). Assessing heat health risk for sustainability in Beijing’s urban heat island. Sustainability, 6(10), 7334–7357. Online ISSN: 2071-1050. Access Address (18.07.2025): https://doi.org/10.3390/su6107334 Erlwein, S., Meister, J., Wamsler, C., and Pauleit, S. (2023). Governance of densification and climate change adaptation: How can conflicting demands for housing and greening in cities be reconciled? Land Use Policy, 128, 106593. Online ISSN: 1873-5754. Access Address (18.07.2025): https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2023.106593 Esbah, H., Kara, B., Deniz, B., and Kesgin, B. (2010). Changing land cover characteristics of a developing coastal town: a case study of Didim, Turkey. Journal of Coastal Research, 262, 274-282. Online ISSN: 1551-5036. Access Address (20.07.2025): https://doi.org/10.2112/08-1092.1 Galan, J., Galiana, F., Kotze, D.J., Lynch, K., Torreggiani, D., and Pedroli, B. (2022). Landscape adaptation to climate change: Local networks, social learning and co-creation processes for adaptive planning. Global Environmental Change, 78, 102627. Online ISSN: 1872-9495. Access Address (20.07.2025): https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2022.102627
THE IMPORTANCE OF THE ADAPTATION PRINCIPLES FOR CLIMATE CHANGE . . . 19 Hallegatte, S., Rentschler, J., and Rozenberg, J. (2020). The adaptation principles: A guide for designing strategies for climate change adaptation and resilience. USA: International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank. Access Address (11.07.2025): https://documents1.worldbank.org/ curated/en/546611605298449211/pdf/The-Adaptation-Principles-A-Guide-forDesigning-Strategies-for-Climate-Change-Adaptation-and-Resilience.pdf Hamza Çelıkyay, H., and Küçük Bayraktar, H. (2023). Climate friendly cities and resilience strategies in climate policy papers. Humanitas – International Journal of Social Sciences, 11(8), 87–107. Online ISSN: 2321-5771. Access Address (11.07.2025): https://doi.org/10.20304/humanitas.1272124 Herreros-Cantis, P., Khromova, S., Olazabal, M., McPhearson, T., Langemeyer, J., and Neumann, M. B. (2025). Knowledge diversity for climate change adaptation: A social-ecological-technological systems (SETS) approach to mental models. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 124, 105550. Online ISSN: 2212-4209. Access Address (18.07.2025): https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2025.105550 Incoom, A. B. M., Adjei, K. A., Odai, S. N., Siabi, E. K., Donkor, P., and Frimpong, K. (2025). Adaptation strategies by smallholder farmers to climate change and variability: The case of the savannah zone of Ghana. Sustainable Futures, 9, 100543. Online ISSN: 2666-1888. Access Address (18.07.2025): https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sftr.2025.100543 Jiricka-Pürrer, A., Czachs, C., Formayer, H., Wachter, T. F., Margelik, E., Leitner, M., and Fischer, T. B. (2018). Climate change adaptation and EIA in Austria and Germany – Current consideration and potential future entry points. Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 71, 26–40. Online ISSN: 18736432. Access Address (19.07.2025): https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eiar.2018.04.002 Juschten, M., Reinwald, F., and Jiricka-Pürrer, A. (2025). Challenge accepted – identifying barriers and facilitating climate change adaptation in spatial development across planning boundaries, sectors and planning levels. Environmental Science & Policy, 171, 104152. Online ISSN: 1873-6416. Access Address (18.07.2025): https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2025.104152 Khan, J. A., Khayyam, U., Waheed, A., and Khokhar, M.F. (2023). Exploring the nexus between land use land cover (LULC) changes and population growth in a planned city of islamabad and unplanned city of Rawalpindi, Pakistan. Heliyon, 9(2): e13297. Online ISSN: 2405-8440. Access Address (18.07.2025): https:// www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2405844023005042 Kimo, I.G., Yate, T.A., Cholo, B.E., Minda, T.T., and Bayde, E.B. (2025). Exploring climate change adaptation pathways for the agricultural sector in
20 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V Arba Minch Zuria and Bonke districts: Based on CCAFS climate analogue tool, Climate Services, 39, 100597. Online ISSN: 2405-8807. Access Address (17.07.2025): https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cliser.2025.100597 Kurt Konakoğlu, S.S., Üstün Topal, T., and Konakoğlu, B. (2025). Copernicus Yüksek Çözünürlüklü Katman Geçirimsizlik Yoğunluğu (HRL IMD) Verileri Kullanılarak Geçirimsizlik Derecelerinin Haritalanması ve Gelecek Tahmini: Amasya Kenti Örneği. Türk Uzaktan Algılama ve CBS Dergisi, 6(1), 32-56. Online ISSN: 2717-7165. Access Address (20.07.2025): https://doi. org/10.48123/rsgis.1602126 Lee, Y., and Liu, Y. (2023). Co-benefits of preserving urban farmland as climate change adaptation strategy: An emergy approach. Ecological Indicators, 154, 110722. Online ISSN: 1872-7034. Access Address (19.07.2025): https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2023.110722 Liang, L., and Gong, P. (2020). Urban and air pollution: A multi-city study of long-term effects of urban landscape patterns on air quality trends. Scientific Reports, 10, 74524. Online ISSN: 2045-2322. Access Address (20.07.2025): https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-74524-9 Ludwig, F., Van Slobbe, E., and Cofino, W. (2013). Climate change adaptation and integrated water resource management in the water sector. Journal of Hydrology, 518, 235–242. Online ISSN: 1879-2707. Access Address (19.07.2025): https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2013.08.010 Marino, M.D., Furuseth, I.S., Enge, C., Solli, G.S., and Barkved, L.J. (2025). Nature-based solutions for climate change adaptation in urban areas: A Norwegian planning perspective. Land Use Policy, 157, 107678. Online ISSN: 1873-5754. Access Address (18.07.2025): https://doi.org/10.1016/j. landusepol.2025.107678 McGarigal, K., Tagil, S., and Cushman, S.A. (2009). Surface metrics: An alternative to patch metrics for the quantification of landscape structure. Landscape Ecology, 24(3), 433-450. Online ISSN: 1572-9761. Access Address (18.07.2025): https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-009-9327-y Nakata, C.M., and Souza, L.C. (2013). Verification of the influence of urban geometry on the nocturnal heat island intensity. Journal of Urban and Environmental Engineering, 7(2), 286–292. Online ISSN: 1982-3932. Access Address (18.07.2025): https://www.redalyc.org/ pdf/2832/283230157011.pdf Pakravan-Charvadeh, M. R., Chamcham, J., and Maleknia, R. (2025). How climate change adaptation strategies and climate migration interact
THE IMPORTANCE OF THE ADAPTATION PRINCIPLES FOR CLIMATE CHANGE . . . 21 to control food insecurity?. Regional Sustainability, 6(3), 100229. Online ISSN: 2666-660X. Access Address (17.07.2025): https://doi.org/10.1016/j. regsus.2025.100229 Pasquini, L. (2019). The urban governance of climate change adaptation in least-developed African countries and in small cities: the engagement of local decision-makers in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, and Karonga, Malawi. Climate and Development, 12(5), 408–419. Online ISSN: 1756-5537. Access Address (16.07.2025): https://doi.org/10.1080/17565529.2019.1632166 Ramyar, R., Ackerman, A., and Johnston, D.M. (2021). Adapting cities for climate change through urban green infrastructure planning. Cities, 117, 103316. Online ISSN: 1873-6084. Access Address (20.07.2025): https://doi. org/10.1016/j.cities.2021.103316 Reinwald, F., Weichselbaumer, R., Schindelegger, A., and Damyanovic, D. (2024). From strategy to implementation: Mainstreaming urban green infrastructure in Austria’s spatial planning instruments for climate change adaptation. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 94, 128232. Online ISSN: 16108167. Access Address (19.07.2025): https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2024.128232 Shi, P., Sun, S., Gong, D., and Zhou, T. (2016). World Regionalization of Climate Change (1961–2010). International Journal of Disaster Risk Science, 7(3), 216–226. Online ISSN: 2192-6395. Access Address (15.07.2025): https:// doi.org/10.1007/s13753-016-0094-5 Short, J. R., and Farmer, A. (2021). Cities and climate change. Earth, 2(4), 1038–1045. Online ISSN: 2673-4834. Access Address (16.07.2025): https:// doi.org/10.3390/earth2040061 Sidle, R. C., Gallina, J., and Gomi, T. (2017). The continuum of chronic to episodic natural hazards: Implications and strategies for community and landscape planning. Landscape and Urban Planning, 167, 189–197. Online ISSN: 1872-6062. Access Address (19.07.2025): https://doi.org/10.1016/j. landurbplan.2017.05.017 Singh, A. (2024). Urban resilience and sustainability: A comprehensive review. Journal of Sustainable Solutions, 1(2), 33–38. Online ISSN: 3048-6947. Access Address (20.07.2025): https://doi.org/10.36676/j.sust.sol.v1.i2.12 Smart, L.S., Seekamp, E., Van Berkel, D., Vukomanovic, J., and Smith, J.W. (2023). Socio-spatial factors influence climate change adaptation decisions of rural coastal landowners. Landscape Ecology, 38, 4365–4383. Online ISSN: 1572-9761. Access Address (20.07.2025): https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-02301734-7
22 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V Şen, Z. (2022). Climate change and Türkiye. Çevre, Şehir ve İklim Dergisi. 1(1), 1-19. Online ISSN: 2822-2245. Access Address (11.07.2025): https:// dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/2369134 Tuğaç, Ç. (2022). Climate change crisis and cities. Çevre, Şehir ve İklim Dergisi. 1(1), 38-60. Online ISSN: 2822-2245. Access Address (14.07.2025): https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/2369220 Ünsal, R. B. (2024). The paris agreement and climate justice in the fight against climate change. Economics Management Politics, 2(2), 112-126. Online ISSN: 3023-7734. Access Address (11.07.2025): https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/ download/article-file/4241539 Verburg, P.H., Van De Steeg, J., Veldkamp, A., and Willemen, L. (2009). From land cover change to land function dynamics: A major challenge to improve land characterization. Journal of Environmental Management, 90(3), 1327-1335. Online ISSN: 1095-8630. Access Address (20.07.2025): https://doi. org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2008.08.005 Victor-Gallardo, L., Roccard, J., Campos, P., Malley, C.S., Lefevre, E.N., and Quiros-Tortos, J. (2022). Identifying cross-sectoral policy synergies for decarbonization: Towards shortlived climate pollutant mitigation action in Costa Rica. The Journal of Cleaner Production, 379. Part 2, 134781. Online ISSN: 1879-1786. Access Address (20.07.2025): https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jclepro.2022.134781 Wang, C., Geng, L., and Rodríguez-Casallas, J. D. (2021). How and when higher climate change risk perception promotes less climate change inaction. Journal of Cleaner Production, 321, 128952. Online ISSN: 1879-1786. Access Address (15.07.2025): https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.128952 Wemegah, C. (2020). Systematic assessment of urban heat island (UHI) warming in greater accra region (Master’s thesis). Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Ghana. Retrieved from ResearchGate. Access Address (20.07.2025): https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.11121.51040 Wong, G.K.L., Ma, A.T.H., Cheung, L.T.O., Lo, A.Y., and Jim, C.Y. (2024). Visiting urban green space as a climate-change adaptation strategy: Exploring push factors in a push–pull framework. Climate Risk Management, 43, 100589. Online ISSN: 2212-0963. Access Address (19.07.2025): https://doi. org/10.1016/j.crm.2024.100589 World Economic Forum. (2022). The global risks report 2022 (17th ed.). World Economic Forum. Access Address (20.07.2025): https://www.weforum. org/publications/global-risks-report-2022
THE IMPORTANCE OF THE ADAPTATION PRINCIPLES FOR CLIMATE CHANGE . . . 23 World Health Organization. (2018). COP24 special report: Health and climate change. Access Address (20.07.2025): https://iris.who.int/bitstream/han dle/10665/276405/9786057496713-tur.pdf Xu, D., Peng, J., Liu, M., Jiang, H., Tang, H., Dong, J., and Meersmans, J. (2024). Bridging climate refuges for climate change adaptation: A spatiotemporal connectivity network approach. Geography and Sustainability. Online ISSN: 2666-6839. Access Address (19.07.2025): https://doi.org/10.1016/j. geosus.2024.08.012 Yao, L., Yang, X., Zhu, C., Jin, T., Peng, L.L., and Ye, Y. (2017). Evaluation of a diagnostic equation for the daily maximum urban heat island effect. Procedia Engineering, 205, 2863–2870. Online ISSN: 1877-7058. Access Address (20.07.2025): https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/ pii/S1877705817344697 Yona, Y., Sime, G., and Matewos, T. (2025). Awareness, access and adoption of climate information services for climate change adaptation in Ethiopia. Climate Services, 39, 100590. Online ISSN: 2405-8807. Access Address (18.07.2025): https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cliser.2025.100590 Yuan, Y., Xi, C., Jing, Q., and Felix, N. (2017). Seasonal variations of the urban thermal environment effect in a tropical coastal city. Advances in Meteorology, 2017, 1–18. Online ISSN: 1687-9317. Access Address (20.07.2025): https:// doi.org/10.1155/2017/8917310 Zeray, N. (2025). Smallholder Farmers’ perceptions of climate change and adaptation strategies in Southern Ethiopia: Mixed method approach. Climate Services, 38, 100567. Online ISSN: 2405-8807. Access Address (18.07.2025): https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cliser.2025.100567 Zhou, W., Pickett, S.T.A., and Cadenasso, M.L. (2016). Shifting concepts of urban spatial heterogeneity and their implications for sustainability. Landscape Ecology, 32, 15–30. Online ISSN: 1572-9761. Access Address (20.07.2025): https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-016-0432-4
25 CHAPTER II DETERMINING TH EFFECT OF NATURAL AND ARTIFICAL MATERIALS USED IN URBAN AREAS ON CLIMATE CHANGE Seyhan SEYHAN1* 1*(Res.Assist.Dr), Karadeniz Technical University, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Landscape Architecture, Trabzon / Turkey, [email protected], ORCID ID: 0000-0002-6046-5024 1. Introduction Urban areas are areas where society densely settles and centers of social, economic, and cultural interaction coexist. These areas encompass many functions such as housing, services, commerce, transportation, green spaces, public areas, and infrastructure systems (Lynch, 1960; Carmona, 2021). The spatial physical identity of urban areas is shaped by the natural and artificial materials used in these areas. At this point, natural (soil, stone, wood, etc.) and artificial (asphalt, concrete, and plastic, etc.) play important roles in the creation of urban environments, both aesthetically and functionally (Gökşen et al., 2017; Rakhshandehroo et al., 2017). However, with the urbanization process, urban areas have transformed into non-reflective, impermeable, and heatretaining areas compared to their surroundings (Akbari, et al., 2001). Natural areas have been replaced by artificial surfaces. This has significantly impacted the climate, energy use, and livability of cities (Oke, 1987; Santamouris, 2014). It has been both a cause and a consequence of climate change. The types and materials of buildings used in urban areas are critical to climate change because they directly impact urban surface temperature, air quality, energy balance, and water cycles (Santamouris, 2015). For example, dark-colored asphalt pavements used on large surfaces absorb solar energy, increasing the temperature of the microclimate. Both the function of buildings and the materials used in their construction account for ~34% of global energy-related CO2 emissions. This
32 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V Figure 9: Cement, Steel and Glass Materials Examples (Url-16; Url-17) In short, the use of natural and artificial materials in line with the sustainability goals of urban areas is crucial for both maintaining the city’s ecosystem balance and improving the quality of social life. Therefore, urban areas should be developed using a combination of these materials or redesigned to increase the resilience of urban areas and provide social and environmental benefits (Baş, 2024). 4. Case Studies This section features case studies from around the world and Turkey. These studies explain climate change, material use, and the impact of these materials on climate change. The types of studies conducted, and the results of these studies are also explained. 4.1.ParisOasisSchoolyardProgramme,France The OASIS (Openness, Adaptation, Sensitization, Innovation, and Social Ties) schoolyard program in Paris addresses the problem of urban heatwaves. The city is projected to experience an average temperature increase of 2 to 4 degrees Celsius within the next decade because of climate change. Consequently, the city is expected to face various risks, including drought, floods, severe storms, and pressure on heat resources, in addition to heatwaves. To mitigate the negative impacts of heatwaves, the program involves transforming schoolyards
DETERMINING TH EFFECT OF NATURAL AND ARTIFICAL MATERIALS USED . . . 33 into accessible green spaces for vulnerable groups. This program has been successfully implemented through ten pilot studies, conducted through joint design and coordination, and is leading the way in expanding the program to the entire city (Figure 10). Figure 10: A Sample Application Made Within the Scope of the OASIS Schoolyard Program in Paris (Url-18) The goals of this program are: • To reduce the local heat island effect in the city, • To transform student learning environments into healthy and stimulating environments, • To educate city residents about climate change, • To create open spaces that are suitable and accessible to the city’s most vulnerable populations, • To create multiple meeting spaces to encourage camaraderie and solidarity within the community.
34 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V Following the devastating heat waves that occurred in 2003 and 2017, the Municipality of Paris, mindful of the possibility of a recurrence of the same situation in the future, has initiated several initiatives, recognizing the unequal rights of different areas of the city and different social groups. One such program is the OASIS (Openness, Harmony, Responsiveness, Innovation, and Social Bonds) schoolyard greening program. This program is an example of an equitable adaptation initiative targeting the city’s most vulnerable populations. It aims to transform schoolyards in Paris into green spaces accessible to both students and local communities. These converted spaces are envisioned as providing cooling spaces for groups vulnerable to heat waves (children, the elderly, people with health issues, or mothers with babies). Schoolyards were selected for the program because they are evenly distributed throughout the city’s neighborhoods, are close to vulnerable groups, and offer potential green and cooling spaces. Ten pilot schoolyards in Paris have been converted into green spaces as part of the Urban Innovative Actions (UIA) OASIS project. Recommendations that could guide the transformation of other schoolyards have been presented as part of the program. In 2018, the City of Paris tested the first pilot implementation of the OASIS program with local stakeholders to transform paved, cemented, and paved schoolyards into green spaces. To this end: · The vegetation cover in schoolyards has been increased. · Natural materials or eco-innovative products have been used in schoolyards. Care was taken to ensure the materials have modular porosity and a light-colored, low-carbon footprint substrate. · Rainwater was used for soil irrigation, water games, and school gardening. · Solar-powered air conditioners and additional artificial installations have been installed to supplement the cooling function of the schools to reduce energy consumption. By 2022, 75 schoolyards have been transformed as part of the program. The city is committed to developing a standardized and adaptable method for creating green spaces for all. An event was held to promote the transformed asphalt-covered schoolyards to local families and users of all ages (Url-19; Url-20).
DETERMINING TH EFFECT OF NATURAL AND ARTIFICAL MATERIALS USED . . . 35 4.2.Climate-ProofingSocialHousingLandscapes-London In 2013, Groundwork London, one of the environmental regeneration charities of the Groundwork federation, received LIFE+ funding for its Climate Resilient Social Housing Landscapes project (Figure 11) in partnership with Hammersmith and Fulham Council. The project, which concluded in September 2016, demonstrates an integrated approach to climate adaptation in urban areas. It aims to demonstrate an integrated approach to addressing climate-related and wider socio-economic challenges in vulnerable urban environments (Url-21; Url-22). Figure 11: Climate-Proofing Social Housing Landscapes (Url-23) The main objectives of the project are: · Developing a transferable methodology for designing affordable, lightweight climate change adaptation measures using green and blue infrastructure in social housing landscapes. · Designing and implementing comprehensive retrofit packages across three different types of social housing landscapes. · Implementing key measures through employment programs for longterm unemployed individuals who create local jobs. · Developing a series of training modules for housing and grounds maintenance professionals covering the procurement systems, design, retrofit, and maintenance cycle related to green infrastructure and adaptation.
36 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V · Developing a transferable methodology for engaging local stakeholders. This objective will enable practical participation in adaptation action plans, retrofit, and maintenance activities within site-specific communities. · Designing an evaluation methodology that will ensure technical performance and social return on investment. · Developing interactive e-learning materials to inform local, national, and EU policies, strategies, and best practices. The ClimateProofing Social Housing Landscapes project sought to deliver holistic climate change adaptation solutions to three social housing sites in the London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham. Within these three sites, green and blue infrastructure interventions were implemented in a highly effective, affordable, and socially acceptable manner. The project aimed to address climate threats to urban areas, improve the overall quality of the city, and contribute significantly to the quality of the local environment. The project employed lightweight engineering solutions, including rain gardens, green roofs, tree and shrub planting, low-level green roofs, permeable pavements, and small catchments. These were implemented through accredited apprenticeship and employment programs for long-term unemployed residents. Local job opportunities were created (Url-21; Url-22). 4.3.PlantGuides-Türkiye In a project titled “Plant Guides,” conducted by the General Directorate of Combating Desertification and Erosion under the Ministry of Environment, Urbanization and Climate Change of the Republic of Türkiye, a guide will be prepared for the use of climate-resistant local woody species in urban landscapes. This guide aims to strengthen the climate adaptation of green spaces (Url-24). In today’s rapidly urbanizing world, green spaces and natural landscapes in cities are crucial for environmental sustainability and human health. In addition to providing oxygen sources for cities, these areas serve many functions, such as maintaining air flow within the city, utilizing open air, and absorbing harmful gases, dust, and noise. However, it appears that the use of native plant species in the establishment of these urban green spaces does not fully reflect biodiversity. Considering our rich biodiversity, the use of native plant species adapted to environmental conditions should be expanded in the design and construction of urban areas as part of the fight against climate change, desertification, and erosion. Therefore, choosing natural species resilient to climate change in urban
DETERMINING TH EFFECT OF NATURAL AND ARTIFICAL MATERIALS USED . . . 37 plant design is crucial for increasing urban carbon sinks. To this end, “Woody Plant Guides to Reflect Urban Identity and Adapt to Climate Change,” woody plant guides tailored to the climate and ecological conditions of each province in Türkiye, have been prepared to contribute to efforts to protect and strengthen urban green spaces. The aim is to increase green spaces, protect natural landscapes, and ensure that not only today but also future generations can grow up in a healthy environment (Url-24). 4.4.Chicago’sGreenAlleyProgram-ABD Since 2006, the Chicago Department of Transportation has been renovating the city’s sidewalks using cutting-edge technologies and green pavement materials and designs to better manage stormwater and prevent flooding. The agency is also testing the use of reflective surfaces to reduce the city’s heat island effect and increasing the use of recycled materials in sidewalk repairs. Chicago’s Green Alley program was launched to address the problem of stormwater pooling in city sidewalks and causing flooding in surrounding areas. This program helps achieve the climate change mitigation and adaptation goals set forth in the Chicago Climate Action Plan (Url-25). Chicago’s Green Alley program (Figure 12) is an environmentally friendly initiative. It aims to create a greener and more sustainable environment by revitalizing the city’s streets. With approximately 3,000 kilometers of public street network, Chicago has one of the most extensive street networks in the world. While most of these streets are not connected to the city’s storm sewer system, they are also prone to flooding. Therefore, the Green Streets program is designed to improve and drain stormwater from the city’s streets, reduce heat, and save energy (Url-26).
38 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V Figure 12: Chicago’s Green Alley Program Examples Application (Url-26) As part of this program: · Permeable pavements were created to allow rainwater to filter through the pavement and flow into the ground (Figure 13). Figure 13: Permeable Surface Details Used in Chicago’s Green Alley Program (Url-26) · A drainage system was created to mitigate flooding. · An underground storage area was created to store enough rainwater under the street to accommodate the sewer system runoff. · The heat island effect was reduced by using high-albedo concrete with a reflective surface.
DETERMINING TH EFFECT OF NATURAL AND ARTIFICAL MATERIALS USED . . . 39 · Recycled materials (concrete aggregate, slag, etc.) were used (Figure 14). · Energy-efficient/dark sky lighting fixtures were designed to direct lamplight downward and outward where useful, rather than upward, which would waste energy and contribute to glare and light pollution (Figure 14). · Appropriate slopes were created to facilitate drainage. Figure 14: Details of Recycled Materials Used in Chicago’s Green Alley Program (Url-26) 4.5.BedZED–BeddingtonZeroEnergyDevelopment-London BedZED (Beddington Zero Energy Development), the UK’s largest ecovillage, is a mixed housing and workspace development. Located in Sutton, south London, it has made history as the UK’s first large-scale, mixed-use sustainable community. It has inspired low-carbon, environmentally friendly housing projects around the world. Initiated by BioRegional and designed and built by a team including architect Bill Dunster, BioRegional, the Peabody Trust and Arup, it embraces all aspects of sustainable design with 100 experimental homes, community facilities for 100 people and workspace (1600 m2 workspace). It offers a wide range of ecological living opportunities (Figure 15). This project was completed in 2002. The multi-faceted project remains one of the most ambitious initiatives in the field of sustainability (Url27; Url-28). The foundations of the BedZED project are; · Significant energy savings are achieved through high insulation, airtightness, and passive solar heating design. The integration of solar photovoltaic arrays into the buildings also achieves electricity savings. · Between 2012 and 2015, electricity consumption was reduced by 27% and natural gas consumption by 36%.
40 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V · Significant savings were achieved using water-saving appliances in the project. · There are 100 homes occupied by approximately 220 residents. · Due to the high housing density, private and shared open spaces are combined with green roofs. Many homes have their own private gardens, a large communal play area, and a village square. · The BedZED project has won numerous awards for green architecture and design. It was nominated for the Stirling Prize, the UK’s most prestigious architectural award, in 2003. · The homes in the project are of mixed sizes and ownership options. BedZED offers subsidized rent (25%), subsidized affordable home ownership (25%), and open market homes (50%). · With approximately 1,000 m² of workspace, BedZED is home to Orchard Hill College for young people with special educational needs, the architectural firm ZEDfactory that designed BedZED, and the sustainability charity and social enterprise Bioregional. · Developed by the housing association Peabody Trust in partnership with the architectural firms Bioregional and ZEDfactory (Url-29). Figure 15: BedZED project (Url-29)
DETERMINING TH EFFECT OF NATURAL AND ARTIFICAL MATERIALS USED . . . 41 5. Conclusion In conclusion, the use of natural and artificial materials in urban areas is strategically important in combating climate change. The use of natural, permeable, and reflective materials helps maintain microclimatic balance in urban areas. They directly impact carbon emissions and energy consumption, two of the effects of climate change, thus mitigating its effects. The properties of these materials contribute to the aesthetic, cultural, and ecological sustainability of cities. Artificial, impermeable, and low-reflective materials directly and indirectly impact climate change. In cities, they play a significant role in cities’ efforts to combat global climate change and improve their quality of life by influencing carbon emissions, the heat island effect, and energy consumption. Therefore, both natural and artificial materials used in urban areas determine a city’s physical durability, its ability to combat, adapt to, and be vulnerable to climate change. Therefore, considering ecological balance and impact in material selection in urban planning is crucial. This study also provides a literature review and clarifies the impact of natural and artificial materials used in urban areas on climate change. The study describes exemplary projects in urban areas, highlighting the types of work undertaken and the results of these efforts. In this context, the use of natural and artificial materials in urban areas is a fundamental tool in combating climate change. This is clearly demonstrated in the examples provided. Therefore, local administrators and urban planners must be aware of the ecological, social, economic, and cultural impacts of materials used in the planning and design of urban areas and consider their impacts. References Akbari, H., Pomerantz, M., & Taha, H. (2001). Cool Surfaces and Shade Trees to Reduce Energy Use and Improve Air Quality in Urban Areas. Solar Energy, 70(3), 295-310. Akadiri, P. O., Chinyio, E. A., & Olomolaiye, P. O. (2012). Design of a Sustainable Building: A Conceptual Framework for Implementing Sustainability in the Building Sector. Buildings, 2(2), 126-152. Baş, G. Ö. (2024). Geleneksel Mimarlık Bağlamında Sürdürülebilir Bir Kalkınma Önerisi: Cunda Adası Örneği. Kent Akademisi, 17(Sürdürülebilir İnsani Kalkınma ve Kent), 84-102. Bayramoğlu, E., & Akıncı, Y. C. (2018). Kentsel Açık Alanlarda Dönüşümlü Etkinlik Yaratıcılığı. Journal of International Social Research, 11(59).
48 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V Empirical research has consistently shown that green infrastructure, particularly urban parks, offers localized cooling effects, reduces thermal stress, and improves human comfort (Cai, Yang, Zhang, Xiao, & Xia, 2023; Qiu & Jia, 2020; Xiao, Piao, Pan, Lee, & Zhao, 2023). However, these benefits are not spatially uniform. Factors such as park size, form, vegetative composition, and surrounding built density significantly influence the magnitude and spatial extent of cooling (Gunawardena, Wells, & Kershaw, 2017; Sun et al., 2020). As the urban heat burden escalates, so does the need for spatially explicit, scalable, and comparable metrics to assess park-based thermal mitigation. While land surface temperature (LST) derived from thermal remote sensing remains a core indicator (Voogt & Oke, 2003; Weng, Lu, & Schubring, 2004), the integration of additional indices such as the Soil-Adjusted Vegetation Index (SAVI), Impervious Surface Ratio (ISR), and Built Coverage Ratio (BCR) enhances the diagnostic power of urban cooling assessments (Erdem Okumus & Terzi, 2021; Guan, Wang, Van Berkel, & Liang, 2023; Y. Zhou, Zhao, Luo, Yi, & Lun, 2025). Despite the growing literature on urban park cooling, existing studies often adopt a fragmented analytical scope—focusing on singular metrics such as LST, NDVI, or canopy cover (Gunawardena et al., 2017; Salata, Golasi, de Lieto Vollaro, & de Lieto Vollaro, 2016). Most overlook the interaction between structural landscape features and thermal outcomes across varying spatial scales. Moreover, quantitative assessments of spatial equity in cooling service distribution remain underdeveloped, especially in high-density urban contexts where environmental justice concerns are most acute (Rigolon, 2016; J. Zhang & Tan, 2023; Zhu et al., 2021). In addition, previous modeling approaches have rarely incorporated explainability mechanisms such as SHAP (SHapley Additive exPlanations) or geospatially stratified diagnostics like Gini coefficients and Lorenz curves, which can unpack both the intensity and inequality of microclimatic benefits (Lundberg & Lee, 2017; Shih, 2017; Z. Zhang, Cenci, & Zhang, 2024). This methodological gap hinders efforts to target climate adaptation investments where they are most needed. This study proposes a multidimensional and spatially explicit framework for diagnosing the microclimatic impact of urban green infrastructure in the İzmir Gulf Region, a densely populated and morphologically complex coastal metropolis in western Türkiye. The methodological innovation lies in combining thermal, vegetative, structural, and equity metrics within a unified spatial schema. Parks are analyzed through concentric “donut” buffers extending 0–500 m, in 50 m increments, enabling the computation of:
REVEALING URBAN COOLING DYNAMICS THROUGH LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE . . . 49 i. Park Cooling Intensity (PCI): Max–min LST difference across zones. ii. Park Cooling Distance (PCD): Distance at which cooling plateaus (<0.1°C/ring). iii. Park Cooling Area (PCA): Buffer area with effective cooling. iv. Built Coverage Ratio (BCR): Area-weighted imperviousness in buffer zones. v. Equity Diagnostics: Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients for cooling and structural exposures. These indicators are modeled at both park and neighborhood levels using a combination of Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) and Gradient Boosted Regression Trees (GBRT) with SHAP interpretation, capturing both explanatory power and predictive insight. The study is guided by the following research questions: · RQ1: How do park size and landscape composition jointly shape cooling intensity and cooling area? · RQ2: How does built density and imperviousness (BCR) mediate temperature gradients around parks? · RQ3: How is cooling access distributed across neighborhoods and demographic groups? · RQ4: Which predictors most strongly influence PCI and PCI access in explainable models? By addressing these questions, the research aims to contribute to evidencebased urban planning that is responsive to both environmental performance and spatial justice in the era of climate crisis. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1.Studyareaanddataset The study area encompasses the İzmir Gulf Region of western Türkiye, a coastal Mediterranean metropolis characterized by marked coastal–inland thermal gradients, complex urban morphology, and a fragmented green infrastructure network. The geographic context is illustrated in Figure 1, which presents at top-left the national context (Türkiye), mid-left the broader İzmir metropolitan area, center the district and neighborhood administrative boundaries (n = 237) with elevation and river networks, and bottom-left the
50 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V neighborhood units within the Gulf. The top-right panel displays urban park locations (n = 692), the mid-right overlay of park buffer rings (n = 6,920), and the bottom-right panel presents a true-color satellite basemap derived from a median composite of Landsat 8–9 imagery, processed via Google Earth Engine, using datasets acquired between June 1 and August 31, 2025. Data inputs include: · A park polygon layer (n = 692) containing park_id, area_m2, and a priori size classes (Class I–IV), derived through QGIS area measures and SQL classification. · A donut zone layer comprising ten concentric buffers (0–500 m at 50 m intervals) around each park, yielding 6,920 ring polygons each with median LST, canopy, SAVI, NDVI, MNDWI, IBI, UTFVI, UHI, zone_area, and building_ area attributes. · A neighborhood layer (“mahalle_master”) with 237 units, containing demographic indicators (e.g., total population, women, age groups), urbandensity classification, canopy height, and thermal exposure metrics at neighborhood scale. All spatial data were processed in projected CRS EPSG:5253, ensuring consistent area and buffer calculations. The methodological foundation builds on prior work emphasizing buffer-based assessment of park cooling effects (Lan, Liu, Huang, Corcoran, & Peng, 2022; Sun et al., 2020; Y. Zhou et al., 2025) , concentric ring analysis for PCI computation (Vidrih & Medved, 2013; Yin, Wang, & Zhang, 2025), and landscape-based urban thermal modeling (Okumus & Terzi, 2023; Xu et al., 2022). Such frameworks are critical for quantifying the spatial footprint and equity of ecosystem services in rapidly urbanizing coastal regions.
REVEALING URBAN COOLING DYNAMICS THROUGH LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE . . . 51 Figure 1: Study Area Location Map and Base Layers 2.2.ParkClassificationandConcentricDonutZones Urban parks were classified into four size-based typologies: Class I (< 1,000 m²), Class II (1,000–5,000 m²), Class III (5,000–10,000 m²), and Class IV (> 10,000 m²), following established thresholds derived from prior landscape–climate studies (Xiao et al., 2023; Zhu et al., 2021). These classes facilitate examination of scale-dependent cooling effects and support performance comparisons across ordered strata. To precisely quantify the spatial extent and intensity of cooling, concentric “donut zones” were generated around each park boundary in QGIS using projected CRS EPSG:5253 geometry. Buffers were created at 50 m increments from 0 to 500 m, resulting in ten rings per park and a total of 6,920 buffer polygons. Within each ring, zonal statistics were extracted for median land surface temperature (LST), vegetation indices (SAVI, NDVI), surface moisture (MNDWI), built intensity (IBI, imperviousness), canopy metrics, UTFVI, UHI, and geometric areas such as zone_area and building_area. The Park Cooling Intensity (PCI) was operationalized as the difference between the maximum and minimum median LST values across the ten rings (i.e., Δ°C), reflecting the maximal thermal gradient associated with a given park (Xiao et al., 2023; Zhu et al., 2021). Park Cooling Distance (PCD) was
52 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V defined as the ring distance where the LST gradient flattened below a threshold of 0.1 °C per ring—a proxy for the “first turning point” beyond which cooling influence diminishes substantially, as recommended in remote-sensing buffer analyses (Xiao et al., 2023; Y. Zhou et al., 2025; Zhu et al., 2021). Cumulative Park Cooling Area (PCA) was calculated as the total buffer area up to the PCD boundary (m² and ha). 2.3.CoolingandBuilt-FormMetrics This study adopts three interrelated cooling metrics—Park Cooling Intensity (PCI), Park Cooling Distance (PCD), and Park Cooling Area (PCA)— supplemented by the Built Coverage Ratio (BCR) to evaluate how park features and surrounding built form influence thermal regulation. · Park Cooling Intensity (PCI) is defined as the difference between the maximum and minimum median Land Surface Temperature (LST) observed across the ten concentric buffer rings (Δ°C). This metric captures the largest temperature drop attributable to park influence (Cai et al., 2023; Zhu et al., 2021). · Park Cooling Distance (PCD) represents the radial distance (m) from the park boundary at which the cooling effect plateaus: operationally, the first buffer distance where ΔLST decreases below 0.1 °C relative to the inner ring. It approximates the threshold beyond which cooling becomes negligible (Cai et al., 2023; Qiu & Jia, 2020; Y. Zhou et al., 2025). Conceptually, this is the “first turning point” in the cooling gradient and is illustrated schematically in Figure 2. · Park Cooling Area (PCA) is the cumulative buffer area (m² and ha) up to the PCD threshold. PCA quantifies the spatial extent of effective parkinfluenced cooling. · Built Coverage Ratio (BCR) in each ring is calculated as the areaweighted ratio of building footprint to buffer zone area (i.e., building_area/ zone_area), expressed as a fraction or percentage. The integrated BCR metric for the park is the mean of ring-specific BCR values, weighted by zone_area. BCR serves as a functional proxy for imperviousness and vegetation disruption. The conceptual logic is depicted in Figure 2 LST variation as a function of distance from the park boundary, with the primary cooling gradient (PCI) declining toward PCD, while BCR modulates LST elevation across the curve’s envelope.
REVEALING URBAN COOLING DYNAMICS THROUGH LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE . . . 53 These metrics provide a spatially explicit framework to analyse both thermal magnitude (PCI), horizontal reach (PCD), spatial extent (PCA), and structural resistance (BCR). They support comparative analysis across park size classes (Section 3.2), modeling of predictor variables (Section 3.6), and linkage to equity measures at neighborhood level (Section 3.5). Figure 2: Conceptual Schematic Effect of Park Cooling Service 2.4.EquityandExposureComputation To evaluate spatial equity in access to park-based microclimatic benefits, this study calculates population-weighted exposure metrics at the neighborhood level, supported by Lorenz curve visualization and Gini coefficient computation. These measures aim to quantify disparities in cooling access across demographic groups and urban morphological contexts. Neighborhood-level exposure to park cooling services is operationalized through PCI access, defined as the population-weighted average of park cooling intensity (PCI) for all parks within a 500 m buffer of the neighborhood boundary. For a given neighborhood i , the PCI exposure for group g (e.g., total population, children under 5, women, elderly over 65) is calculated as: () () () () () g ij j Pi g ig i j Pi Pop PCI PCI Pop Î Î ´ = å å (1) where j PCI is the cooling intensity of park j , ()Pi is the set of parks within 500 m of neighborhood i , ()g i Pop is the population count of group g in neighborhood i .
54 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V This computation assumes that all residents within the 500 m service area can access the park’s cooling benefit, following standards in environmental equity literature (Rigolon, 2016). In addition to thermal exposure, built coverage ratio (BCR) exposure is computed per neighborhood using the same buffer-based approach. The BCR is defined as: () () () () () g ij j Pi g ig i j Pi Pop BCR BCR Pop Î Î ´ = å å (2) where j BCR is the area-weighted built coverage in the buffer zones of park j . Higher values indicate greater structural resistance to cooling, typically associated with impervious surfaces and dense construction. To assess the equity of thermal exposure, Lorenz curves are generated by plotting the cumulative share of population (x-axis) against the cumulative share of PCI or LST benefit (y-axis), ranked from lowest to highest exposure. Deviations from the 1:1 line indicate inequality. The Gini coefficient is calculated as: 1 0 12 ()G L p dp=-ò (3) where ()Lp is the lorenz curve function. In discrete form: 11 1 1 ( )( ) n kk k k k G YY X X -- = =- + - å (4) where k X and k Y are the cumulative population and exposure shares, respectively, sorted in ascending order of exposure. The coefficient ranges from 0 (perfect equity) to 1 (maximum inequality). Bootstrap resampling (n = 2,000) is used to estimate 95% confidence intervals for Gini values, following equity diagnostics frameworks in recent spatial justice studies (Rigolon, 2016; Xu, Wang, & Zhu, 2024; Xue et al., 2019). 2.5.ModelingandValidation This study employs two complementary modeling approaches—Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression and Gradient Boosted Regression Trees (GBRT) with SHAP interpretation—to assess the relative influence of landscape configuration and built-form predictors on cooling outcomes. Two separate OLS models are specified:
REVEALING URBAN COOLING DYNAMICS THROUGH LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE . . . 55 (i) Park-level Model: ϳ ∑ ;ϰͿ where and are the cumulative population and exposure shares, respectively, sorted in ascending order of exposure. The coefficient ranges from 0 (perfect equity) to 1 (maximum inequality). Bootstrap resampling (n = 2,000) is used to estimate 95% confidence intervals for Gini values, following equity diagnostics frameworks in recent spatial justice studies (Rigolon, 2016; Xu, Wang, & Zhu, 2024; Xue et al., 2019). 2.5 Modeling and Validation This study employs two complementary modeling approaches— Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression and Gradient Boosted Regression Trees (GBRT) with SHAP interpretation—to assess the relative influence of landscape configuration and built-form predictors on cooling outcomes. Two separate OLS models are specified: (i) Park-level Model: ;ϱͿ This model tests the hypothesized relationships between park-scale predictors and PCI magnitude. (ii) Neighborhood-level Model: ∑ ;ϲͿ where includes neighborhood-level morphological and demographic variables (e.g., LST median, UHI, canopy area per capita, urban density, park supply). Covariate selection follows variable availability and prior literature (Xu et al., 2024; W. Zhou, Yu, Zhang, Xu, & Wu, 2025). Heteroskedasticity-consistent standard errors (e.g., HC1) are estimated to ensure robustness. To capture potential non-linearities and interactions, Gradient Boosting Regression Trees are trained for both outcome variables using predictors identical to those in the OLS specifications. A pipeline with median imputation for missing values and one-hot encoding for categorical variables is implemented. SHAP (SHapley Additive exPlanations) values (5) This model tests the hypothesized relationships between park-scale predictors and PCI magnitude. (ii) Neighborhood-level Model: 0 _i kk i k PCI access X bbe =+ + å (6) where ik X includes neighborhood-level morphological and demographic variables (e.g., LST median, UHI, canopy area per capita, urban density, park supply). Covariate selection follows variable availability and prior literature (Xu et al., 2024; W. Zhou, Yu, Zhang, Xu, & Wu, 2025). Heteroskedasticityconsistent standard errors (e.g., HC1) are estimated to ensure robustness. To capture potential non-linearities and interactions, Gradient Boosting Regression Trees are trained for both outcome variables using predictors identical to those in the OLS specifications. A pipeline with median imputation for missing values and one-hot encoding for categorical variables is implemented. SHAP (SHapley Additive exPlanations) values quantify the marginal contribution of each predictor for individual observations, yielding a global ranking and dependence curves (Lundberg & Lee, 2017; Molnar, 2020). Five-fold cross-validation (CV) is employed to assess predictive performance. For each model, R² (coefficient of determination) and RMSE (root mean squared error) are reported as mean and standard deviation across folds. The OLS models are evaluated for multicollinearity using Variance Inflation Factor (VIF), with thresholds of VIF < 5 considered acceptable. Residual plots and quantile–quantile (Q–Q) plots are inspected for normality and outlier influence. GBRT hyperparameters (number of trees, learning rate, depth) are tuned via grid search using out-of-fold performance on validation splits. SHAP additivity is checked by confirming that the sum of individual feature contributions equals the difference between the predicted value and the model’s baseline expectation, consistent with TreeExplainer conventions (Lundberg & Lee, 2017). This dual modeling strategy—linear inference via OLS and explainable machine learning via SHAP—provides both statistical rigor and predictive insight into park and neighborhood cooling dynamics.
56 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V 3. Results and Discussion 3.1.SpatialBaselines The pixel-level maps presented in Figure 3 depict the spatial heterogeneity of key environmental and morphological indicators across the İzmir Gulf Region. These baseline distributions establish the geographic context for later analyses at the park and neighborhood scales. Panel (a) maps ESA WorldCover land use classifications, revealing a dominant mix of built-up and agricultural classes within the urbanized core, transitioning to vegetated and bare soils along the outer peripheries. This typological spread reflects the polycentric growth pattern and ecological fragmentation typical of coastal Mediterranean cities. Panels (b) and (c) show vegetation indices—SAVI and NDVI, respectively. Both maps exhibit elevated values in forested hinterlands and larger parks, with clear coastal–inland gradients. Vegetation coverage diminishes toward the urban core, where high imperviousness reduces photosynthetically active surfaces. SAVI, adjusted for soil reflectance, shows slightly broader coverage than NDVI in semi-urban fringe zones. Figure 3: Pixel-Level Spatial İndicators for Gulf Area, Panels a–i
REVEALING URBAN COOLING DYNAMICS THROUGH LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE . . . 57 Panel (d) visualizes MNDWI, indicating surface wetness and possible proximity to water bodies. Elevated MNDWI values are concentrated along stream corridors and low-lying depressions. In contrast, Panel (e) displays IBI, with high built-up intensity observed in central İzmir, Karabağlar, and Çiğli districts—corresponding to dense mid-rise housing and industrial land uses. Thermal metrics appear in Panels (f) through (h). Land Surface Temperature (LST) in Panel (f) reveals a distinct urban heat island signature across the metropolitan basin, with temperatures elevated by 3–5 °C relative to vegetated uplands. The Urban Thermal Field Variance Index (UTFVI) (Panel g) captures both extreme hot spots and micro-variations tied to surface composition. Panel (h) displays Urban Heat Island (UHI) intensity as deviation from a vegetative baseline, highlighting thermal inequality across space. Finally, Panel (ı) illustrates canopy height, derived from remote sensing– based lidar proxies. Tree canopy is spatially limited and fragmented, with coverage concentrated in municipal parks, cemeteries, and stream-adjacent corridors. This distribution accentuates the structural deficit of vertical greening, especially in high-density residential districts. Overall, the maps reveal strong spatial contrasts in greenness, moisture, and thermal burden—with clear evidence of coastal–inland and urban–rural gradients. These patterns confirm the presence of morphological and climatic heterogeneity that warrants stratified park-scale analysis in subsequent sections (see Sections 3.2–3.5). Park outlines are overlaid for context, reinforcing their role as spatial anchors in thermal regulation. 3.2.ParkScale:DistributionsandClassComparisons Figure 4 presents a six-panel diagnostic summary of urban park structure and cooling performance across the İzmir Gulf Region. Parks are stratified into four size-based classes: Class I (< 1,000 m²), Class II (1,000–5,000 m²), Class III (5,000–10,000 m²), and Class IV (> 10,000 m²), enabling consistent evaluation of scale-dependent patterns in park area, cooling magnitude, spatial distribution, and structural resistance. Panel 4a illustrates the frequency distribution of park areas ≤ 10,000 m², with class thresholds marked by dashed vertical lines and interquartile benchmarks annotated. Among the 692 parks analyzed, Class II (n = 370) constitutes the modal category, while Class IV parks—though few in number (n = 65)—contribute disproportionately to total green area due to their size. Summary statistics by class are reported in Table 1. Notably, the median area increases sharply across classes, from 574 m² in Class I to 18,444 m² in Class IV.
64 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V Panel 8b highlights disparities across urban density classes, revealing a more complex pattern. While the Low and Moderate density areas exhibit relatively high PCI access, the Very High density class records both the lowest median PCI access and the greatest interquartile range, suggesting internal variability and pockets of extreme thermal inequity. This is particularly pronounced for children and elderly, reinforcing concerns about the spatial misalignment between park cooling supply and demographic need. These spatial and demographic contrasts are further detailed, which reports group-level population totals, mean PCI access, and exposure percentiles (Q25, Q50, Q75). Despite relatively similar mean PCI access across groups (~1.27– 1.33 °C), the distribution is skewed, and median values fall consistently below the mean, signaling that a majority of residents are served by below-average cooling parks. The elderly population (65+) shows the highest mean access (1.33 °C) but also the widest interquartile spread, reflecting spatial concentration of high-performing parks in fewer neighborhoods. Together, these findings identify a clear thermal equity deficit in several high-density and high-vulnerability districts. Lorenz and Gini analyses demonstrate that cooling services are not uniformly distributed, and their inequity is compounded by built-form barriers and population composition. The lowest equity is observed for BCR, where dense, impervious urban fabrics persist in areas underserved by park cooling. The identification of disadvantaged groups and locations provides a spatial logic for prioritizing interventions—particularly in central and inland zones like Buca and Karabağlar, where small parks offer limited mitigation and vulnerable populations are concentrated. These insights motivate the tiered targeting strategy proposed in Section 4. 3.6.Model-BasedExplanationsandRobustness To complement the bivariate analyses and assess the multivariate influence of landscape and built-form characteristics on urban cooling outcomes, this section presents explanatory modeling at both the park scale and neighborhood scale. Two Gradient Boosting Regressor (GBR) models were trained to predict (i) park-level PCI (Δ°C) and (ii) neighborhood-level PCI access (Δ°C), with SHAP (SHapley Additive exPlanations) used for global and local interpretability. To validate model consistency and directional effects, results are cross-checked against ordinary least squares (OLS) regression outputs.
REVEALING URBAN COOLING DYNAMICS THROUGH LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE . . . 65 The park-scale model predicting PCI achieved an R² of 0.85 (RMSE = 0.40°C) with verified SHAP additivity and 5-fold cross-validated R² = 0.80, confirming strong generalizability. The neighborhood-scale model predicting PCI access yielded R² = 0.83 (RMSE = 0.22°C) and cross-validated R² = 0.79, with SHAP additivity also satisfied. These performance metrics indicate high explanatory power, validating the feature attributions in subsequent interpretation. Figure 9a displays the SHAP beeswarm plot for the park-level PCI model, revealing that urban heat metrics—especially UHI and UTFVI—have the greatest influence on cooling intensity, followed by MNDWI, log-transformed area, and canopy height. Notably, imperviousness and BCR exhibit consistent negative contributions, meaning that higher built intensity within buffer zones systematically depresses PCI. Dependence plots confirm these associations, revealing nonlinear saturation effects where increasing UHI or canopy leads to diminishing PCI gains. Figure 9b presents the neighborhood PCI access model. The most influential predictors include mean neighborhood area, NDVI/SAVI, and thermal indices (UHI, LST). Again, high impervious coverage and park isolation (low area per capita) correspond to reduced access. SHAP values show that environmental greenness exerts a stronger positive effect than marginal built form indicators at the neighborhood scale, emphasizing structural limitations in cooling provision across dense morphologies.
66 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V Figure 9. SHAP Beeswarm and top-3 Dependence Plots for Park and Neighborhood Models To verify directionality and approximate effect sizes, OLS regressions were fitted using the same predictors (excluding categorical variables). At the park level, PCI is positively and significantly associated with log(area) and UHI (p < 0.001), while imperviousness has a significant negative coefficient (β = –21.95, p < 0.03). BCR surprisingly shows a positive effect (β = 20.20, p < 0.05), which may reflect multicollinearity with greenness indicators and warrants cautious interpretation. At the neighborhood level, LST is a strong positive predictor of PCI access (p < 0.001), whereas park\_area\_sum is negatively associated (p < 0.01), potentially capturing saturation effects in overserved zones. Vegetation indicators (SAVI, NDVI) are not significant at conventional levels, though their signs are aligned with SHAP contributions.
REVEALING URBAN COOLING DYNAMICS THROUGH LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE . . . 67 Across both models, thermal load indicators (UHI, UTFVI) consistently emerge as dominant drivers of PCI, affirming that parks embedded in hotter microclimates exert stronger cooling effects. Vegetation metrics such as canopy and SAVI exhibit positive but nonlinear contributions, consistent with the observed saturation patterns in Fig. 6. Built intensity (imperviousness, BCR) acts as a structural barrier to cooling efficacy, particularly at the park scale, while access dynamics are shaped by spatial form and park allocation density at the neighborhood scale. The convergence of machine learning (SHAP) and linear modeling (OLS) underscores the robustness of findings, particularly the role of park size, vegetation, and contextual heat stress in modulating urban cooling. These insights set the stage for the planning implications detailed in Section 4. 4. Conclusion and Policy Implications This study developed a multidimensional and spatially explicit framework for evaluating the cooling services of urban parks within the İzmir Gulf Region— one of Türkiye’s most densely urbanized coastal zones. Through the integration of remote sensing–derived metrics, concentric buffer-based landscape analysis, and model-based interpretation, it contributes novel insights into how landscape structure, built density, and demographic context jointly shape thermal outcomes at multiple scales. Key findings reveal that park size and contextual thermal burden (UHI, UTFVI) are the most powerful predictors of park cooling intensity (PCI). Larger parks embedded in hotter microclimatic zones demonstrate stronger thermal gradients, particularly when surrounded by lower imperviousness and higher vegetative cover. Conversely, built intensity—measured through imperviousness and BCR—systematically reduces cooling capacity, reinforcing concerns about landscape fragmentation and ecological isolation in dense urban cores (see Fig. 5). Neighborhood-level results underscore the uneven spatial and demographic distribution of cooling access. Equity diagnostics indicate that cooling services are not equitably distributed across districts or demographic subgroups. Vulnerable populations—particularly children under five and older adults— experience both lower mean access and higher exposure inequality. The application of explainable models (SHAP) and OLS diagnostics provided robust interpretability of key predictors across both park and neighborhood scales (Fig. 9). These models affirm that landscape greenness
68 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V (SAVI, canopy), morphological openness, and park area per capita are positively associated with thermal mitigation, while built-form metrics (imperviousness, BCR) depress cooling efficiency. Importantly, the use of buffer-derived metrics (PCI, PCA, PCD) enabled a more spatially sensitive representation of cooling dynamics than aggregate LST alone. These findings support several critical directions for urban heat mitigation and equity-oriented planning: (i) Neighborhoods such as Buca and Karabağlar—identified as having high vulnerability but low PCI access—should be prioritized for greening interventions. Micro-scale augmentation of Class I parks in these districts may provide outsized benefits if canopy structure and connectivity are improved. (ii) While park size is positively associated with cooling, diminishing returns are evident beyond ~10,000 m². Instead of expanding area alone, planners should optimize vegetative configuration, reduce edge fragmentation, and maintain buffer openness to enhance PCA and PCI. (iii) Cooling interventions must be aligned with population-weighted vulnerability metrics, including child and elderly densities. Spatial diagnostics such as Lorenz/Gini analysis should be institutionalized as screening tools in park allocation and funding programs. (iv) BCR and impervious surface metrics—derived from high-resolution satellite and zoning overlays—should be included in land-use and form-based codes to enforce cooling-compatible morphology. (v) In very dense zones where large parks are infeasible, a network of small, thermally strategic green spaces (cool spots) may collectively achieve comparable impact if planned for spatial equity and morphological synergy. (vi) Although this study uses a peak-season snapshot, long-term monitoring is critical to capture seasonal variation and resilience thresholds. The use of platforms like Google Earth Engine and Colab allows for scalable updates and integration of newer sensors (e.g., ECOSTRESS, Sentinel-3). By unifying physical microclimatic metrics with spatial equity diagnostics, this study advances both the science and practice of urban heat adaptation. The methods and insights presented here are applicable to other coastal metropolitan regions facing similar challenges of densification, climatic stress, and social vulnerability. Integrating data-driven diagnostics with planning foresight will be key to fostering resilient, livable cities in the era of climate volatility.
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73 CHAPTER IV REASSESSING URBAN SUSTAINABILITY THROUGH BLUE-GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE: A THEORETICAL AND SYSTEMIC PERSPECTİVE ON CONTEMPORARY URBANISATION Betül KARAİSMAİLOĞLU1, Faris KARAHAN2,1* 1 Solo Tasarım ve Mühendislik A.Ş. ORCID: 0009-0009-3521-503X 2 (Prof. Dr.), Department of Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Architecture and Design, Atatürk University, Erzurum, Türkiye ORCID: 0000-0001-6426-8426 1. Introduction Urban environments in the twenty-first century reside at the nexus of compounding environmental perturbations, socio-economic realignments, and the relentless acceleration of urbanisation. As cities sprawl and densify, the strain on ecological substrata—water systems, vegetation cover, microclimatic stability—has grown acute, compromising both environmental functionality and the structural capacity of cities to sustain collective well-being. These challenges necessitate a paradigmatic turn in urban thought and practice, compelling a departure from the technocratic segregation of natural and built environments toward integrative ecological frameworks. Within this transition, blue-green infrastructure (BGI) has materialised as a conceptual and operational pivot, embodying the synthesis of hydrological systems (blue) and vegetated landscapes (green) in service of multi-functional, inter-scalar urban ecosystems (Austin, 2014; Yamagata and Sharifi, 2018; 1 *Corresponding author, first author
80 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V Green Elements: These encompass urban forests, public parks, green roofs, vegetated swales, community gardens, and ecological corridors. Collectively, they facilitate urban cooling, carbon sequestration, shading, and ecological connectivity for diverse species (Austin, 2014). The integration of these systems yields synergistic benefits that exceed their isolated contributions. For example, vegetated buffers along rivers not only filter urban runoff and reduce pollutant loads but also stabilise riverbanks and support riparian ecosystems (Sharifi and Yamagata, 2016). Likewise, constructed wetlands integrated into green corridors enhance stormwater management while improving thermal comfort, aesthetics, and biodiversity (Yamagata and Maruyama, 2016). Rising Importance: Over the past decade, the relevance of BGI has grown rapidly due to its demonstrated effectiveness in responding to environmental, social, and economic urban challenges. Climate-induced extreme events such as flooding and urban heat islands have exposed the shortcomings of conventional grey infrastructure, accelerating the demand for flexible and adaptive alternatives grounded in ecological processes (ICLEI, 2019; White et al., 2021). On the global stage, key policy instruments now prioritise BGI. The European Union’s Green Infrastructure Strategy (2013) frames BGI as central to achieving biodiversity, climate adaptation, and sustainable development targets. The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals—particularly Goals 11 and 15—also foreground the role of nature-based infrastructure in fostering inclusive, resilient, and environmentally sound cities (United Nations, 2025). Empirical evidence substantiates these claims. Urban forests and wetlands can lower ambient temperatures by up to 4°C, mitigating heat stress and reducing energy consumption (Austin, 2014). Greenways along rivers have been shown to enhance property values, while accessible blue spaces improve mental health, decrease anxiety, and promote stronger community ties (Bell et al., 2022; White et al., 2021). Moreover, BGI solutions such as bioswales and retention ponds can reduce peak stormwater runoff by 40–70%, significantly lowering flood risks (Sharifi and Yamagata, 2016). Theoretically, BGI is increasingly seen as a systemic planning paradigm that enables cities to transition from fragmented, reactive measures to adaptive and regenerative ecological strategies. The mainstreaming of BGI into zoning codes, master plans, and infrastructure investments marks a turning point in urban governance and planning culture (Yamagata and Sharifi, 2018; Yamagata and Maruyama, 2016). Nevertheless, several barriers hinder widespread implementation. These include institutional fragmentation, sectoral silos, lack of sustainable funding
REASSESSING URBAN SUSTAINABILITY THROUGH BLUE-GREEN . . . 81 mechanisms, and political inertia (ICLEI, 2019). Overcoming such constraints necessitates cross-disciplinary collaboration, participatory planning processes, and the mobilisation of innovative finance tools like green bonds or payments for ecosystem services (Bell et al., 2022). In conclusion, blue-green infrastructure reflects a paradigm shift in urban planning—anchoring sustainability, resilience, and ecological literacy at the core of city-making processes. Its components represent a network of natural and engineered systems that collectively reframe urban challenges as opportunities for regenerative design and inclusive development. The next section will articulate the aims and structure of this chapter, elucidating its contribution to advancing both theoretical insights and practical applications of BGI. This chapter aims to provide a robust theoretical foundation for understanding the role of blue-green infrastructure (BGI) within the evolving paradigm of urban sustainability. By synthesising contemporary academic scholarship, international policy initiatives, and recent empirical findings, the chapter endeavours to unpack the conceptual landscape of BGI and highlight its increasing relevance as a multidimensional solution to urban environmental, social, and economic challenges (Austin, 2014; Bell et al., 2022). Specifically, this study pursues the following interrelated objectives: 1. To critically examine the rationale for integrating blue and green systems in urban planning as a means to mitigate climate change effects, reduce urban heat island phenomena, address biodiversity loss, and enhance public health outcomes. 2. To trace the conceptual evolution of urban sustainability discourses, situating BGI within key global agendas such as the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the New Urban Agenda. 3. To define and systematise the core components and functions of BGI, while articulating its theoretical underpinnings and its transformative potential in fostering urban resilience and ecological regeneration. By pursuing these objectives, the chapter seeks to contribute to an enriched scholarly understanding of BGI as a transformative paradigm that transcends conventional urban infrastructure planning. It positions BGI not merely as a technical fix but as a framework that supports the emergence of cities that are ecologically intelligent, socially inclusive, and spatially regenerative. Ultimately, this theoretical exposition serves as a conceptual and empirical scaffold for future research, evidence-based policymaking, and practical
82 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V applications. It aspires to guide urban development toward models that are not only efficient and adaptive but also equitable, liveable, and environmentally harmonious—serving the needs of both present and future generations. 2. Blue-Green Infrastructure: Conceptual Framework 2.1.Whatisgreeninfrastructure? Green infrastructure (GI) has emerged as a transformative planning paradigm that integrates natural and semi-natural systems into the fabric of urban and regional landscapes to enhance ecological functionality, human well-being, and socio-economic resilience. Unlike traditional urban greening approaches, GI is defined as a strategically planned network of ecosystems that delivers multiple benefits across spatial and temporal scales (Austin, 2014; Benedict and McMahon, 2006). The European Commission (2013) defines green infrastructure as “a strategically planned network of natural and semi-natural areas with other environmental features designed and managed to deliver a wide range of ecosystem services such as water purification, air quality, space for recreation and climate mitigation and adaptation”. This definition highlights the multifunctionality of GI, which is central to its increasing relevance in contemporary planning discourses. Green infrastructure spans multiple typologies and spatial scales, encompassing: 1. Urban Green Spaces: Parks, community gardens, cemeteries, sports fields, and playgrounds, offering recreational amenities, psychological restoration, and biodiversity enhancement (White et al., 2021). 2. Street Greenery and Green Corridors:Tree-lined boulevards, vegetated road medians, and linear parks act as ecological connectors, improve urban aesthetics, and regulate microclimate (Frey, 1999). 3. Urban Forests and Woodlands:Large forest patches provide critical ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration, habitat provision, and cultural values (Austin, 2014). 4. Green Roofs and Green Walls: Vertical greening systems reduce building energy loads, mitigate urban heat, and filter air pollutants (Sharifi and Yamagata, 2016). 5. Riparian Vegetation and Wetland Buffers:These vegetated zones along water bodies filter pollutants, reduce erosion, and support aquatic biodiversity (Yamagata and Sharifi, 2018).
REASSESSING URBAN SUSTAINABILITY THROUGH BLUE-GREEN . . . 83 6. Peri-Urban Agriculture and Allotments: Productive landscapes such as orchards and community farms support food security, social cohesion, and pollinator networks (Bell et al., 2022). The multifunctionality of GI is reflected in its wide range of ecosystem services, including: · Climate Regulation through evapotranspiration and shading (White et al., 2021), · Improved Air and Water Quality by pollutant filtration (Austin, 2014), · Biodiversity Support via habitat provision and connectivity (European Commission, 2013), · Recreational and Cultural Services such as enhanced mental health and social interaction (Bell et al., 2022). Successful GI implementation depends on principles such as landscape connectivity, multifunctionality, and systemic integration. Connectivity ensures ecological flows and resilience, while multifunctionality enables overlapping environmental, social, and economic gains. Integration with transport, water, and energy systems supports synergistic planning outcomes (Benedict and McMahon, 2006; Yamagata and Maruyama, 2016). The European Union’s Green Infrastructure Strategy (2013) positions GI as a key instrument for climate adaptation, biodiversity conservation, and green economic transformation. GI is also aligned with global agendas like the Sustainable Development Goals, particularly SDG 3 (Health), SDG 6 (Water), SDG 11 (Cities), and SDG 15 (Life on Land) (United Nations, 2025). Despite its established benefits, GI implementation faces significant challenges: fragmented governance, conflicting land uses, institutional silos, and lack of financial resources (ICLEI, 2019). Addressing these barriers calls for participatory planning, cross-sectoral collaboration, and innovative funding tools such as green bonds and payments for ecosystem services (Bell et al., 2022). In summary, green infrastructure represents a shift from piecemeal greening measures to strategically integrated ecological networks that support urban resilience, ecosystem integrity, and quality of life. The next section introduces blue infrastructure, detailing its hydrological and ecological functions in the context of sustainable urban systems. 2.2.Whatisblueinfrastructure? Blue infrastructure (BI) represents a vital component of sustainable urban ecosystems, comprising the network of natural and engineered water systems
84 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V that deliver hydrological, ecological, and socio-cultural services. While green infrastructure emphasises terrestrial vegetation and land-based ecological functions, blue infrastructure addresses the aquatic realm, underpinning the continuity of the hydrological cycle and the health of urban aquatic ecosystems. Its importance has grown in parallel with the increasing challenges of climate change, rapid urbanisation, and water-related risks in cities (Austin, 2014; Bell et al., 2022). According to the European Commission (2013), blue infrastructure is defined as “the strategically planned and managed network of natural and artificial water bodies and waterways that deliver ecosystem services essential for urban sustainability and resilience”. This definition underscores the dual nature of BI: it includes both natural systems (such as rivers and wetlands) and human-made systems (like canals and stormwater retention basins), working across spatial scales to support ecological integrity, regulate urban hydrology, and enhance the quality of urban life (Sharifi and Yamagata, 2016). BI encompasses a broad spectrum of hydrological features, including: 1. Rivers and Streams: Linear freshwater ecosystems that serve as drainage corridors, biodiversity pathways, and sources of evaporative cooling within dense urban zones (Frey, 1999). 2. Lakes and Ponds: Static water bodies that function as focal points for recreation, biodiversity, and stormwater storage (Austin, 2014). 3. Wetlands (Natural and Constructed): Critical for water filtration, flood mitigation, and habitat provision, wetlands play a key role in urban resilience (Bell et al., 2022). 4. Canals and Urban Waterways: Engineered or modified water channels that integrate hydrological function with cultural and aesthetic value (European Commission, 2013). 5. Stormwater Infrastructure (e.g., bioswales, detention ponds): Designed to regulate surface runoff, reduce pollutant loads, and prevent urban flooding (Sharifi and Yamagata, 2016). In recent years, these components have become increasingly central to regenerative urban planning approaches, wherein water is treated not merely as a hazard or utility but as a living system embedded in urban fabric. The core contribution of BI lies in its ability to manage urban water cycles and restore ecological connectivity:
REASSESSING URBAN SUSTAINABILITY THROUGH BLUE-GREEN . . . 85 · Stormwater Regulation: Through detention, infiltration, and delayed discharge, BI reduces peak flows, minimises flood risks, and alleviates pressure on grey infrastructure (Austin, 2014). · Water Quality Improvement: Natural treatment processes in wetlands and riparian buffers reduce nutrient loads and contaminants, improving the ecological status of downstream water bodies (Bell et al., 2022). · Hydrological Continuity: Sustaining both surface and subsurface flows, BI maintains vital linkages between urban and peri-urban ecosystems, thus supporting biodiversity and groundwater recharge. Beyond ecological and technical benefits, BI enhances urban liveability through diverse cultural and public health functions: · Recreation and Well-being: Waterfronts, lakesides, and restored riverbanks provide accessible spaces for exercise, contemplation, and community interaction, supporting mental and physical health (White et al., 2021). · Place Identity and Heritage: Historical water bodies often carry cultural significance, acting as anchors of local identity and memory (Bell et al., 2022). · Microclimatic Moderation: Open water surfaces facilitate evaporative cooling, counteracting the heat island effect in urban cores and offering climatesensitive design potential (Austin, 2014). There is growing consensus that maximum environmental and social benefit is achieved when blue and green systems are integrated into holistic bluegreen infrastructure (BGI) frameworks. Such integration allows for synergistic performance—enhancing flood resilience, biodiversity support, and urban aesthetics simultaneously (Sharifi and Yamagata, 2016; Yamagata and Sharifi, 2018). The resulting BGI systems are adaptive, multifunctional, and resilient, offering a platform for innovative planning under climate uncertainty. Despite its benefits, BI is vulnerable to degradation through pollution, physical alteration (e.g., channelisation), and governance fragmentation. Moreover, climate-induced hydrological variability has exposed the fragility of many urban water systems (ICLEI, 2019). Tackling these issues requires: · Nature-Based Solutions (NbS): Restorative projects such as stream daylighting and urban wetland creation are gaining traction as multifunctional interventions (Bell et al., 2022). · Community-Based Governance: Co-management and citizen science initiatives can enhance local stewardship, increase transparency, and promote inclusive access (White et al., 2021).
86 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V · Innovative Financing: Green bonds, water credits, and ecosystem service valuation mechanisms offer promising avenues to support BI planning and maintenance (Austin, 2014). Blue infrastructure constitutes the aquatic backbone of sustainable urban ecosystems, offering indispensable services across ecological, hydrological, and socio-cultural dimensions. Its successful integration with green systems within BGI frameworks presents a pathway towards climate-responsive, equitable, and regenerative cities. The following section will elaborate the theoretical principles and planning paradigms that support this integrated approach. 2.3.TheoreticalFoundationsofIntegratedBlue-GreenSystems The conceptual foundations of integrated blue-green systems are anchored in an interdisciplinary synthesis of ecological, hydrological, and socio-technical theories that collectively reimagine the relationship between urban form and ecological function. These foundations inform the planning, design, and governance of Blue-Green Infrastructure (BGI), aligning urban development goals with the principles of resilience, adaptability, and regenerative sustainability (Austin, 2014; Yamagata and Sharifi, 2018). Landscape ecology serves as a core theoretical pillar, offering spatially explicit models to understand how ecological processes are shaped by the configuration of blue and green spaces. The seminal patch-corridor-matrix model developed by Forman and Godron (1986) conceptualises landscapes as mosaics in which ecological functions depend on the connectivity and arrangement of distinct elements. This model has been particularly influential in BGI planning, where ecological corridors (e.g., riparian buffers, greenways) are integrated with aquatic systems to facilitate species movement, hydrological flows, and thermal regulation (Benedict and McMahon, 2006). Such spatial connectivity is now recognised as essential for maintaining biodiversity and mitigating habitat fragmentation in densely urbanised environments. Urban resilience theory frames cities as complex adaptive systems that must navigate a range of shocks and stresses. In this context, BGI contributes by enhancing both absorptive and transformative capacities. It does so by: 1. Providing Redundancy and Functional Diversity: Redundant and multifunctional BGI elements—such as stormwater wetlands or green roofs— offer parallel pathways for service delivery, reducing vulnerability to singlepoint failures (Sharifi and Yamagata, 2016).
REASSESSING URBAN SUSTAINABILITY THROUGH BLUE-GREEN . . . 87 2. Catalysing Urban Transformation:Projects such as river daylighting, green-blue boulevards, and coastal restoration not only serve ecological purposes but also act as catalysts for urban revitalisation, often transforming underused or degraded zones into vibrant, inclusive public spaces (Bell et al., 2022). This aligns with the shift towards transformative resilience, where systems are not merely preserved but improved in response to crisis or change (Yamagata and Maruyama, 2016). The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) established a global framework that categorises ecosystem services into provisioning, regulating, supporting, and cultural domains. BGI provides a platform through which these services can be delivered synergistically in urban contexts. For example: · Urban wetlands embedded within parklands regulate stormwater (regulating services), · Serve as habitats for amphibians and birds (supporting services), · Provide cultural and educational value (cultural services), · And even contribute to water provision in decentralised systems (provisioning services) (Austin, 2014). This framework supports outcome-oriented planning by making the multiple benefits of nature-based infrastructure tangible to policymakers and the public alike. BGI is operationalised within the broader Nature-Based Solutions paradigm, as endorsed by the European Commission. Here, BGI is not a mere physical system, but a vehicle for solving urban challenges while promoting biodiversity and socio-environmental justice. The theoretical roots of NBS lie in ecological engineering, adaptive governance, and co-production, highlighting the need for collaborative, knowledge-integrated, and feedback-responsive planning processes (European Commission, 2015). BGI’s nature-derived interventions—like bioswales, floodplain restoration, or constructed wetlands— exemplify the NBS approach in action. From a systems innovation perspective, BGI represents a “niche innovation” challenging dominant grey infrastructure paradigms. According to socio-technical transitions theory, sustainable transformation arises when novel configurations—like integrated BGI—interact with existing regimes and gradually reshape rules, institutions, and user practices (Sharifi and Yamagata, 2016). BGI’s uptake depends on policy alignment, stakeholder networks,
88 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V and long-term investment, especially in contexts where rigid infrastructure legacies prevail. Effective BGI governance demands adaptive co-management—an approach that blends scientific knowledge with local insights, allows for continuous monitoring and learning, and emphasises flexibility across institutional levels. This participatory model enhances legitimacy, equity, and performance by engaging communities in planning, maintenance, and decisionmaking (Yamagata and Maruyama, 2016). It acknowledges the complexity of managing nature in cities and shifts the focus from top-down control to shared responsibility. Cities are increasingly viewed through the lens of urban metabolism, wherein resource flows—energy, water, materials—are understood in analogy to natural systems. Systems thinking complements this by highlighting feedback loops, synergies, and unintended consequences. BGI contributes by restoring natural water cycles, reusing runoff, supporting nutrient retention, and reducing the ecological footprint of urban infrastructure (ICLEI, 2019). The closing of resource loops through BGI has been shown to bolster urban resilience, particularly under climate stress. The combined theoretical perspectives outlined above inform a suite of operational principles guiding BGI planning and implementation: · Connectivity: Physical and ecological linkages across spatial and institutional scales. · Multifunctionality: Simultaneous delivery of ecosystem services through single interventions. · Redundancy and Diversity: Diverse system elements to prevent singlepoint failure and enhance adaptability. · Adaptive Management: Continuous learning through feedback and evidence-based adjustment. · Participatory Governance: Co-designed, inclusive, and transparent decision-making to support social equity (Bell et al., 2022). The integration of landscape ecology, resilience theory, ecosystem services, and socio-technical systems thinking provides a robust conceptual foundation for BGI. These interlocking frameworks position BGI not only as an infrastructural solution but as a transformative planning paradigm capable of mediating the relationship between urbanisation and nature. By operationalising
REASSESSING URBAN SUSTAINABILITY THROUGH BLUE-GREEN . . . 89 these theories through design and policy, BGI contributes to the development of cities that are adaptive, inclusive, and environmentally coherent. 3. Studies on Blue-Green Infrastructure in The Last Decade Over the past decade, blue-green infrastructure (BGI) has garnered increasing attention within urban planning, environmental science, and policy discourses as a pivotal strategy for enhancing urban sustainability and resilience. BGI represents a paradigm shift from conventional grey infrastructure towards ecologically integrated systems that prioritise multifunctionality, adaptability, and ecosystem-based solutions. This evolution has been propelled by escalating concerns over climate change, biodiversity loss, urban heat islands, and growing demands for inclusive and liveable urban spaces (Kabisch et al., 2017; Yin et al., 2022). BGI differs fundamentally from traditional grey infrastructure, which is typically engineered for single-purpose functions such as water conveyance, flood defence, or transportation. In contrast, BGI systems are designed to provide overlapping ecological, hydrological, and socio-cultural services, making them particularly valuable in addressing complex urban challenges. Components such as urban forests, bioswales, rain gardens, green roofs, permeable pavements, and restored waterways simultaneously regulate microclimates, enhance biodiversity, manage stormwater, and foster social interaction (He et al., 2020; Cilliers et al., 2021). Recent empirical studies have increasingly demonstrated BGI’s effectiveness in delivering sustainable urban development outcomes. For instance, research has shown that urban wetlands and green corridors can significantly reduce surface runoff and improve water quality, particularly during extreme weather events (Yin et al., 2022). Similarly, green roofs and vertical vegetation systems have been linked to measurable reductions in ambient urban temperatures, contributing to the mitigation of the urban heat island effect (He et al., 2020). Moreover, the integration of BGI in high-density environments has also proven to increase property values and attract long-term investment (Cilliers et al., 2021). BGI’s contribution to ecosystem services has been widely recognised. By restoring hydrological cycles and promoting biodiversity, blue-green systems offer provisioning (e.g., clean water), regulating (e.g., flood control), supporting (e.g., soil formation), and cultural (e.g., aesthetic and recreational) services. Importantly, these benefits are not confined to the ecological realm;
96 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V urban heat islands. To maximise its effectiveness, comprehensive planning, stakeholder collaboration, and robust evaluation systems are indispensable. The following section explores BGI’s role in managing urban flood risk—a parallel and interlinked climate challenge in the era of rapid urbanisation. 3.3.Floodriskmanagement Flooding represents one of the most pressing natural hazards facing urban areas worldwide, exacerbated by climate change, rapid urbanisation, and the proliferation of impervious surfaces (Sharifi and Yamagata, 2016). Traditional grey infrastructure approaches, such as concrete drainage channels and underground sewer systems, often fail to provide flexible and adaptive responses to increasingly frequent and intense pluvial, fluvial, and coastal flooding events (Austin, 2014; ICLEI, 2019). In this context, blue-green infrastructure (BGI) has emerged as a nature-based solution offering multifunctional benefits for urban flood risk management. BGI mitigates flood risks through several interconnected hydrological mechanisms: 1. Runoff attenuation and infiltration: Vegetated surfaces such as green roofs, rain gardens, and permeable pavements reduce surface runoff by enhancing infiltration and evapotranspiration processes (White et al., 2021; Zölch et al., 2018). 2. Stormwater retention and detention: Constructed wetlands, detention ponds, and bioswales capture and temporarily store stormwater, reducing peak flows and delaying runoff entry into drainage networks (Li et al., 2020). 3. Channel naturalisation and floodplain restoration: Restoring river channels and reconnecting rivers to their floodplains increases storage capacity and reduces downstream flood peaks (Bell et al., 2022). 4. Hydrological connectivity: Integrated BGI systems maintain and enhance natural hydrological pathways, mitigating the disruption caused by urban development (European Commission, 2015; Meerow and Newell, 2017). Recent studies highlight the measurable benefits of BGI interventions: · Green roofs: Research in Tokyo demonstrated that extensive green roof systems can reduce stormwater runoff by 50–80% during rainfall events, contributing to drainage network relief (Sharifi and Yamagata, 2016). · Constructed wetlands: Li et al. (2020) reported that wetland systems in Wuhan’s Sponge City programme attenuated stormwater peak flows by up to 60%, while improving water quality by reducing nutrient and sediment loads.
REASSESSING URBAN SUSTAINABILITY THROUGH BLUE-GREEN . . . 97 · Urban stream restoration: In the United States, Benedict and McMahon (2006) found that restored streams with riparian buffers increased infiltration, stabilised banks, and reduced flood damage to adjacent properties. · Integrated systems: Tan et al. (2019) assessed Singapore’s ABC Waters Programme, concluding that bioswales, retention ponds, and naturalised canals collectively reduced urban flood frequency and improved community flood resilience. The flood mitigation performance of BGI depends on several spatial and technical variables: · Scale and distribution: Small-scale distributed systems such as rain gardens and green roofs collectively contribute to significant runoff reductions, while larger interventions like wetlands provide flood storage (European Commission, 2013). · Connectivity: Linking BGI elements across catchments enhances hydrological continuity, ensuring cumulative flood mitigation benefits (Austin, 2014). · Topography and soil conditions: The effectiveness of infiltration-based measures depends on site-specific characteristics such as soil permeability and slope gradients (Li et al., 2020; Zölch et al., 2018). · Climate adaptation integration: Designing BGI systems to accommodate projected increases in rainfall intensity ensures long-term functionality (ICAE, 2019). Beyond flood mitigation, BGI provides significant additional advantages: · Water quality improvements: Vegetated swales and wetlands filter pollutants, enhancing downstream aquatic ecosystem health (Bell et al., 2022; Hunt et al., 2008). · Biodiversity habitats: Wetlands and riparian zones support diverse flora and fauna, enhancing urban ecological networks (White et al., 2021). · Recreational and aesthetic value: Stormwater parks and naturalised waterways offer community spaces, increasing public acceptance of flood management interventions (Ning et al., 2023). · Carbon sequestration: Vegetation in BGI systems captures carbon dioxide, contributing to climate mitigation efforts (Austin, 2014; Demuzere et al., 2014).
98 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V Implementing effective BGI-based flood management requires multi-level governance mechanisms: · Cross-sectoral collaboration: Integrating urban planning, water management, landscape architecture, and public health sectors is essential for multifunctional system design (Sharifi and Yamagata, 2016). · Policy frameworks: The EU Floods Directive encourages the adoption of natural water retention measures, promoting BGI integration in flood risk management plans (European Commission, 2015; EC, 2020). · Community engagement: Participatory design enhances local ownership, maintenance, and ensures interventions align with community needs and values (Bell et al., 2022; Kabisch et al., 2016). Despite its advantages, BGI faces implementation constraints: · Land availability: Urban densification limits space for large-scale BGI installations such as wetlands and retention ponds (Zölch et al., 2018). · Maintenance requirements: Vegetated systems require regular management to retain functionality, necessitating dedicated funding and institutional arrangements (Li et al., 2020). · Performance uncertainty: Variability in rainfall patterns and climate change impacts introduce uncertainty in BGI effectiveness, requiring adaptive management (White et al., 2021; Demuzere et al., 2014). Key areas for further investigation include: · Long-term monitoring: Evaluating the performance and ecosystem service co-benefits of BGI over time to inform evidence-based planning (Sharifi and Yamagata, 2016). · Integration with digital technologies: Using smart sensors and real-time monitoring to optimise BGI performance and maintenance (Bell et al., 2022). · Economic valuation: Quantifying the full economic benefits of BGI, including avoided flood damage costs and co-benefits, to strengthen investment cases (European Commission, 2015; Kabisch et al., 2016). · Equity considerations: Ensuring BGI-based flood management interventions do not displace vulnerable populations or exacerbate social inequalities (Ning et al., 2023). 3.4.Socialbenefits:well-beingandhealth Beyond their environmental and economic functions, blue-green infrastructure (BGI) systems offer profound social benefits, significantly
REASSESSING URBAN SUSTAINABILITY THROUGH BLUE-GREEN . . . 99 enhancing human well-being, public health, and social cohesion within urban environments. Contemporary urban planning increasingly recognises that integrating nature-based solutions into cityscapes contributes to holistic sustainability by fostering healthy, equitable, and liveable communities (Bell et al., 2022; White et al., 2021). Promotion of physical activity: Urban green and blue spaces provide safe, accessible environments for physical movement, including walking, cycling, and informal sports activities. Several studies have reported that proximity to such environments correlates positively with increased physical activity and reduced prevalence of obesity and associated non-communicable diseases, including cardiovascular conditions and diabetes (Ning et al., 2023; Austin, 2014; Jennings et al., 2016). Reduction of air pollution-related health risks: Vegetation within BGI systems, particularly urban trees, filters airborne pollutants such as NO₂ and PM2.5, reducing respiratory and cardiovascular risks. Li et al. (2020) showed that tree canopies in dense urban environments improved local air quality significantly, benefiting children and elderly populations especially (European Commission, 2013; WHO, 2021). Mitigation of heat-related morbidity: BGI contributes to moderating urban microclimates through shade and evapotranspiration, thus reducing the incidence of heat stress and related health emergencies, especially in marginalised neighbourhoods lacking access to cooling infrastructure (Sharifi and Yamagata, 2016; Zölch et al., 2018). Urban nature exposure supports mental resilience and cognitive health: 1. Stress reduction: Access to green and blue spaces reduces cortisol levels and lowers the activation of the sympathetic nervous system, resulting in measurable reductions in anxiety and physiological stress (White et al., 2021; Bratman et al., 2019). 2. Mood enhancement: Daily contact with natural environments is associated with higher levels of happiness, life satisfaction, and reduced symptoms of depression (Bell et al., 2022; Houlden et al., 2018). 3. Cognitive restoration: Nature facilitates attention restoration and enhances cognitive performance, particularly in children and students, by mitigating mental fatigue and increasing focus (Gascon et al., 2016; Ning et al., 2023). The BlueHealth project, an interdisciplinary study on health benefits of aquatic environments, demonstrated that even short durations of exposure to
100 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V blue spaces—such as 20 minutes in urban waterfronts—led to measurable improvements in psychological well-being (Bell et al., 2022). BGI can serve as a catalyst for enhanced social relationships and community-based sustainability: · Public gathering spaces: Blue-green elements such as parks, restored canals, and stormwater wetlands often serve as venues for festivals, community events, and informal meetings, reinforcing neighbourhood identity (Austin, 2014; Jennings et al., 2016). · Equity and inclusivity: BGI, when planned inclusively, ensures that marginalised or low-income populations—often deprived of access to private green areas—can benefit from public environmental amenities (European Commission, 2015; Haase et al., 2017). · Participatory planning: Involving local communities in the design and maintenance of BGI enhances social capital, strengthens stewardship, and improves the long-term sustainability of such systems (Bell et al., 2022; Kabisch et al., 2016). Urban nature is often infused with deep cultural meanings: · Place attachment: Green and blue environments reinforce residents’ sense of belonging and emotional connection to place, especially when embedded within local traditions and urban memory (Scannell and Gifford, 2017; Ning et al., 2023). · Heritage conservation: BGI can revive historical landscapes, such as restored rivers or archaeological sites integrated into parks, preserving cultural narratives and enhancing urban identity (Sharifi and Yamagata, 2016). Though not always categorised under social health, BGI’s economic advantages directly affect societal welfare: · Property value increases: Well-maintained green and blue spaces increase adjacent property values, attracting investment and improving urban regeneration efforts (Li et al., 2020; Tzoulas et al., 2007). · Job creation: BGI development supports employment in construction, maintenance, and environmental monitoring, particularly through local green economy initiatives (Austin, 2014). · Healthcare cost savings: Healthier urban populations reduce strain on healthcare systems, enabling redirected investments in education, housing, or social services (White et al., 2021).
REASSESSING URBAN SUSTAINABILITY THROUGH BLUE-GREEN . . . 101 Persistent spatial and socio-economic inequalities hinder universal access to BGI benefits: · Unequal Access: Urban regions with high ethnic diversity or poverty often have fewer high-quality public green spaces, exacerbating health disparities (Bell et al., 2022; Haase et al., 2017). · Green gentrification risks: While BGI improves neighbourhood aesthetics and liveability, it may unintentionally fuel gentrification, displacing low-income residents unless housing policies and social safeguards are in place (Gould and Lewis, 2016; Ning et al., 2023;). Effective BGI governance thus requires systemic attention to social equity, participatory mechanisms, and redistributive planning strategies. To ensure the sustained delivery of BGI’s social benefits, further work should focus on: · Longitudinal health impact assessments that move beyond crosssectional studies and track the effects of nature exposure over time (Sharifi and Yamagata, 2016; WHO, 2021). · Inclusive design frameworks that reflect cultural diversity and community-specific needs in BGI design (European Commission, 2015; Kabisch et al., 2016). · Integration with health policy, treating BGI as a component of preventive public health infrastructure and ensuring intersectoral alignment (White et al., 2021; Bratman et al., 2019). 4. Successful İmplementation Examples From Türkiye and The World The implementation of blue-green infrastructure (BGI) exhibits significant variability across spatial, cultural, and governance domains, offering nuanced insights into the advancement of urban sustainability and resilience. As cities contend with the escalating consequences of climate change, accelerated urbanisation, ecological degradation, and widening socio-economic inequalities, BGI has gained prominence as an adaptive and integrative planning strategy. Its multifaceted design combines hydrological regulation and ecological restoration with tangible social, economic, and cultural gains, positioning it as a compelling alternative to mono-functional grey infrastructure solutions (Austin, 2014; Bell et al., 2022).
102 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V This section analyses representative case studies from China, the Netherlands, and Türkiye, illustrating how BGI has been conceptualised, institutionalised, and operationalised within diverse urban contexts. These examples encompass both top-down state-led initiatives and bottom-up community-driven projects, underscoring the versatility of BGI as a tool for environmental remediation and urban regeneration. In line with contemporary urban theory, such interventions reflect a transition from technocratic-modernist paradigms to more pluralistic and relational approaches to urban space (Sharifi and Yamagata, 2016). Moreover, these cases illuminate enabling conditions critical for successful implementation—ranging from robust policy frameworks and cross-sectoral funding models to participatory design processes and long-term maintenance governance. While context-specific challenges persist—including regulatory fragmentation, political inertia, and land-use pressures—recurring themes such as ecological connectivity, inclusivity, and adaptive governance offer a transferable foundation for upscaling BGI interventions across regions. These convergences resonate with post-structural urbanism theories, which advocate for fluid, networked, and co-produced urban systems in contrast to rigid, hierarchical planning traditions. 4.1.TianjinEco-City,China(TianjinEko-Kent,Çin) Tianjin Eco-City represents one of the most emblematic attempts to construct a model of sustainable urbanism in the Global South through statedriven international cooperation. Initiated in 2008 by the governments of China and Singapore, the project is situated approximately 40 km from central Tianjin on a previously marginal and environmentally degraded landscape, characterised by saline-alkaline soils, derelict salt fields, and contaminated hydrological systems (Yamagata and Sharifi, 2018). The project’s ambition was to showcase a replicable, scalable, and environmentally harmonious urban development model within China’s accelerating urban expansion trajectory. Grounded in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), Tianjin EcoCity’s master plan articulates integrated targets that encompass environmental rehabilitation, renewable energy deployment, sustainable mobility, and social inclusivity. Central to this vision is the implementation of blue-green infrastructure (BGI) as an infrastructural framework that mediates between urban form and ecological processes. Among the most striking interventions in Tianjin Eco-City is the regeneration of over 2.6 square kilometres of degraded wetland ecosystems, prominently including the creation of Qingjing Lake and the revitalisation of the
REASSESSING URBAN SUSTAINABILITY THROUGH BLUE-GREEN . . . 103 Ji Canal. These restored water bodies now serve as ecological filters, reducing nutrient concentrations and purifying urban runoff before its reintroduction into municipal networks (Li et al., 2020). Functioning as hydrological buffers, they simultaneously mitigate flood risks and support climatic regulation, enhancing visual and experiential qualities of the urban landscape. The master plan employs green infrastructure to spatially integrate urban districts through extensive ecological corridors. These corridors connect residential zones, parks, and water bodies to form a resilient ecological network. The insertion of urban forests enhances air quality, carbon sequestration, and thermal comfort, while fostering biodiversity for both flora and fauna (Yamagata and Maruyama, 2016). As nodes of ecological and social activity, these corridors also support non-motorised mobility through shaded walking and cycling paths, reinforcing sustainability through modal shift (Sharifi and Yamagata, 2016). Tianjin Eco-City incorporates WSUD principles at multiple scales through bioswales, rain gardens, green roofs, and permeable surfaces. These systems are not merely stormwater solutions; they underpin a paradigm shift toward adaptive urbanism that seeks to align urban metabolism with natural hydrological flows. By addressing runoff, groundwater recharge, and microclimatic resilience, WSUD operates as both a technical and symbolic intervention (Austin, 2014; Bell et al., 2022). Beyond technical performance, BGI in Tianjin promotes human wellbeing through nature-based recreational infrastructures such as boardwalks, birdwatching platforms, and interpretive trails. These spaces serve as pedagogical landscapes, facilitating environmental education and biophilic connections that foster psychological resilience and community cohesion (White et al., 2021). BGI has substantially enhanced land values and catalysed investment in green innovation clusters. The Eco-City now attracts high-technology enterprises focused on sustainability and climate adaptation, transforming the area into a regional centre for green growth (Li et al., 2020). New employment opportunities in landscape management, ecological monitoring, and eco-tourism further exemplify the synergistic economic potential of BGI (Bell et al., 2022). The institutional design of Tianjin Eco-City reflects complex multi-scalar governance, with collaborative mechanisms spanning national, municipal, and private actors. Public-private partnerships (PPPs), environmental bonds, and central government subsidies constitute the primary financial architecture supporting ecological infrastructure (Sharifi and Yamagata, 2016). Such arrangements underscore the role of hybrid governance models in sustaining long-term urban ecological transformations.
104 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V Despite its visionary outcomes, the Eco-City faces significant challenges. First, the long-term ecological integrity of restored wetlands is vulnerable to urban encroachment and fluctuating hydrological regimes, necessitating continuous adaptive management (Yamagata and Maruyama, 2016). Second, the equitable distribution of benefits—particularly among low-income and migrant populations—remains a persistent governance issue (Bell et al., 2022). Key lessons derived from Tianjin include: · The incorporation of BGI from the outset of urban design enables multifunctionality and systemic integration. · Coherent, multi-level governance structures are essential to ensuring financial sustainability and long-term maintenance. · Linking ecological restoration with green economic agendas enhances the legitimacy, scalability, and societal acceptance of BGI initiatives. Tianjin Eco-City thus exemplifies the application of BGI as a driver of regenerative urbanism, merging ecological repair with innovation-led growth. Its planning ethos aligns with contemporary post-growth and relational urban theories, offering a compelling model for cities confronting the converging crises of the Anthropocene (Figure 1). Figure 1: General View of the Sino-Singapore Friendship Park in Tianjin Eco-City, Designed By Grant Associates; An Urban Park Example İntegrating Water Landscapes and Green Infrastructure Elements (Grant Associates, 2017)
REASSESSING URBAN SUSTAINABILITY THROUGH BLUE-GREEN . . . 105 4.2.RotterdamWaterSquare,Netherlands Rotterdam Water Square (Benthemplein) epitomises an innovative synthesis of blue-green infrastructure (BGI) with adaptive urban design, strategically deployed to mitigate flood risk while enhancing the quality and multifunctionality of urban public space. Positioned within Rotterdam—an urban pioneer in climate-adaptive water management—the square emerged from the broader Rotterdam Climate Initiative and was officially inaugurated in 2014. Its conceptualisation directly responds to escalating pluvial flooding caused by intensified precipitation and ageing drainage systems, particularly in compact, impervious urban districts (European Commission, 2015). Previously an underutilised paved lot adjacent to several secondary schools, the site was reimagined as a participatory and multifunctional landscape through close collaboration between urban designers, local government, the Rotterdam Water Board, and the local community. The intervention exemplifies how ecologically sensitive infrastructure, when embedded within community-driven design processes, can transcend its technical function to foster socio-cultural engagement, climate resilience, and spatial equity (Sharifi and Yamagata, 2016). Stormwater detention through hybrid land use: Three large depressions function as temporary retention basins during rainfall events, together accommodating approximately 1.7 million litres of stormwater. These basins remain dry under normal conditions and are designed to accommodate public activities: a performance amphitheatre, a sports court, and an informal play area. This hybridisation of grey and green infrastructure aligns with urban land optimisation principles, facilitating functional flexibility without compromising hydraulic capacity (Austin, 2014). Hydrological transparency and public engagement: Rainwater from surrounding rooftops is visibly channelled via stainless-steel gutters and open conduits into the basins. This transparency of water flow instils environmental literacy, reinforcing the co-dependence between urban form and hydrological cycles. It exemplifies the concept of “hydro-urbanism,” whereby water processes become legible and integrated within daily life (Sharifi and Yamagata, 2016). Aesthetics and biodiversity co-benefits: Blue-tiled surfaces, artistic lighting elements, and planted edges foster visual and ecological richness, enhancing the site’s experiential and habitat value. While primarily engineered for flood risk reduction, the square also supports biodiversity corridors and promotes biophilic urbanism, reinforcing mental well-being and environmental consciousness (Tan et al., 2019).
112 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V by 2050 (European Commission, 2019). In parallel, Türkiye’s 12th Development Plan (2024–2028) underscores the significance of ecological infrastructure and climate-resilient urbanism, highlighting BGI as a strategic tool for reducing disaster risks, increasing green space per capita, and promoting sustainable tourism and liveability in cities (Ministry of Development of the Republic of Türkiye, 2023). From a climate action perspective, BGI supports both mitigation and adaptation goals. The National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy and Action Plan (2021–2030) of Türkiye prioritises the implementation of nature-based infrastructure to manage urban heat islands, flood risks, and water scarcity while enhancing biodiversity and public health outcomes (Ministry of Environment, Urbanisation and Climate Change, 2021a). Furthermore, Türkiye’s Long-Term Climate Strategy, which targets net-zero emissions by 2053, includes BGI as a key enabler in decarbonising the urban sector and improving ecosystem services (Ministry of Environment, Urbanisation and Climate Change, 2021b). On a global scale, the Paris Agreement and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development both call for integrated solutions that combine environmental conservation with human development. BGI directly contributes to several Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), including SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities), SDG 13 (Climate Action), and SDG 15 (Life on Land) (United Nations, 2015a). Additionally, the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction identifies ecosystem-based approaches as critical for reducing exposure and vulnerability to natural hazards, further reinforcing the value of BGI in enhancing urban resilience (United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction [UNDRR], 2015). In this context, BGI must no longer be regarded as a peripheral or decorative element in urban design. It should be embedded systematically within spatial plans, zoning regulations, and infrastructure investment portfolios. This shift requires strong political will, intersectoral coordination, public engagement, and longterm monitoring. As urbanisation accelerates amid worsening climate conditions, BGI offers a coherent, scientifically grounded, and ethically responsible pathway toward more adaptive, inclusive, and regenerative urban futures. References Arslantaş, F., Sanalan, K. C. and Çil, A. (Ed.). (2020). Examples of Best Practices on Green Infrastructure and Nature-Based Solutions in Cities. (120 s.). Austin, G. (2014). Green Infrastructure for Landscape Planning: Integrating Human and Natural Systems. Londra: Routledge.
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119 CHAPTER V THE NEW SIDE OF GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE: MULTIPURPOSE URBAN LANDSCAPES WITH URBAN AGRICULTURAL GARDENS Merve TEMİZ TOPSAKAL 1, Elif SAĞLIK 2 1(Asst. Prof. Dr.), Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University, e-mail: [email protected] Orcid: 0000-0002-6662-4399 2(Assoc. Prof. Dr.), Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University, e-mail: [email protected] Orcid: 0000-0002-5230-3869 1. Introduction The city is among the complex and multi-layered structures shaped by human intervention (Turut and Özgür, 2018; Sağlık and Yetişir, 2023). Therefore, beyond being merely a physical settlement, it is considered as a multi-layered system shaped by human intervention, where social, cultural, economic, and ecological processes are intertwined (Lefebvre, 1991; Batty, 2007; Topsakal Temiz and Sağlık, 2024). This structure necessitates considering cities not only in the context of spatial organization, but also as nodes of politicalecological and production relations. Lefebvre’s theories of “the production of space” (1991) and Harvey’s “urban transformation” (2012) provide a sociospatial understanding of the transformations urban structures undergo over time. The fact that cities have the capacity for evolutionary adaptation, change and reconstruction throughout the historical process (Gandy, 2005) makes them resilient to ecological and technological threats as well as socio-political changes. However, despite this evolutionary resilience, contemporary cities face crises such as global climate change, environmental degradation, and food insecurity. Especially in today’s world, where urbanisation is rapidly increasing,
120 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V cities’ connections with nature are weakening; this situation causes significant disruptions in natural system processes such as microclimate regulation, food production, natural disaster risk reduction, and habitat continuity (Grimm et al., 2008; Seto et al., 2012). The rapidly growing population worldwide requires a reassessment of the spatial formation of urban areas, usage patterns in these regions, and urban dwellers’ food access practices (Ackerman et al., 2014). In addition to this demographic trend, the rapid urbanisation process taking place worldwide is considered one of the most challenging administrative and spatial issues facing today’s cities and raises significant concerns in terms of sustainability. In this regard, efforts to build sustainable cities also require the implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which are accepted at the local, regional and global levels. This approach plays a fundamental role in protecting the environmental, social and economic well-being of future generations. Today, urban research approaches cities as multi-layered systems with evolutionary qualities rather than evaluating them as static and one-dimensional structures. In this vein, research has shifted toward developing interdisciplinary and holistic approaches centered on complex adaptation processes (McPhearson et al., 2016). These approaches require the development of comprehensive strategies that include broad objectives such as reducing vulnerability in urban planning, establishing sustainable food systems, and creating living spaces that are integrated with nature. The reintegration of cities with nature within the framework of sustainability brings forward more inclusive and community-based solutions through investments in technical infrastructure. Among these solutions, urban agriculture stands out as both an application tool for nature-based approaches and a component of multifunctional urban landscapes. Considered within this context, urban agriculture practices, as a key component of sustainable urban development, offer multifaceted contributions such as ensuring food security, improving urban landscapes, making green infrastructure resilient to climate change, and increasing social interaction (Kemeç, 2024). These measures make concrete contributions to reducing carbon emissions and improving the quality of life for city dwellers (IPCC, 2022). Along with local governments, urban residents are also actively involved in the process through individual or community-based initiatives, contributing to the widespread adoption of these practices (Ernwein, 2014). Global climate change and rapid urbanization processes have deepened the structural and environmental pressures that cities face, making the construction
THE NEW SIDE OF GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE: MULTIPURPOSE . . . 121 of sustainable and resilient urban systems a priority agenda (IPCC, 2022). In this context, nature-compatible planning approaches have gained increasing importance; green infrastructure and nature-based solutions, in particular, have become prominent strategic tools at the urban scale (European Commission, 2015). Green infrastructure is an approach that offers various environmental and social benefits in urban and rural areas through the planning of a network system of semi-natural areas with high ecological value (Tzoulas et al., 2007). Nature-based solutions are adopted as multifaceted design and planning approaches that aim to develop resilience against the climate crisis in cities, while also combining ecological, social and aesthetic functions (Kabisch et al., 2016; Raymond et al., 2017). In recent years, interest in urban agriculture and urban gardening has increased significantly in both urban planning policies and academic studies (Barthel et al., 2015). Behind this trend lie environmental and social crises such as pandemic processes affecting the global scale, increasing drought risk and climate change (Seto et al., 2012). Many local governments, particularly in Western countries, are developing strategies to promote food production in urban and peri-urban areas. In this regard, gardening activities that emerge on various scales, ranging from individual initiatives to community-based initiatives, and sometimes outside official planning systems, bring to the fore the need to develop more systematic and governance-based policies for urban gardening (Ernwein, 2014). Urban agriculture activities stand out for the benefits they provide in terms of food security, sustainable urbanisation and biodiversity under the umbrella of nature-based solutions (Orsini et al., 2013). As part of this approach, urban farming gardens provide numerous benefits ranging from local food production to social interaction and climate adaptation (Lovell, 2010; Opitz et al., 2016). The starting point of the research is to comprehensively examine urban agriculture gardens, one of the nature-based approaches, at the theoretical level. In this context, the aim is to reveal the multidimensional functions of these practices within the urban system and to evaluate their relationship with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Thus, it will be possible to assess the place and importance of urban agriculture gardens and green infrastructure in urban sustainability policies from an integrated perspective. In line with the stated objective, this study seeks to answer the following fundamental research questions: How can we interpret the place of urban agricultural gardens and green infrastructure within the multi-layered network of relationships that shape urban systems?
128 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V primarily focuses on increasing food supply, while in developed countries, these practices are primarily focused on ensuring access to healthy, high-quality food for disadvantaged groups (Power, 1999). Urban farming practices serve to promote social interaction and solidarity alongside food production. Various studies show that such activities contribute to the establishment of social bonds between individuals and that, over time, these individuals can develop various partnerships and form organised structures such as cooperatives. In particular, shared production areas such as community and school gardens, farmers’ markets, and direct marketing strategies such as farm-to-school food supply bring together individuals of different ages, cultures, and ethnic backgrounds, creating inclusive and interactive social environments. In this process, trust-based relationships between producers and consumers can be established, supporting economic security on a social scale. Additionally, in areas where urban agriculture is practised, positive social values such as social capital, mutual trust, sharing, social security, and a sense of belonging develop, and friendships are formed among individuals (Kaufman and Bailkey, 2000). Urban agriculture practices, although not primarily aimed at commercial gain, have the potential to offer various economic benefits. In particular, thanks to producer markets and community-supported agriculture systems, producers can increase their income through advantages such as shorter transport distances and reduced packaging requirements (Herbach, 1998). Urban agriculture reduces the maintenance costs of public spaces, transforms abandoned or underutilised areas into productive spaces, and increases local employment opportunities. In situations where commercial production is not a priority, urban agricultural areas stand out as peaceful and productive spaces where individuals can spend their free time. Urban agriculture contributes to socialisation and mental well-being. Especially those established in abandoned or dysfunctional urban areas, these gardens hold significant potential for spatial improvement and social transformation. Many community gardens have been established on former landfill sites or abandoned plots, thereby revitalising environmentally degraded areas and improving the quality of urban spaces (Moskow, 1999). Such initiatives strengthen neighbourhood relations and enhance community safety. 4. Examples of Urban Agriculture Gardens from the World Many cities around the world have developed urban agriculture practices. Within the scope of the research, urban agricultural gardens located in 12 different regions were examined (Figure 3).
THE NEW SIDE OF GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE: MULTIPURPOSE . . . 129 Figure 3: Different Regions Where Urban Agriculture is Done Havana is one of the successful cities that serve as an example in the context of urban agriculture practices. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, the economic crisis that Cuba entered into led the central government to seek selfsufficient solutions for food production. The Organopónicos system (Figure 3.a), developed within this framework, produces 3.4 million tonnes annually across approximately 14,000 hectares in the capital city of Havana, meeting approximately 90% of the city’s fresh vegetable needs (Altieri et al., 1999).
130 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V In Detroit, abandoned land that emerged after the economic collapse has been repurposed for urban agriculture. Approximately 1,400 community gardens and urban agriculture areas have been created throughout the city (Figure 3.b); these initiatives aim to support access to healthy food, particularly in lowincome areas. Civil society-based projects such as the Michigan Urban Farming Initiative (MUFI) have demonstrated effects that strengthen social solidarity in addition to ensuring food security (Colasanti, Hamm and Litjens, 2012). With the support of the Paris City Council, the approximately 14,000 m² agricultural project (Figure 3.c) established on the roof of Paris Expo Porte de Versailles stands out as one of Europe’s largest urban aeroponic production systems. In this system, plants are nourished with nutrients in an air or mist environment without the need for soil, and water consumption is 90% less than in standard agriculture. With a daily production capacity of approximately 1 tonne of fresh fruit and vegetables, this facility not only strengthens local food cycles but also significantly minimises carbon emissions caused by logistics. (Nature Urbaine, 2023). Singapore has turned to high-tech vertical and rooftop farming systems to overcome land constraints. More than 12 modern farming facilities built in the 2020s (Figure 3.d) focus on automation and efficiency, with production capacities aimed at meeting the food needs of more than 90% of the country’s population. These high-efficiency systems optimise water and land use through hydroponic and aeroponic technologies, thereby reducing the carbon footprint associated with logistics in the food supply chain (Mok et al., 2020). The Kleingartenkolonie system (Figure 3.e), which preserves the traditional gardening culture in Berlin, comprises approximately 800 colonies with more than 75,000 plots. Approximately 30% of these areas are allocated for food production, while the remainder is used for recreational and aesthetic purposes. Gardens provide city residents with the opportunity to engage in individual farming while also enhancing the aesthetic quality of the landscape and contributing to the urban fabric (Haase and Gaeva, 2023). The ‘Growing Underground’ project implemented in London (Figure 3.f) is an innovative urban agriculture initiative developed to utilise unused infrastructure elements in the city. This underground greenhouse, located in an old air raid shelter and spanning approximately 528 m², uses hydroponic production techniques supported by LED lighting systems to produce approximately 60 tonnes of vegetables annually (Benke and Tomkins, 2017). The GreenThumb programme implemented in New York City stands out as one of the most comprehensive initiatives supporting community-based
THE NEW SIDE OF GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE: MULTIPURPOSE . . . 131 urban agriculture (Figure 3.g). As of 2014, there were 586 community gardens registered in the programme, and it is reported that the number has reached over 700 gardens and urban farm areas throughout the city. These gardens have become particularly widespread in areas with high levels of social interaction, such as school environments and social housing areas (Reynolds and Cohen, 2016). In Tokyo, the ‘urban farmland leasing act’ law, which came into effect in 2018, provides legal support for rooftop farming projects. In line with this regulation, rice field gardens established on the roofs of high-rise buildings such as Roppongi Hills serve both to continue traditional agricultural culture and to facilitate urban dwellers’ contact with nature (Figure 3.h) (Hosaka and Sato, 2019). Since 2007, the local government of Mexico City has been implementing an important policy in the field of urban agriculture by supporting rooftop garden initiatives. Under this programme, more than 3,000 people have received rooftop garden grants (Figure 3.i), and agricultural projects have been expanded in public spaces such as schools and hospitals (Dieleman, 2017). The city of Curitiba has adopted urban agriculture as a strategy focused on social inclusion and education, establishing 147 urban gardens (Figure 3.j) covering an area of approximately 17 hectares within the city. Forty-seven of these gardens are community gardens, which provide both economic and foodbased contributions to low-income groups, particularly through the production of organic vegetables and fruits (FAO, 2014). Roof farming practices, which are becoming widespread in Shanghai, offer important opportunities for sustainable urban agriculture despite intense urbanisation. Facilities such as the 4,600 m² Yiyun rooftop garden (Figure 3.k) in the city produce peppers, eggplants, and other vegetables, and it is known that there are more than 20 such modern farms (Nie, Kiminami and Yagi, 2022). Designed in collaboration with the Jiwah Indigenous communities in Sydney’s South Eveleigh district, this project opened a 500 m² rooftop garden (Figure 3.l) in 2023, making it the first Indigenous-owned and culturally focused rooftop farm in Australia. This area is equipped with traditional ‘bushfoods,’ edible and medicinal native plants, as well as original species that supply the community kitchen (Corkery et al., 2020). In our country, historical garden areas stand out among examples of urban agricultural gardens. The Historical Yedikule Gardens in Istanbul, in particular, are one of the most prominent examples in this field, both for their cultural heritage value and for the multifaceted functions they offer to the city. Similarly, the Kuzguncuk Garden and the garden area around the Piyalepaşa Mosque are among the production areas with historical continuity and represent the legacy
132 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V of urban agriculture practices from the past to the present. In this regard, it is recommended that the existing remains of these historical gardens be preserved as part of the cultural landscape heritage, re-functionalised, and evaluated as urban agricultural areas. Additionally, restaurant-garden models that integrate food production with consumption within the city demonstrate the growing prevalence of on-site production and consumption and highlight new forms of urban agriculture. Such initiatives contribute both to supporting sustainable food systems and to increasing social awareness (Öcal, 2019). 5. Comparative Analysis of Urban Agricultural Gardens Cities investigated for urban agricultural gardens exhibit diverse profiles in terms of scale, management, and purpose. When compared, the examples of Havana and Paris are large-scale institutional projects, while Detroit and Berlin are more based on grassroots community movements. In addition, climatic and geographical differences (tropical vs. temperate climate, soil fertility, etc.) shape production models. These examples demonstrate that urban agriculture is a flexible field of application that takes different forms depending on local conditions and social needs. Table 2 compares the use of technology, socioeconomic, ecological, and food security contributions, as well as participation levels, of urban agriculture gardens around the world.
THE NEW SIDE OF GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE: MULTIPURPOSE . . . 133 Table 2: Comparative Analysis of Urban Agriculture Gardens in the World City (Country) Technology Use Socio-Economic Contribution Ecological Contribution Contribution to Food Security Havana (Cuba) Low (organic, traditional) Post-unemployment production and local economy Pesticide-free production Very high Detroit (USA) Medium (classical gardening) Food access and employment in poor neighborhoods Transformation of vacant lots High Paris (France) High (aeroponics, rooftop farming) Food, education, and job opportunities for urbanites Reduction of urban heat island effect High Singapore High (automated systems) Reducing food imports and strategic production Reduction in carbon emissions Very high Berlin (Germany) Low-Medium (traditional) Hobby gardening, neighborhood and family production Contribution to green areas Medium London (UK) High (hydroponics, LED systems) Education, awareness, urban production Reduction of carbon footprint Medium New York (USA) Medium Neighborhoodbased socio-cultural networks Contribution to green infrastructure Medium-High Tokyo (Japan) High (smart systems) Corporate employee engagement and awareness Rooftop greening and biodiversity Medium Mexico Low-Medium (simple systems) Production and food access in poor neighborhoods Adaptation to urban climate Medium-High Curitiba (Brazil) Medium Income support, women’s employment Pesticide-free areas Medium-High Shanghai (China) High (vertical, rooftop farming) Sustainable production in urban companies Carbon capture, air purification High Sydney (Australia) Medium Indigenous production and cultural contributions Conservation of endemic species Low-Medium
134 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V 6. Urban Agriculture and Sustainable Development Goals Urban agriculture contributes to many of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. According to the Food and Agriculture Organisation’s 2030 Agenda, urban agriculture provides multifaceted contributions in various areas, from food security to climate resilience, as shown in Figure 4. Figure 4: The Relationship Between Urban Agriculture and Sustainable Development Goals SDG No1 – No Poverty: Urban agricultural gardens reduce living costs by enabling low-income individuals to produce their own food. They can serve as an economic support mechanism, especially for individuals living on the poverty line. They increase access to basic needs by ensuring food security. In addition, agricultural activities create employment opportunities through labour requirements.
THE NEW SIDE OF GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE: MULTIPURPOSE . . . 135 SDG No2 – Zero Hunger: Urban agriculture is an effective tool in the fight against hunger by increasing access to fresh and nutritious food. Local production shortens food chains and reduces food waste. Practices such as community gardens can meet the nutritional needs of disadvantaged groups in particular. This contributes to food justice. SDG No3 – Good Health and Well-being: Urban gardens promote healthy eating with fresh, seasonal and pesticide-free foods. Physical activities such as gardening have a positive impact on both physical and mental health. Reduced stress and contact with nature are also beneficial for mental health. They contribute to the overall improvement of public health. SDG No4 – Quality Education: Okul bahçeleri ve eğitim odaklı tarım projeleri, çocuklara doğrudan tarım, çevre ve sürdürülebilirlik konularında deneyim kazandırır. Bu sayede öğrenme süreci daha katılımcı ve somut hale gelir. Gıda ve ekoloji temelli müfredatlar desteklenir. Eğitici bahçeler, disiplinler arası öğretime olanak tanır. SDG No5 – Gender Equality: Urban agriculture enables women’s economic and social empowerment by encouraging their participation in production. When women’s access to knowledge, seeds and land is increased, gender equality improves. Women’s cooperatives and community-based gardens contribute to this goal. SDG No6 – Clean Water and Sanitation: Planning irrigation methods used in urban agriculture with nature-based and water-saving systems supports this goal. Practices such as grey water use and rainwater harvesting are highlighted. Sustainable water management is directly related to healthy food production. It also preserves the soil-water balance. SDG No7 – Affordable and Clean Energy: The use of renewable energy in urban agriculture can be encouraged through solar-powered irrigation systems or energy-efficient greenhouse applications. Lowering the cost of energy access increases the production capacity of small-scale producers. It also has the effect of reducing the carbon footprint. Production cycles can be integrated with sustainable energy systems. SDG No8 – Decent Work and Economic Growth: Urban agriculture creates entrepreneurship, employment and economic dynamism through local production and sales networks. Job opportunities arise for women, young people and disadvantaged groups. Social enterprises and cooperative-based models can be supported. It provides economic diversity in food systems.
136 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V SDG No9 – Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure: Integrating agricultural technologies into urban areas (e.g. smart farming systems, hydroponics, aeroponics) supports innovation. Transforming production areas in cities in a way that is compatible with infrastructure contributes to sustainable urban development. Food production and technological developments can be brought together. This creates a foundation for local food innovation. SDG No10 – Reduced Inequalities: Urban agriculture serves as a means of social inclusion for the poor and marginalised communities. It reduces inequalities by providing disadvantaged groups with the right to produce and feed themselves. It provides socio-economic support for vulnerable groups such as migrants, the elderly and people with disabilities. It creates equal opportunities within cities. SDG No11 – Sustainable Cities and Communities: Urban gardens, local food production, green space creation and strengthening community relations are integral parts of sustainable urban living. Vacant and unused spaces are transformed into productive areas. Social capital is produced along with food. Urban resilience is increased. SDG No12 – Responsible Consumption and Production: Local production reduces resource waste and lowers energy consumption in processes such as transportation and packaging. Seasonal and needs-based production-consumption cycles are created. Circular practices such as composting and waste management are supported. Food awareness and consumption responsibility increase. SDG No13 – Climate Action: Urban agriculture develops resilience to climate change through local production models that reduce carbon emissions. Planting contributes to carbon sequestration. The heat island effect is reduced by soil cover. Environmental impact can be reduced through sustainable practices. SDG No14 – Life Below Water: Reducing pesticide use in agriculture and supporting organic production helps protect aquatic life by preventing water pollution. Improving urban water cycles indirectly affects marine and lake ecosystems. It is important to reduce the amount of agricultural chemicals that seep into the water. Urban agriculture offers an alternative production model in this regard. SDG No15 – Life on Land: Agricultural areas within cities can be part of ecological corridors, providing habitats for pollinators, birds and other wildlife. Urban living in harmony with nature is achieved through production systems that support biodiversity. Gardens provide an opportunity to preserve local plant species and contribute to maintaining the natural balance within cities.
THE NEW SIDE OF GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE: MULTIPURPOSE . . . 137 SDG No16 – Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions: Community gardens strengthen social cohesion by increasing social integration and inclusiveness. Cooperation and solidarity develop in shared production areas. Food access justice contributes to social peace. Participatory and transparent management models encourage local governance. SDG No17 – Partnerships for the Goals: Urban agriculture requires cooperation between municipalities, universities, civil society organisations and the private sector. Through joint projects and hybrid governance models, the SDGs can be implemented more effectively. Global knowledge sharing and the integration of local practices should be supported. All 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are indirectly related to urban agriculture through different themes, while SDG 2 (Zero Hunger), SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation), SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production), SDG 13 (Climate Action) and SDG 15 (Life on Land) stand out as goals that directly cover urban agriculture (Figure 5). Figure 5: Sustainable Development Goals That Directly Include Urban Agriculture Urban agriculture practices support food security by increasing access to fresh and healthy food for the urban poor (SDG 2), while also contributing to clean water use by providing water efficiency through techniques such as rainwater harvesting and drip irrigation (SDG 6). Through the local productionconsumption cycle, food waste and transportation-related environmental burdens are reduced (SDG 12), carbon footprints are lowered, and urban climate adaptation is achieved through increased green spaces (SDG 13). Additionally, by converting abandoned or idle areas into green production sites, ecosystem restoration and biodiversity conservation are achieved, thereby supporting terrestrial life (SDG 15). Thus, urban agriculture serves as a comprehensive tool for transforming cities into more resilient, equitable, and sustainable places within the framework of the 2030 Agenda.
240 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V Kırıkkale Urban Forest has served a dual function: protecting nature and offering recreational opportunities to city residents. In 2010, operational rights were transferred to the Kırıkkale Municipality for 49 years under a protocol with the General Directorate of Forestry. However, due to a lack of maintenance and investment by the municipality, the area became neglected and underutilized. By the 2020s, the contract was not renewed, and the land was returned to the Directorate of Forestry, which initiated a 20-year lease tender for private sector management. The contract was awarded to the Association of Public Employees with Disabilities, based in Ankara, which became the new operator in the mid2020s. The urban forest, regarded by Kırıkkale residents as a “breathing space” in the city’s northern section, is being revitalized under new management with a balanced conservation-use approach. Natural Landscape Features of the Urban Forest Area Kırıkkale Urban Forest encompasses roughly 40 ha of green space designated for recreation and conservation (Republic of Turkey Kırıkkale Governorship, 2025). The site occupies the interior of the Central Anatolian Plateau at ~700m, a transitional zone between the semiarid continental conditions of Central Anatolia and the more humid Black Sea influence (Beck et al., 2018; Göğüş et al., 2017). Local relief is moderately dissected with hills and slopes, while the bedrock belongs to the Central Anatolian Crystalline Complex (Kırşehir block), characterized by widespread Late Cretaceous intrusive suites ranging from granitic to alkaline compositions (e.g., monzonite–syenite), reflecting a well-documented syncollisional to post-collisional magmatic evolution (İlbeyli, 2004; Kadıoğlu, Dilek, Güleç, and Foland, 2003). From a geohazard standpoint, the province is situated in a moderate-to-high seismichazard setting under Türkiye’s 2018 probabilistic national map and lies in the broader influence area of active fault systems such as the North Anatolian Fault and nearby Seyfe, Keskin, Karakeçili, and Kırıkkale–Sungurlu zones (AFAD, 2018; Akbaş, Sönmezer, and Işık, 2015). The Kırıkkale region exhibits a semi-arid continental climate: winters are cold and often snowy, while summers are long, hot, and dry (Beck et al., 2018). Long-term observations for Kırıkkale city indicate a mean January temperature of 0.5 °C, a mean July temperature of 24.3 °C, and average July daily maxima around 31.1 °C; mean monthly precipitation sums to ≈ 383 mm yr⁻¹, reflecting overall aridity and frequent summer drought (Turkish Meteorological Service [MGM], 2025). The soil characteristic is primarily composed of brown steppe soils formed over volcanic bedrock. These soils are rich in lime and minerals, resulting in
ASSESSING THE CURRENT USE AND FUTURE POTENTIAL OF THE KIRIKKALE . . . 241 relatively high agricultural productivity. In addition to the volcanic-derived soils of the rugged terrain, alluvial soils are also present in the southern parts of the province along stream beds. These alluvial layers form fertile surfaces on flatter areas. The limited rainfall and prevailing dryness significantly affect soil formation (İlbeyli, 2004; Kadıoğlu et al., 2003) The current vegetation cover in the urban forest has been largely established through artificial afforestation. Following nationwide afforestation policies initiated in the 1950s in Turkey, barren lands outside agricultural use in Kırıkkale were forested to prevent soil erosion, protect water resources, and enhance environmental quality. This afforestation curbed deforestation and aimed to increase biodiversity in the urban landscape. Today, dominant tree species include conifers such as red pine, with occasional broadleaf species like oak, suitable for the local ecology. Across Kırıkkale, floristic syntheses report 1,326 plant taxa with 156 endemics (Urker, 2021), while the current administrative inventory maintained by the Ministry lists 1,398 taxa and 168 endemic plant species, reflecting updates from ongoing surveys (Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, 9th Regional Directorate, 2020). Two narrowrange, local endemics are well documented: Campanula kirikkaleensis (Dönmez and Güner, 1994) and Gundelia anatolica, originally described from Delice (Kırıkkale) and subsequently verified cytologically (Fırat, 2016; Genç and Fırat, 2019). The province’s vegetation is dominated by Irano-Turanian steppe elements—shrubs such as Artemisia spp. and Astragalus spp., herbaceous taxa including Anthemis/Matricaria, Mentha, Peganum harmala, Urtica, and Thymus, and fruiting shrubs like Rubus and Rosa—forming seasonally dynamic habitat mosaics (Dönmez, 2002). Kırıkkale Urban Forest functions as a wildlife refuge within the urban fabric. Provincial biodiversity accounts document 36 mammal species, 3 amphibians, 14 reptiles, 12 freshwater fish, and 281 bird species for Kırıkkale (Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, 9th Regional Directorate, 2020). Among these are species of conservation concern, including mammals such as badger, otter, greater horseshoe bat, ground squirrel, and jerboa; reptiles such as the European pond turtle and spur-thighed tortoise; and birds including the great bustard (Otis tarda), Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus), ferruginous duck, and European roller (Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, 9th Regional Directorate, 2020). Monitoring in the province focuses on roe deer, lynx, and otter among mammals, and on imperial eagle, great bustard, bearded vulture, and European pond turtle, reflecting local priorities for threatened taxa (Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry,
242 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V 9th Regional Directorate, 2020). Notably, the great bustard and Egyptian vulture are assessed as globally threatened on the IUCN Red List, underscoring the importance of protecting habitat and flight corridors within and around the urban forest (BirdLife International, 2023; BirdLife International, 2024). Cultural Landcape Features of the Urban Forest Area The forest has the basic infrastructure and facilities to support nature-based activities. The improvements have included one facility building, an artificial pond, three cabins for security, two public restrooms, walking and jogging trails, picnic tables, a basketball court, and a parking area (Figure 2). Additional elements include a fire watchtower, scenic viewpoint, playgrounds, picnic shelters, fountains, a water tank, security huts, trash bins, and informational signage (Figure 3). These facilities are designed to support activities such as hiking, running, picnicking, and outdoor sports. Trails and paths within the forest accommodate both individual and group nature excursions. Figure 2: Photos From The Urban Forest Basketball Court, Fire Watchtower, Scenic Point (Image source by the authors, 2024) Currently, the urban forest is closed to visitors due to ongoing maintenance and renovation. The new operator continues restoration efforts, including landscape reorganization, repair of facilities, and enhanced safety. The ultimate goal is to reopen the site as a safe, orderly, and attractive recreational area and to integrate it into the city’s green infrastructure. In doing so, the forest will serve both as a retreat for urban residents and as a contributor to Kırıkkale’s long-term ecological and social sustainability.
ASSESSING THE CURRENT USE AND FUTURE POTENTIAL OF THE KIRIKKALE . . . 243 Figure 3: Photos From The Urban Forest Playgrounds, Picnic Tables, Walking Trail, Fountain (Image source by the authors, 2024) The SWOT analysis was employed as an integrative, diagnostic tool to synthesize evidence from the literature review and the Kırıkkale Urban Forest case study. It distinguishes Strengths, Weaknesses from Opportunities, Threats and organizes findings through a design-structure viewpoint encompassing spatial layout and zoning, circulation, edge and buffer conditions, blue–green systems, planting and canopy structure, amenities and accessibility, safety/ wayfinding, and operations/governance (Table 2).
244 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V Table 2: SWOT analysis for the Kırıkkale urban forest Strengths Weaknesses • Strategic location just north of the city; ~40 ha contiguous green space (good scale for multi-functionality). • Under-maintenance/closure history damaged facilities, low trust, “neglected” image. • Existing basic infrastructure: trails, picnic units, courts, viewpoints, fire tower, signage foundation to build on. • Accessibility gaps: limited barrier-free routes, uneven/eroded paths, wayfinding inconsistencies, dark spots at night. • Microclimate benefits from tree cover in a semi-arid setting; topographic variety creates scenic nodes. • Amenity distribution uneven; shade, seating, water points not aligned with desire lines / high-use nodes. • Biodiversity context: province-level richness (endemics, protected birds) strong education & interpretation potential. • Edge exposure to adjacent settlements; weak vegetated buffers; safety perceptions historically poor. • Legal/administrative recognition as an urban forest; new operator committed to rehabilitation. • Data gaps: no recent, systematic visitor counts, canopy % baseline, or species list for the site; weak monitoring routine. • Public identity as a “breathing space” for the city’s north clear social mandate. • Water management: limited blue-green features; localized erosion; pond/ditch condition uncertain. Opportunities Threats • Re-opening phase = policy window to reposition the site with nature-based solutions and green-infrastructure upgrades. • Climate stressors (heat, drought) and wildfire risk in a semi-arid continental climate. • Partnerships with local universities/ NGOs for monitoring, stewardship, citizen science, and interpretation (endemic species, birds). • Urban encroachment / informal uses at edges; vandalism and littering if oversight lapses. • Mobility integration: connect to city walking/bike networks and transit; safer approaches and gateways. • Funding volatility or contract performance risk under third-party operation. • Inclusive programming: outdoor classrooms, guided walks, accessible loops broadens user base and equity. • Pests/disease and invasive species pressures on plantation-dominated stands; erosion on steep paths. • Grant eligibility: climate adaptation, biodiversity, accessibility, and youth engagement funding streams. • Regulatory/administrative shifts and multi-agency coordination frictions slow delivery.
ASSESSING THE CURRENT USE AND FUTURE POTENTIAL OF THE KIRIKKALE . . . 245 • Branding & ecotourism: birdwatching, geology/flora themes; QR-based interpretive system. • Seismic hazard context higher standards needed for structures/utilities. Strengths Kırıkkale Urban Forest’s most salient asset is its strategic location immediately north of the urban core and its contiguous 40ha footprint, which is large enough to support a multifunctional program while remaining legible and manageable. A basic suite of facilities primary paths, picnic units, viewpoints, children’s play, a court, fire tower, signage and utilities provides a platform for incremental upgrading rather than greenfield investment. In a semi-arid continental setting, existing canopy already yields measurable microclimatic benefits (shade, evapotranspirative cooling) and the site’s topographic variety creates scenic nodes for rest and interpretation. At the regional scale, high vertebrate and floristic richness (including endemics and globally threatened birds) underpins strong potential for education, stewardship, and nature-based recreation. Finally, formal recognition as an urban forest and the presence of a new operator create an administrative pathway for coordinated improvement, while the site’s reputation as a “breathing space” signals clear social demand. Weaknesses The legacy of under-maintenance and intermittent closure has degraded assets, suppressed visitation, and weakened public trust. Accessibility is uneven: barrier-free loops are incomplete; slopes, eroded segments and informal desire lines complicate circulation and night-time legibility is limited by dark spots and inconsistent wayfinding. Amenity provision (seating, shade, drinking water, toilets) is not yet aligned with actual movement patterns or heat exposure, lowering comfort during peak seasons. Edge conditions toward adjacent settlements remain porous and visually exposed, feeding safety concerns. From a management perspective, key baselines are missing recent visitor counts, canopy cover, species lists, and routine condition audits constraining adaptive management. Stormwater and small water features require attention, with localized erosion and uncertain pond performance indicating the need for blue–green retrofits. Opportunities The transition to new management and the re-opening plan create a policy window to reposition the forest using contemporary green-infrastructure and nature-based solutions cooling corridors, permeable surfaces, rain gardens, and layered buffers delivering co-benefits for recreation, biodiversity, and climate resilience. Strong prospects exist for partnerships with local universities,
246 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V schools, and NGOs to co-produce monitoring, citizen science, and interpretation lowering costs while raising engagement. Mobility integration is another lever formalized gateways, safer pedestrian approaches, bike parking and connections to city paths can broaden access without expanding car dependence. Inclusive programming guided walks, outdoor classrooms, accessible loops can rebalance equity outcomes and diversify the user base. The site is also well-placed for external funding tied to adaptation, biodiversity, accessibility, and youth engagement, and it can build a distinctive identity around birdwatching, geology, and steppe–forest ecotone themes. Threats Climatic stressors heat waves, prolonged summer droughts, and elevated wildfire risk pose direct pressures on visitor comfort, safety, and vegetation performance. Urban encroachment, vandalism, and littering remain credible risks along exposed edges if oversight lapses. Financial volatility or underperformance in a third-party operating model could delay maintenance cycles or stall upgrades. Ecologically, pest/disease outbreaks and invasive species may exploit homogeneous or stressed plantings, while steep segments remain erosion-prone if use intensifies without trail hardening. Finally, the province’s seismic context implies higher design and construction standards for structures and utilities, adding cost and coordination complexity across agencies. Implications for design and management An immediate, design-led response should convert weaknesses into nearterm gains while buffering key threats: (i) make the forest safe and legible first (repair the primary loop, prune for sightlines, add node/route lighting, standardize signage, staff gateways); (ii) deliver a continuous accessible loop with frequent shaded rest points and compliant facilities; (iii) expand shade and microclimate performance with canopy infill and small structures at heat hotspots; (iv) soften edges with layered vegetated buffers and formalized entries; (v) implement blue– green retrofits to stabilize drains and upgrade the pond; (vi) embed habitat features and interpretation (deadwood retention where safe, nesting/roosting elements, QR-enabled thematic trails); and (vii) launch a light-touch monitoring program (visitor counts, canopy %, trail condition, incidents) with a quarterly community forum. Taken together, these moves leverage the site’s strengths and opportunities to address long-standing weaknesses and improve resilience to the principal threats. 4.Conclusion This chapter assessed the Kırıkkale Urban Forest through a comprehensive review of the urban forest literature and a site specific case analysis of its natural
ASSESSING THE CURRENT USE AND FUTURE POTENTIAL OF THE KIRIKKALE . . . 247 and cultural landscape features. Established via afforestation in 2006 and extending over approximately 40 ha on the Kırşehir Massif, the site constitutes a microclimatic refuge within a semi-arid steppe context. Its rugged topography, volcanic substrates, and regionally rich flora and fauna including locally endemic taxa provide a robust ecological baseline capable of supporting multifunctional ecosystem services and diverse recreational uses. From a design standpoint, the forest already possesses foundational infrastructure (paths, picnic units, sports court, viewpoints, and basic utilities), indicating latent capacity for public benefit. However, historical undermaintenance, constrained amenity diversity, perceived safety deficits at the periurban edge, and limited universal accessibility have attenuated utilisation and diminished user trust. The SWOT analysis makes explicit this configuration of assets and liabilities, while also identifying a favourable policy window: the recent management transition and temporary closure for renovation enable repositioning of the forest’s design, operations, and stewardship. Finally, this inquiry is intentionally qualitative and design-focused. Future research should integrate systematic user counts and satisfaction surveys, accessibility audits, detailed floristic/faunal inventories, canopy and surface-temperature mapping, and life-cycle costing of maintenance regimes. Such empirical extensions would enable stronger causal inference between design choices and outcomes, and would support iterative, evidence-informed adjustments over time. Taken together, these measures position the Kırıkkale Urban Forest to evolve from an under-performing green asset into a flagship, multifunctional urban forest grounded in safety, inclusivity, ecological integrity, and durable community partnership. References AFAD. (2018). Türkiye deprem tehlike haritası. Afet ve Acil Durum Yönetimi Başkanlığı. Erişim Adresi (10.08.2025): https://deprem.afad.gov.tr/ deprem-tehlike-haritasi Ahern, J. (2007). Green infrastructure for cities: The spatial dimension. In V. Novotny & P. Brown (Eds.), Cities of the Future: Towards Integrated Sustainable Water and Landscape Management (pp. 267–283). IWA Publishing. Access Address (09.08.2025):https://people.umass.edu/jfa/pdf/Chapter17_ Ahern2%20copy.pdf Akbaş, S. O., Sönmezer, Y. B., ve Işık, N. S. (2015). Kırıkkale ili yerleşim alanı için en büyük ivme, zemin büyütmesi ve hakim titreşim periyodu
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256 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V In particular, during winter months, temperatures can drop as low as -30°C. Precipitation tends to be more frequent in the spring and fall. In the higher parts of the region, snowfall is significant, and the snow cover remains for a long period. These climate features have a determining effect on the region’s ecosystem and agricultural activities (Topuz and Karabulut, 2021). However, due to microclimatic conditions, different climate types can be observed in certain parts of the region. For example, the Iğdır Plain exhibits characteristics similar to the Mediterranean climate (Özçağlar, 2003). The EAB is one of the richest regions in Türkiye in terms of plant diversity (Gümüş, 2007). Floristically, it belongs to the Iran-Turan floristic region (Yener and Ak, 2021). Due to its location in the Iran-Turan flora region, steppe vegetation is widespread. However, forested areas are also found in highaltitude regions (Gümüş, 2007). The forests in the region consist mainly of Scots pine in the northeast, while oak forests dominate the higher mountainous and plateau areas. In the lower plains, steppe plants are common, while in higher altitudes, mountain meadows and alpine vegetation are present. Particularly in the Erzurum-Kars section, rich meadow ecosystems are influenced by summer rainfall (Yener and Ak, 2021). Additionally, the Sarıkamış area and its surroundings are notable for their rich forested areas. About 35% of the plant species in the region belong to the Iran-Turan, 14% to Europe Siberia, and 2% to the Mediterranean phytogeographical regions. The number of endemic species is 62, which constitutes 9% of the total flora (Gümüş, 2007). According to the Türkiye Plants Data Service (TUBIVES), there are 4,296 plant taxa in the region (Özer et al., 2020). However, this number has increased over time. A part of the steppe in the region consists of both herbaceous and woody or chamaephyte (low shrub) vegetation. In the herbaceous steppe, species like Stipa sp. and Bromus sp. are found in abundance. In the chamaephyte steppe, many species of Astragalus and Acantholimon play an important role. In the high mountain areas, alpine meadows are present, featuring brightly colored plants such as Campanula tridentata and Gentiana verna. These areas are floristically very heterogeneous (Muratgeldiev et al., 2000). The EAB is one of the regions in Türkiye with the richest flora, holding great significance in terms of ornamental plant potential and endemic plant species (Korkmaz and Turgut, 2014). The region’s geographical and climatic diversity allows for the variety of plant species and the development of endemic species. The region is particularly rich in bulbous, rhizomatous, and tuberous plants, with species from families such as Amaryllidaceae, Asparagaceae,
POTENTIAL ORNAMENTAL PLANTS FOR ECOLOGICAL LANDSCAPE . . . 257 Colchicaceae, Iridaceae, Liliaceae, and Orchidaceae being used as ornamental plants. One of the most important ornamental plants in the region is the crown imperial (Fritillaria imperialis), belonging to the Liliaceae family, which is frequently used in landscaping applications (Fırat et al., 2015). The region’s high altitude and rugged terrain contribute to the formation of various ecological niches, enabling the growth of diverse ornamental plants. Endemic plants that grow in mountainous areas not only offer aesthetic value as part of the natural landscape but also have the potential to be cultivated as ornamental plants. Anatolia’s geography, located at the intersection of three different phytogeographical regions, is home to around 3,800 endemic plant species. A significant portion of these species is found in the Eastern Anatolia Region (Çelik, 2017). For example, a study conducted in the Dumanlı Mountains within the boundaries of Erzincan province identified 112 endemic plant taxa. Most of these endemic species belong to the Asteraceae, Caryophyllaceae, Brassicaceae, Lamiaceae, and Fabaceae families. The genera with the highest number of endemic species include Silene, Tanacetum, Onosma, Astragalus, and Hypericum (Korkmaz and Onkaş, 2024). The endemic plants in the region not only serve as indicators of biological diversity but also have great potential as medicinal, aromatic, and ornamental plants. Species of the Alchemilla genus, commonly known as “lion’s paw” in the local community, are widely used in traditional medicine and are valued for dermatological and cosmetic purposes (Murathan, 2018). 2. Plants in the study area and their location The primary material of this study consists of 20 plant taxa naturally found in the EAB (Figure 1), which are selected for the research (Table 1). Five of these plants are endemic. For this study, 20 plant taxa with high ornamental plant potential were chosen from herbaceous taxa suitable for use in open green areas. The selected taxa were determined by reviewing sources such as Tekin (2005), Tekin (2007), TUBIVES (2004), and Davis (1965-1985). The selected plant taxa and their locations are presented in Table 1.
258 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V Figure 1: Eastern Anatolia Region and The 14 Provinces in This Region Table 1: Taxa Examined in The Study and Their Locations in The Eastern Anatolia Region Species Locations Acantholimon bracteatum var. bracteatum Hakkari, Van Acantholimon hypochaerum Ağrı, Erzincan Aethionema iberideum Erzincan Androsace villosa Ardahan, Erzincan, Erzurum, Hakkari, Van Astragalus xylobasis var. xylobasis Ağrı Aster amellus subsp. ibericus Ağrı, Erzincan, Erzurum Arabis carduchorum Bitlis, Van Campanula ledebouriana Ağrı, Erzurum, Kars, Van Fritillaria imperialis Bitlis, Hakkari, Van Iris spuria subsp. musulmanica Erzincan, Erzurum, Iğdır, Hakkari, Kars, Muş, Van Melampyrum arvense Iğdır, Erzurum, Tunceli Myosotis alpestris subsp. alpestris Bitlis, Erzurum, Iğdır, Hakkari, Kars, Tunceli Salvia bracteata Elazığ, Erzurum Salvia aethiopis Ağrı, Elazığ, Erzurum, Malatya Saponaria prostrata var. calvertii Erzurum, Kars Tanacetum kotschyi Bitlis, Hakkari, Muş, Van Thymus migricus Ağrı, Bitlis, Kars, Muş, Van Veronica caespitosa Bitlis, Van Veronica orientalis ssp. orientalis Van Veronica persica Iğdır
POTENTIAL ORNAMENTAL PLANTS FOR ECOLOGICAL LANDSCAPE . . . 259 Additionally, the locations of the 20 taxa studied on a provincial basis are shown in Figure 2, and images of the examined taxa are presented in Figure 3. Figure 2: Locations of 20 Taxa Examined in The Eastern Anatolia Region On a Provincial Basis
260 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V Figure 3: Images of 20 Taxa Examined in The Eastern Anatolia Region
POTENTIAL ORNAMENTAL PLANTS FOR ECOLOGICAL LANDSCAPE . . . 261 2.1.Generalcharacteristicsofplanttaxa In this study, data on plant taxa such as smell, fragrance, flower density, flowering time, flower color, flowering period, life form, habitat, endemism, evergreen, and form are gathered from various literature sources and herbarium records. These data are presented in detail in Table 2. 3. Weighted scoring method The weighted scoring method is a selection technique used to evaluate genotypes based on specific characteristics, particularly in plant breeding studies. In this method, selection criteria are first defined, and each criterion is assigned an importance or value score by the breeder. Each genotype is then scored according to these criteria, and a total score is calculated. The genotypes with the highest scores are considered superior (Sönmez et al., 2015). The weighted scoring method is widely used across various professions and disciplines, especially in performance evaluation and selection processes. By assigning different weights to specific criteria, this method ensures that evaluations are made more objectively and fairly. The the weighted scoring method is effectively used in fields such as agriculture, education, and public personnel management. The method allows for more objective and fair results by considering the weights assigned to the evaluation criteria (Kıran, 2015). In this study, 10 different criteria for 20 taxa were subjected to the weighted scoring method. The criteria evaluated in the study are shown in Table 3.
262 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V Table 2: General Characteristics of the Taxa Examined Within the Scope of the Study 12345678910 11 12 Acantholimon bracteatum var. bracteatum No Dense June-August Pink Perennial herb Rocky areas No Dwarf 1,2,3 Acantholimon hypochaerum No Dense July-August Pink Perennial herb Rocky areas Yes Dwarf 3 Aethionema iberideum No Dense May-June Pink Perennial herb Rocky areas No Dwarf 3 Androsace villosa Yes Dense May-September White Perennial herb Rocky areas No Dwarf 123 Astragalus xylobasis var. xylobasis No Middle May-July Pink Perennial herb Rocky areas, Yes Spreading 1,2,3 Aster amellus subsp. ibericus No Middle June-August Purple Perennial herb Rocky areas, Forests No Spreading 1,2,4 Arabis carduchorum No Dense August White Perennial herb Rocky areas Yes Dwarf 1,2,4 Campanula ledebouriana No Middle July-August Blue Perennial herb Rocky areas Yes Dwarf 1,2,4 Fritillaria imperialis Yes Middle March-May Orange Perennial herb Rocky areas No Vertical 1,2,3 Iris spuria subsp. musulmanica No Middle May-July Purple Perennial herb Shrubs, Maquis, Wetlands No Vertical 3 Melampyrum arvense No Middle June-October P ink Annual Rocky areas, Fields, Shrubs, Maquis No Vertical 1,2,3 Myosotis alpestris subsp. alpestris No Low April-August Blue Perennial herb Rocky areas, Fields No Spreading 1,2,3 Salvia bracteata Yes Dense May-July P ink Perennial herb Rocky areas, Fields, Shrubs, Wetlands No Vertical 1,2,3 Salvia aethiopis Yes Dense May-August White Annual, Perennial herb Rocky areas, Steppes, Fields No Dwarf 1,2,3 Saponaria prostrata var. calvertii No Middle April-July P ink Perennial herb Fields No Spreading 3 Tanacetum kotschyi No Low July-August White Perennial herb Rocky areas No Vertical 1,2,3 Thymus migricus Yes Dense June-July Pink Perennial herb Rocky areas No Dwarf 1,2,3 Veronica caespitosa No Middle May-August Blue Perennial herb Rocky areas, Steppes Yes Spreading 4 Veronica orientalis ssp. orientalis No Dense April-July Purple Perennial herb Rocky areas, Fields, Shrubs, Maquis, Forests No Spreading 1,2,3 Veronica persica Yes Middle January-December Purple Annual Fields No Spreading 1,2,3 References Form Species Flowering period Smell Flower dens ity Flowering time Flower color Life form Habitat Ende mi s m * (1: Davis, 1965–85; 2: Tübives, 2004, 3: Tekin, 2005; 4: Tekin, 2007)
POTENTIAL ORNAMENTAL PLANTS FOR ECOLOGICAL LANDSCAPE . . . 263 Table 3. Parameters Examined Within the Scope of the Weighted Rating Method for General Outdoor Ornamental Plant Use and The Score Values of These Parameters Parameters Maximum points to be awarded Evaluation steps Points to be awarded according to classes Smell 5 Very dense 5 Normal 3 Light 1 None 0 Flower density 15 Without flowers 0 Low 5 Middle 10 Dense 15 Flowering time 15 Autumn 12 Summer 8 Spring 4 Winter 15 Flower colour 15 White 5 Red 10 Blue 15 Purple 12 Yellow 5 Orange 7 Pink 3 Green 1 Flowering period 15 0-2 month 6 3-4 month 9 5-6 month 12 6+ month 15 Life form 5 Annual 1 Biennial 3 Perennial herb 5 Habitat 5 Steppes etc. 4 Wet meadows 2 Forest clearings and oak groves 3 Rocky, stony, dry areas 5
264 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V Endemism 5 Yes 5 No 0 Form 10 Vertical 2 Scattered 4 Spreading 8 Dwarf 10 Evergreen 10 Yes 10 No 5 4. Weight values of taxa The weighted rating results ranged between 420 and 855 points. The taxon with the highest score was Campanula ledebouriana, with 855 points. Other taxa with high scores included Veronica orientalis ssp. orientalis (830) and Veronica caespitosa (825). The lowest score was recorded for Tanacetum kotschyi (420). Other taxa with low scores were Saponaria prostrata var. calvertii (565) and Astragalus xylobasis var. xylobasis (595) (Figure 4). Figure 4: The Weighted Rating Scores of The 20 Examined Taxa
POTENTIAL ORNAMENTAL PLANTS FOR ECOLOGICAL LANDSCAPE . . . 265 5. Ecological landscape designs and use of natural plants in open green areas Ecological landscape designs can be created in open green areas using native plant taxa. When brought into cultivation and used in open green spaces, native plant taxa with high ornamental potential offer many advantages. Since these plants are less affected by regional climate extremes, their maintenance costs are relatively low. In addition, native plant species that require less pesticide application also have lower water consumption compared to exotic species (Yücel and Erken, 2023); Helfand et al., 2006). Native plants are well-adapted to local environmental conditions, which makes them more resilient and less dependent on additional resources such as water and fertilizers. A study conducted in Qatar highlighted that current landscape practices rely heavily on exotic species, which require intensive irrigation and soil modifications. The authors recommended the use of native plants to promote sustainability and biodiversity in urban areas (Richer et al., 2016). Incorporating native plants into urban green spaces also significantly increases local biodiversity. A comparative study on native and nonnative plants in urban horticulture showed that native species support higher diversity of local fauna, contributing positively to ecosystem health (Tartaglia et al., 2024). Moreover, native plant species play an important role in supporting pollinator populations. Watson et al. (2022) found that plant species richness and sunlight exposure in pollinator gardens increased pollinator visitation, emphasizing the value of diverse native plantings in urban landscapes. In addition to their functional advantages, native plant taxa are also widely used in open green spaces due to their aesthetic contributions such as color, form, habitat, and fragrance. Integrating native plant species into open green areas enhances both the visual attractiveness and ecological value of urban landscapes. These species, which are adapted to local climates and soils, often display a variety of colors, textures, and forms that contribute to dynamic and seasonally changing landscapes. For example, a study on planting design in urban open green areas emphasized that the careful use of color contrasts in plant compositions positively affects visual quality and viewers’ aesthetic satisfaction, contributing to the overall beauty and harmony of green spaces (Yılmaz et al., 2018). One of the native species naturally growing in Eastern Anatolia (Türkiye) is Campanula ledebouriana, which is suitable for use in rock gardens and green roofs due to its compact form, ability to thrive in rocky and stony areas, and its distinctive flower color. This species is particularly attractive thanks to
272 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V Beyond its economic repercussions, the pandemic also adversely affected the social and psychological well-being of tourists, resulting in diminished trust and reduced loyalty toward the tourism sector (Üstün and Özçiftçi, 2020; Nong and Ha, 2021). Heightened risk perception and adherence to protective measures emerged as critical determinants of travel behavior. According to global reports, international travel declined by 65% in 2020, by 85% in 2021, and by 51% in 2022 (URL-5, URL-6, URL-7, URL-8). Despite these challenges, the pandemic also presented an opportunity to reassess and fortify the tourism sector with a view toward long-term sustainability. In response, initiatives such as the “Safe Tourism Certificate” were introduced to rebuild consumer confidence and alleviate travelers’ anxiety (URL-3; Çizel et al., 2021). In the post-restriction era, there has been a growing emphasis on alternative forms of tourism, including socially distanced travel and individualized holiday experiences (Acuner and Ergin, 2022; Alpago and Oduncu, 2020; Ivanov et al., 2020; Kıvılcım, 2020; Özaltın, 2020). Consequently, conventional group accommodations such as hotels and hostels have increasingly been replaced by individualized lodging options like tents, camping-caravans, and private villas (Düzgün, 2021). To respond to evolving expectations related to physical distancing, hygiene, and sustainability, the tourism sector has both introduced new trends and adapted existing ones. One notable emerging form of tourism in this context is glamping. The pandemic has also presented an opportunity to reassess and strengthen the tourism sector with a focus on sustainability. In response, the “Safe Tourism Certificate” was developed to rebuild confidence in the sector and to reduce tourists’ anxieties (URL-3; Çizel et al., 2021). Glamping, short for “glamorous camping,” is a form of luxury camping that combines comfort with immersion in natural settings. Originating in the late 20th century, glamping accommodations were initially designed to allow affluent travelers to stay in the wilderness—particularly during African safari tours—without sacrificing the comforts of modern life (Boscoboinik and Bourguard, 2011). This type of tourism appeals to individuals who may be reluctant to engage in traditional camping due to concerns about comfort or lack of amenities. Glamping accommodations typically feature high-end furnishings, comfortable beds, stylish interiors, private bathrooms with showers or bathtubs, and access to electricity and internet. Beyond comfort, glamping also emphasizes
DETERMINING LOCAL PEOPLE’S ATTITUDES TOWARDS GLAMPING TOURISM 273 environmental responsibility by incorporating eco-friendly materials and practices. In this regard, glamping aligns well with the principles of eco-tourism and reflects a growing trend in sustainable travel. From a historical perspective, glamping tourism bears resemblance to traditional nomadic dwellings such as the Oba used by Turkic ancestors, the Tipi of Native Americans, the Ger of the Mongols, and the Boz Üy of the Kyrgyz people (Erdem et al., 2018). These types of accommodations represent culturally rooted structures that conceptually bridge the gap between traditional camping and contemporary glamping experiences. Figure 1 illustrates examples of accommodation units commonly used in glamping tourism. As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, the growing demand for nature, personal space, and sustainable travel options has transformed glamping tourism into a highly sought-after trend that effectively addresses these emerging needs (Google Trends, 2023). Glamping offers tourists a safe, physically distanced, and secluded experience, thereby minimizing the risk of virus transmission. Figure 1: Types of Glamping Tourism Accommodation (URL-10; URL-11) A study by Craig and Karabas (2021) reported that the preference for glamping increased from 21.4% in 2019 to 45.9% in the post-pandemic period. Similarly, data from the Google Trends search engine show that interest in the term “glamping” rose significantly during and after the pandemic compared to the pre-pandemic period (Figure 2).
274 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V Figure 2: Graph of The Interest in The Term “Glamping” in The World in The Last 5 Years (URL-12) Globally, search interest was most prominent in Slovenia, followed by Ireland, the United Kingdom, Colombia, and New Zealand (Figure 3). Figure 3: Intensity of Searches for “Glamping” By Region in The World and The Top Countries (URL-12) In this context, considering the balance of supply and demand in the tourism sector, glamping has emerged as an attractive and increasingly prominent form of tourism. However, local perceptions of glamping tourism vary considerably. While some view glamping as a component of sustainable tourism closely connected to nature (Vorotnikov et al., 2019; Štreimikienė et al., 2020; Meriç et al., 2021), others express concerns about its potential environmental impacts and the degradation of natural areas (Yıldırım and Erkılıç, 2019; Uğur, 2020; Eser and Akgündüz, 2021). Similarly, although some believe that glamping contributes to the local economy and employment (Gülen et al., 2022; Çelik İlal, 2023), others fear that it may negatively affect local culture and social structures (Hossin, 2016; Puri, 2019). Given these diverging views, it is essential to assess local communities’ attitudes toward glamping tourism. Understanding these attitudes is critical not only for ensuring the sustainability of tourism practices but also for safeguarding the well-being of local populations. The perspectives of local residents help identify the socio-economic and environmental impacts of tourism, increase the acceptance of tourism-related projects, boost the local economy, enhance
DETERMINING LOCAL PEOPLE’S ATTITUDES TOWARDS GLAMPING TOURISM 275 community satisfaction, and inform policy-making processes aligned with local needs and values. Therefore, measuring local attitudes plays a vital role in effective tourism planning and management. The Sustainable Tourism Attitude Scale (SUS-TAS), developed by Choi and Sirakaya (2005), is a widely recognized instrument designed to measure residents’ attitudes toward sustainable tourism. It has been employed in numerous studies to evaluate stakeholder perceptions and support sustainable tourism development (Hsu et al., 2020; Jeelani et al., 2022; Stojanović et al., 2021). Over the years, researchers have revalidated and adapted the scale, emphasizing its relevance in capturing diverse community perspectives (Yu et al., 2009). Through this tool, host communities have been classified according to their levels of support for sustainable tourism, providing valuable insights into local attitudes across different contexts. Within this framework, the present study aims to assess the attitudes of local residents toward glamping tourism in Trabzon Province, both before and after the COVID-19 pandemic. This was achieved by adapting the SUS-TAS scale specifically to the context of glamping and pandemic-related changes in tourism demand, particularly in light of growing international visitor interest in the region. 2. Material and Method This study builds upon the original SUS-TAS framework introduced by Choi and Sirakaya (2005), adapting it to examine glamping tourism within the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. To this end, twelve new items related to glamping and the pandemic were incorporated, and the existing 44 items were revised accordingly. The final version of the questionnaire consisted of 56 items grouped under seven distinct factors. It was administered to a sample of 100 local residents, with each item rated on a 5-point Likert scale. The questionnaire also collected demographic information, including gender, age, income, occupation, and education level. The seven measured factors were: Perceived Social Costs (PSC), Environmental Sustainability (ES), LongTerm Planning (LP), Perceived Economic Benefits (PEB), Community-Centered Economy (CCE), Visitor Satisfaction (VS), and Community Involvement (CI). The factor structure was refined through Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA). Data analysis included frequency distributions for demographic profiling; the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure and Bartlett’s test of sphericity to assess the adequacy of the dataset for factor analysis; and Cronbach’s alpha to evaluate internal consistency reliability. Parametric tests (ANOVA and
276 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V independent samples t-tests) were employed for normally distributed variables, while non-parametric tests (Mann-Whitney U and Kruskal-Wallis H) were used for variables that did not meet the normality assumption. 3. Findings 3.1.FrequencyDistributionAnalysis Of the participants, 54% identified as female and 46% as male. Regarding age distribution, 41% were between 25–34 years old, 27% were aged 18–24, 18% were 35–44, and 14% were 45 years or older. In terms of educational attainment, 57% held an undergraduate degree, while 21% had completed postgraduate education. With respect to income levels, 27% of respondents reported earning between 15,001–35,000₺, and 25% reported incomes ranging from 1–8,500₺. Concerning occupational status, 35% were employed in the private sector, and 28% identified as students (Table 1). Table 1: Frequency Distribution Analysis Demographic Variables (%) Demographic Variables (%) Age 18-24 27 Education Status Primary/Secondary School 5 25-34 41 High School 17 35-44 18 License 57 45 and over 14 Postgraduate 21 Income Level No Income 22 Profession Public personnel 26 1-8.500 ₺ 25 Private Sector 35 8.501-15.000 ₺ 22 Student 28 15.001-35.000 ₺ 27 Other 11 35.001 ₺ and over 4 Gender Female 54 Male 46 3.2.KMOandBarlettTest According to the results of the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) and Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity, the KMO value was 0.75, indicating an adequate level of sampling adequacy. Bartlett’s test result was statistically significant (χ² = 1941.414, p < 0.001), confirming the suitability of the data for factor analysis.
DETERMINING LOCAL PEOPLE’S ATTITUDES TOWARDS GLAMPING TOURISM 277 3.3.ExploratoryFactorAnalysis(EFA) Given the interrelated and correlated nature of the seven identified factors, the oblique rotation method “Direct Oblimin” was employed during the Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA). As a result, the analysis was primarily interpreted based on the “Pattern Matrix” output. In this matrix, three items with factor loadings below 0.30 were sequentially removed from the analysis. Additionally, items that loaded onto multiple factors with a loading difference of less than 0.10 were also excluded. Following these adjustments, EFA was re-applied. Initially, the questionnaire consisted of 56 items across seven factors based on the original SUS-TAS. After the EFA process, the instrument was revised to include 37 items grouped under seven factors. The original SUS-TAS factors— “Environmental Sustainability (ES),” “Long-Term Planning (LP),” “Community Involvement (CI),” “Visitor Satisfaction (VS),” “Perceived Economic Benefits (PEB),” “Community-Centered Economy (CCE),” and “Perceived Social Costs (PSC)”—were restructured based on newly identified correlations. The revised factors were renamed as follows: “Long-Term Environmental Planning (LEP),” “Perceived Economic Benefits (PEF),” “Perceivable Social Costs (PSC),” “Community Engagement (CI),” “Visitor Satisfaction (VS),” “Long-Term Risk Planning (LRP),” and “Community-Centered Economy (CCE)”. The cumulative explanatory power of the revised model was calculated as 60.53% (Table 2).
278 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V Table 2: Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) Factors and Statements Factor Loadings Eigenvalue Explanatory Variance Ratio (%) Factors and Expressions Factor Loadings Eigenvalue Explanatory Variance Ratio (%) LEP 9,3 25.15 CI ES5 0,704 CI1 0,778 2,01 5.45 ES12 0,698 CI2 0,768 ES10 0,678 VS 1,79 4.84 ES8 0,655 VS4 0,654 ES9 0,649 VS1 0,651 ES11 0,643 CCE2 0,616 ES6 0,633 VS2 0,547 LP1 0,615 CCE6 0,533 ES7 0,603 CCE4 0,504 LP4 0,561 LRP 1,59 4.32 LP3 0,558 LUP2 0,766 LP6 0,541 ES1 0,645 PEF 3,61 9.77 CCE 1,29 3.50 PEB2 -0,75 CCE1 CI5 CCE3 CCE5 -0,749 -0,586 -0,584 -0,436 PEB3 -0,732 PEB4 -0,73 PEB1 -0,727 PEB6 -0,667 PEB5 -0,622 PSC 2,77 7.48 PSC6 0,849 PSC7 0,764 PSC5 0,74 PSC1 0,682 PSC2 0,583 SUS-TAS 60.53
DETERMINING LOCAL PEOPLE’S ATTITUDES TOWARDS GLAMPING TOURISM 279 3.4.CronbachAlpha Cronbach’s alpha analysis was conducted to assess the internal consistency of the newly developed seven factors. All individual factors, as well as the overall SUS-TAS scale, demonstrated acceptable reliability levels (Table 3). Table 3: Reliability Analysis (Cronbach alpha) Factors and SUS-TAS Number of Statements Cronbach Alpha Long-term environmental planning (LEP) 12 0,887 Long-term planning (LP) 6 0,844 Perceivable social costs (PSC) 5 0,803 Community engagement (CI) 2 0,753 Visitor satisfaction (VS) 6 0,781 Long-term risk planning (LRP) 2 0,617 Community-centered economy (CCE) 4 0,767 SUS-TAS 37 0,879 3.5.NormalDistributionAnalysis According to Table 4, each of the seven individual factors demonstrated a non-normal (i.e., non-parametric) distribution (p < 0.05), whereas the overall scale (SUS-TAS) followed a normal distribution (p > 0.05). Accordingly, nonparametric statistical tests were employed for analyses involving the seven individual factors, while parametric tests were applied to analyses based on the overall SUS-TAS scale. Table 4: Normal Distribution Analysis Factor Codes LEP LUP PSC CI VS LRP CCE SUS-TAS Kolmogorov Simirnov Statistic 0,16 0,12 0,12 0,16 0,12 0,25 0,13 0,06 P0,000 0,001 0,002 0,000 0,002 0,000 0,001 0,200 3.6.Mann-WhitneyUandIndependentSamplest-Test According to the results of the Mann–Whitney U test, no statistically significant differences were found between male and female participants in their responses to the following factors: Long-Term Environmental Planning (LEP) (P = 0.9), Long-Term Planning (LP) (P = 0.4), Awareness of Sustainable Management (ASM) (P = 0.3), Community Involvement (CI) (P = 0.4), Perceived Social Costs (PSC) (P = 0.3), Local Resource Protection (LRP) (P = 0.5), and Community-Centered Economy (CCE) (P = 0.4). Furthermore, results from the Independent Samples t-Test also indicated no significant gender differences in overall scores for the Sustainable Tourism Attitude Scale (SUS-TAS), as presented in Table 5.
280 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V Table 5: Mann-Whitney U and Independent Samples t Test of SUS-TAS Scale and Its Sub-Factors According to “Gender” Variable Mann-Whitney U (Non-parametric) Dependent Variable Independent Variable N X Mean of Ranks Sum of Ranks UZ P LEP Female 54 1,47 50,12 2706,5 1222 -0,14 0,9 Male 46 1,52 50,95 2343,5 LP Female 54 1,86 52,7 2848 1121 -0,8 0,4 Male 46 1,78 47,9 2202 PSC Female 54 2,44 47,9 2584 1099 -1,0 0,3 Male 46 2,65 53,6 2466 CI Female 54 2,94 52,5 2835 1134 -0,8 0,4 Male 46 2,83 48,2 2215 VS Female 54 1,79 47,9 2587 1102 -1,0 0,3 Male 46 1,87 53,5 2463 LRP Female 54 1,54 48,6 2624 1139 -0,8 0,5 Male 46 1,73 52,8 2427 CCE Female 54 2,00 52,8 2853 1116 -0,9 0,4 Male 46 1,86 47,8 2197 Independent Samples t Test (Parametric) Dependent Variable Independent Variable N X Ft Test t SD P SUS-TAS Female 54 1,86 0 -0,445 98 0,7 Male 46 1,89 X : Arithmetic mean F: Significance between groups (F-value) T: t Test U: Mann-Whitney U Z: Standard score (Z-score)
DETERMINING LOCAL PEOPLE’S ATTITUDES TOWARDS GLAMPING TOURISM 281 According to Table 6, the LEP (P = 0.30), PSC (P = 0.37), CI (P = 0.85), VS (P = 0.19), and LRP (P = 0.15) factors did not exhibit statistically significant differences across age groups. However, significant differences were identified in the LP (P = 0.04) and CCE (P = 0.02) factors based on participants’ age groups. To determine which specific age groups contributed to these differences, post-hoc analyses were conducted for both the LP and CCE variables. Given that the LP and CCE factors displayed non-parametric distributions, Tamhane’s T2 post-hoc test was employed for multiple group comparisons. The analysis revealed a significant difference between the 18–24 and 35–44 age groups for the CCE factor (P = 0.028). In contrast, no significant differences were observed between age groups in the LEP factor. Similarly, for the overall SUS-TAS score (P = 0.28), no statistically significant differences were found across age groups.
288 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V One-way analysis of variance (Parametric) Dependent Variable Independent Variable X SS N Sum of Squares SD Mean of Squares P SUS-TAS No Income 2,03 0,33 22 0,842 4 0,211 0,19 1-8.500 ₺ 1,87 0,24 25 8.501-15.000 ₺ 1,76 0,40 22 15.001-35.000 ₺ 1,84 0,40 27 35.001 ₺ and over 1,93 0,76 4 4. Discussion and Conclusion The LEP (Long-Term Environmental Planning) factor comprises 12 statements and accounts for approximately 25% of the total variance in the study. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for this factor was calculated as 0.887, indicating a high level of internal reliability. When comparing the responses of women (X = 1.47) and men (X = 1.52), no statistically significant difference was observed, despite the factor exhibiting variation across demographic structures. These results suggest that both female and male participants possess a comparable level of awareness regarding long-term environmental planning in the tourism sector. However, a significant difference was found between public sector employees and students (P = 0.01). While the mean scores of public personnel and other occupational groups were relatively similar, the responses of private sector employees and students also displayed close values. Based on these findings, it can be inferred that individuals employed in the public sector and other occupational groups have greater expectations for sustainable and environmentally focused planning compared to those in the private sector or student population. Although occupational groups exhibited some variation, no statistically significant differences were found across education levels. On the other hand, income-based analysis revealed that participants with no income (X = 1.68) and those earning 35,001 or more (X = 1.67) demonstrated relatively lower interest and concern for long-term environmental planning, compared to other income groups in the study (1.39 < X < 1.48). The LP (Long-Term Planning) factor consists of six sub-items and explains approximately 9.8% of the total variance in the study. The reliability analysis for this factor yielded a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.844, indicating a high level of internal consistency. In Bedük’s (2019) study, the same six items were grouped
DETERMINING LOCAL PEOPLE’S ATTITUDES TOWARDS GLAMPING TOURISM 289 under the LP factor as a result of Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA), supporting the current factor structure. The Cronbach’s alpha in that study was 0.903, which is higher than the reliability coefficient obtained in the present study. However, considering the difference in sample sizes—457 in Bedük’s study compared to 100 in the current research—it is reasonable to predict that the reliability value may increase proportionally with a larger sample size. Additionally, the Cronbach’s alpha value may vary depending on the cultural characteristics of the region where the research is conducted and the participants’ interpretation of the survey items. When examining the LP factor, which displayed a dispersed distribution, no statistically significant difference was found between female participants (X = 1.86) and male participants (X = 1.78) (P = 0.4). Similarly, Bedük’s (2019) study also reported no significant gender difference regarding the LP factor, with mean scores of X = 4.74 for women and X = 4.75 for men (P = 0.06). In contrast to the gender variable, a significant difference was observed across age groups (P = 0.04). However, post-hoc analysis failed to identify which specific age groups accounted for this difference, as no statistically significant pairwise comparison emerged. Furthermore, a significant difference was found between students and other occupational groups (P = 0.048). Nevertheless, given the borderline p-values for both age and occupation variables, it can be inferred that the results may vary with a larger sample size. The explanatory power of the PSC (Perceived Social Costs) factor was calculated as 7.48%, and it comprised five sub-items. The reliability coefficient for this factor was 0.803, indicating a high level of internal consistency. When compared to the reliability value reported in Akbaş’s (2019) study (X = 0.711), the PSC factor in the current study demonstrates greater reliability. This suggests that local participants in the present study have a more coherent and consistent perception of social costs than those in the previous study by Akbaş. With respect to gender, no statistically significant difference was found between female (X = 2.44) and male participants (X = 2.65) (P = 0.3). These results indicate that perceptions of social costs among local people do not vary based on gender. Additionally, the participant composition in Avcıkurt and Demirbulut’s (2016) study was similar to that of the present research. However, their study did not include any demographic charts or data tables specifically related to the PSC factor, which limits direct comparison with the current findings. The Community Involvement (CI) factor, as identified through Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA), accounts for 5.45% of the total variance and consists
290 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V of two items. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for this factor was calculated as 0.753, indicating an acceptable level of internal consistency. In comparison, Jeelani et al. (2022) identified four items under the CI factor and reported a higher reliability coefficient of 0.81. Although the number of items and the reliability score in the current study are lower, the results remain within an acceptable range. Notably, the CI factor findings from Jeelani et al.’s study align more closely with the TQ factor results in the current research. No statistically significant differences were observed in CI scores between female (X = 2.94) and male (X = 2.83) participants (P = 0.4). Similarly, no significant differences were found across other demographic variables, including age, occupation, education level, and income. These findings suggest that local community participation in tourism is perceived in a relatively uniform and moderate manner among individuals residing in Trabzon. As a result of EFA, the Visitor Satisfaction (VS) factor emerged from six items originally associated with the “Visitor Satisfaction” (VS) and “Community-Centered Economy” (CCE) dimensions of the SUS-TAS scale. This factor accounts for 4.84% of the total variance. The reliability coefficient was calculated as 0.753, indicating strong internal consistency. No significant differences were found between women (X = 1.79) and men (X = 1.87) (P = 0.3), nor were there any statistically significant differences across other demographic variables (p > 0.05). The lack of variation may be attributed to regional or cultural tendencies among the local population of Trabzon, such as a preference for consensus or reluctance to express critical views. The Long-Term Risk Planning (LRP) factor, which is not present in the original SUS-TAS scale, consists of two items—one drawn from the Long-Term Planning (LP) factor and one from the Environmental Sustainability (ES) factor. These items share a common theme of sustainable planning and preparedness for potential risks such as the COVID-19 pandemic. The LRP factor accounts for 4.32% of the total variance, with a Cronbach’s alpha value of 0.617—the lowest reliability score among all factors in this study. While still within acceptable limits, the low reliability is likely due to the limited number of items. Regarding participant responses, no significant difference was found between women (X = 1.54) and men (X = 1.73), suggesting that both genders similarly support long-term and risk-sensitive planning in tourism. A statistically significant difference was observed among occupational groups (P = 0.045); however, post-hoc analysis failed to identify specific group differences. Consequently, this result is interpreted as inconclusive, and no reliable difference between occupational groups regarding the LRP factor can be confirmed.
DETERMINING LOCAL PEOPLE’S ATTITUDES TOWARDS GLAMPING TOURISM 291 The CCE (Community-Centered Economy) factor was derived by combining four items originally associated with the “Community-Centered Economy” (CCE) and “Community Involvement” (CI) factors from the original scale. The explanatory power of this factor was calculated as 3.5%. The Cronbach’s alpha value for the CCE factor was found to be 0.767, indicating an acceptable level of internal consistency. As with the other six factors, no statistically significant difference was observed between male and female respondents (P = 0.4). However, significant differences were identified across age groups within the PSC (Perceived Social Costs) factor. Specifically, responses varied significantly between the 18–24 age group (X = 2.23) and the 35–44 age group (X = 1.64). These results suggest that individuals aged 35–44 in the local community of Trabzon are generally more supportive of employment opportunities related to glamping tourism, whereas those aged 18–24 exhibit more hesitation and ambivalence. Comparing the factors and items identified in this study with existing literature is crucial. The present study yielded seven factors and 37 items following Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA). In the literature, the number and structure of factors and items vary considerably. For instance, Bedük (2019) identified six factors and 39 items; Pamukçu et al. (2023) reported five factors and 21 items; and Ayazlar (2017) outlined seven factors and 23 items. These differences highlight that factor structures and item compositions can vary depending on the region where the study is conducted, the cultural context of the participants, regional utilitarian characteristics, and levels of public awareness. Consequently, the application of the SUS-TAS scale in diverse geographic and cultural contexts enhances the scale’s adaptability, contributes to its refinement, and supports its broader generalizability. In the study conducted among local residents of Trabzon, participants generally responded with “Disagree” or “Undecided” to items within the Community Involvement (CI) and Perceived Social Costs (PSC) factors. These responses indicate that local residents do not fully support the idea of involving every individual in the community in tourism-related activities. Notably, an undesirable perception emerged among participants, particularly in relation to the statements presented under the CI factor. This perception appears to stem from the phrasing of certain items that may have been misinterpreted. Specifically, one item in the CI factor could be perceived as advocating for the involvement of all local residents in tourism, which may not align with participants’ views. In contrast, in Bedük’s (2019)
292 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V study, responses to the CI factor predominantly ranged between “Agree” and “Strongly Agree,” supporting the interpretation that item wording can significantly influence perception. Regarding the PSC factor, findings suggest that participants believed tourism contributes to environmental degradation, negatively impacts the quality of life of local residents, and leads to undesirable crowding in the city. However, most participants responded with “Undecided” to these statements, indicating uncertainty or ambivalence. A notable exception was found among participants aged 25–34, who tended to disagree with the PSC items or gave responses leaning toward “Undecided.” When compared to Bedük’s (2019) study, where participants strongly agreed with PSC statements, it can be inferred that the phrasing of the PSC items in the present study may have been perceived as ambiguous. Consequently, participants may have responded based on their individual awareness levels and understanding of tourism impacts. The findings of the study indicate that while local communities value longterm environmental planning, their understanding of sustainability in tourism remains underdeveloped. The analysis highlights a need for solution-oriented approaches focusing on sustainability and local participation. Future studies are encouraged to examine post-COVID-19 tourism trends in greater depth and to promote increased engagement from tourism businesses in such research efforts. The results also underscore the necessity of establishing sustainabilityfocused policies within the tourism sector and developing strategies to ensure more active involvement of local communities. The study further concludes that the demand for safe vacation experiences and the temporary suspension of tourism activities during the pandemic have heightened the public’s longing for nature and natural environments. It was found that awareness of glamping tourism is particularly low among local residents, with the concept often misperceived as merely “weekend getaways in bungalow houses.” Interest in glamping tourism in the Trabzon region has not kept pace with its global post-pandemic rise, which may be attributed to a general lack of familiarity with nature-based or alternative tourism models. This limited awareness may also be influenced by the region’s geographical characteristics and the existing spatial distribution of rural housing, which already offers physical distancing advantages. In the face of future risks such as pandemics, it is essential for authorities to implement more effective crisis management strategies and to develop appropriate planning frameworks and protocols. Ensuring cooperation between
DETERMINING LOCAL PEOPLE’S ATTITUDES TOWARDS GLAMPING TOURISM 293 the state, society, and the tourism sector will be critical in sustaining life without compromising natural resources during periods of uncertainty. 4.1.Theoreticalimplications This study offers original contributions to the sustainable tourism literature by examining glamping tourism within a unique contextual framework. Notably, it is among the first to explore local community attitudes toward glamping tourism through the lens of sustainable tourism, particularly in response to shifts in tourist behavior brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic. The SUS-TAS scale employed in the research was adapted specifically to address COVID19 and glamping-related dimensions, incorporating a range of indicators such as sustainability, perceived social costs, community participation, long-term planning, and economic benefits. This adaptation provides a theoretical example of the contextual flexibility and scalability of existing measurement tools. Furthermore, variations in participants’ demographic characteristics contribute to a nuanced theoretical understanding of how sustainable tourism is perceived at the community level. In this regard, the study emphasizes the importance of reinterpreting sustainability theories in localized contexts and reconfiguring them in light of emerging global risks, such as pandemics. 4.2.Practicalimplications The research findings indicate that although glamping tourism has emerged as a prominent and safe alternative tourism model in the post-COVID-19 period, it remains insufficiently recognized by local communities, with awareness levels notably low. This situation holds important implications for local governments, planners, and tourism operators. First and foremost, in order for glamping tourism to be embraced by local residents, comprehensive information dissemination, education, and awarenessraising initiatives should be implemented. Enhancing local participation in sustainable tourism planning is essential, and such participation should be institutionalized at both political and administrative levels. Furthermore, the findings underscore the necessity of prioritizing longterm environmental planning in tourism-related investments and highlight the importance of supporting these investments through social cost-benefit analyses. Planning glamping initiatives in alignment with sustainability principles and ecological harmony is considered a strategic approach to enhancing the tourism sector’s resilience in times of crisis.
294 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V 4.3.Limitationsandfutureresearchdirections The primary limitation of this study is its geographically restricted sample, which is confined solely to the province of Trabzon. This limitation constrains the generalizability of the findings to other regions of Turkey or to populations with different socio-cultural backgrounds. Moreover, the study’s relatively small sample size (N = 100) may have limited the ability to detect statistically significant differences—particularly in relation to demographic variables. Additionally, participants’ limited familiarity with glamping tourism likely contributed to indecisive or low-awareness responses in certain sub-dimensions. This factor should be taken into account when interpreting the study’s results. Several recommendations can be made for future research. First, qualitative studies involving individuals with direct experience in glamping tourism, as well as tourism professionals, could yield more in-depth insights into this tourism model. Comparative studies across diverse geographical regions, particularly those differentiating between rural and urban contexts, would help to broaden the understanding of glamping tourism’s perceptual effects on local populations. Furthermore, longitudinal research designs are recommended to investigate the long-term impacts of variables such as sustainability, disaster preparedness, and community participation on the development and acceptance of glamping tourism. Acknowledgement *This study was produced from the master’s thesis titled “COVID-19 Salgını Sonrası Yerel Halk ve Turizm İşletmelerinin Glamping Turizmine Yönelik Yaklaşımlarının Belirlenmesi: Trabzon İli Örneği” References Acuner, E., and Ergin, E. (2022). COVID-19 küresel salgın sürecinde turizm işletmelerinin kriz yönetim uygulamaları ile işletme performansı arasındaki ilişkide iyimserliğin düzenleyici rolü: TR90 bölgesi örneği. Aksu, V. Ö., Kılıç, C., Düzgüneş, E., Araz, N., and Öztürk, K. (2017). Altındere Vadisi Milli Parkı kullanıcılarının rekreasyonel memnuniyetinin belirlenmesi. Ormancılık Araştırma Dergisi, 4(1), 30-45. Alaeddinoğlu, F., and Rol, S., (2020). Covid-19 pandemisi ve turizm üzerindeki etkileri. Yüzüncü Yıl Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, (Salgın Hastalıklar Özel Sayısı), 233-258.
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304 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V We conducted our study in Borçka Karagöl Nature Park, is first declared nature park in Artvin. It is located at the district border of Borçka in the northeastern Turkish province, Artvin. The distance of the nature park to the district center and to the province center is approximately 25 and 58 kilometers, respectively. There are also village settlements close to the nature park (Figure 1). ϰ Figure 1: The Location of the Study Area Borçka Karagöl Nature Park was declared a Nature Park through the MPG.MP.1.45.17/438 numbered Ministerial Approval, dated to August 14, 2002, due to its resource-valued lake ecosystem, biological diversity requiring preservation, and its unique landscape character. Borçka Karagöl Nature Park has an area of 368 hectares. The lake within the nature park covers an approximate area of 9 hectares. Borçka Karagöl is surrounded by various old trees which could be considered to have monumental value. The nature park has rich vegetation and animal diversity, in addition, the redscaled trout species peculiar to the local area reside in the lake. Since the region is on the migration route of predatory birds, it is possible to observe predatory birds in the area. Lynxes, grizzly bears, hook-horned mountain goats, hazel hens and predatory birds are present in the lake surroundings and in the forests. The surroundings of the lake, which is influenced by heavy rainfall and high levels of relative humidity, presents the characteristics of a rainforest ecosystem with its virgin vegetation (General Directorate of Nature Conservation and National Parks, 2016). Walking paths, scenery spots, picnic areas and areas available for tent camping were provided around the lake (Figure 2). Figure 1: The Location of the Study Area Borçka Karagöl Nature Park was declared a Nature Park through the MPG. MP.1.45.17/438 numbered Ministerial Approval, dated to August 14, 2002, due to its resource-valued lake ecosystem, biological diversity requiring preservation, and its unique landscape character. Borçka Karagöl Nature Park has an area of 368 hectares. The lake within the nature park covers an approximate area of 9 hectares. Borçka Karagöl is surrounded by various old trees which could be considered to have monumental value. The nature park has rich vegetation and animal diversity, in addition, the red-scaled trout species peculiar to the local area reside in the lake. Since the region is on the migration route of predatory birds, it is possible to observe predatory birds in the area. Lynxes, grizzly bears, hook-horned mountain goats, hazel hens and predatory birds are present in the lake surroundings and in the forests. The surroundings of the lake, which is influenced by heavy rainfall and high levels of relative humidity, presents the characteristics of a rainforest ecosystem with its virgin vegetation (General Directorate of Nature Conservation and National Parks, 2016). Walking paths, scenery spots, picnic areas and areas available for tent camping were provided around the lake (Figure 2).
A METHOD TO DETERMINE THE NATURE-BASED TOURISM AREAS WITHIN THE . . . 305 Figure 2: Map of the Borçka Karagöl Nature Park In the nature park, it is possible to watch uniquely beautiful scenes due to the mirror effect of the lake. Especially during the autumn, many visitors visit the park to observe the color harmony (Figure 3). The nature park has visitor potential throughout four seasons. It is a living studio for different photo shoots. Figure 3. Autumn Colors in The Nature Park Borçka Karagol Nature Park has the characteristic of a recreational area with an annually increasing visitor potential. The number of visitors in the area was 38606 in 2015, 64418 in 2016 and 89100 in 2017, 99265 in 2018, 121977 in 2019, 120300 in 2020 and 108628 in 2021 according to the data obtained from Artvin Branch of the 12th Regional Directorate of Nature Conservation and National Parks. Although the number of visitors has decreased a little due to the Covid-19 pandemic, the number of visitors has increased every year.
306 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V 2.2.Method Consistent with the objective of the present study, an attempt was made to determine the resource value of the Borçka Karagöl Nature Park case in terms of nature-based tourism. The method of the study was structured around a questionnaire form, constructed to classify and evaluate the resources under two categories. These two categories include attractions and accessibility. The attractions category is classified under 5 sub-categories, namely, the resource value, infrastructure support, nature-based activities support, level of environmental degradation and climate. The accessibility category is classified under 3 sub-categories, namely, the road type, vehicle type and estimated distance to the village (Table 1). These sub-categories were formed by combining the parameters used in previous studies (Priskin, 2001; Hernández-Morcillo et al., 2013; Rahayuningsih et al, 2016; Fossgard and Fredman, 2019; Hong and Saizen, 2019; Farías-Torbidoni and Barić, 2020; Syamsudin et al., 2020; Yuxi and Linsheng, 2020). The questionnaire was applied to a participant group of 23 experts from different professional disciplines. 5 participants of the group were landscape architects, 8 were forest engineers (ecologists, ecotourism experts, entomologists, silviculture department members), 3 were geographers, 4 were tourism professionals and 3 were administrators. All participants know the area very well and visit the area at least twice a year. Participants were asked to give scores to each parameter between 1 and 7 according to the scale below, with respect to their availability in the area. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 low moderate high
A METHOD TO DETERMINE THE NATURE-BASED TOURISM AREAS WITHIN THE . . . 307 Table 1: Categories and Sub-Categories Used in Questionnaire Categories Sub-categories Value ATTRACTIONS Resource value Positive (+) floral diversity, variation of altitude (low land-high mountain), variation of slope (flatvery step), cultural attraction, water body, geological features, cultural-historical heritage, agricultural activities, rocky coastline-cliffs, scenic diversity (vistas) Infrastructure toilet facilities, Positive (+) picnic tables fountain seats-benches service building security access for disabled barbecue rubbish bins shades (pergola, gazebo etc.) lighting units Nature-based activities support hiking/trekking, Positive (+) birdwatching, photographing, camping, mountain climbing wildlife watching, research/education, caving hack skiing picnic, extreme sports (mountain biking, paragliding etc.) aquatics (rafting, boating, diving, kayaking, windsurfing etc.)
308 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V Level of environmental degradation wastes Negative (-) disease (insects etc.) impact of fire built structures (tunnels, bridges etc.) trampling of vegetation exotic or invasive species erosion/ landslides Climate value temperature relative humidity wind speed Positive (+) ACCESSIBILITY Road type (no road, tracks/pathway, pavement, asphalt) Positive (+) Vehicle type (no car access, motorless vehicle (bicycle etc.), four-wheel drive, two-wheel drive, minibus, all) Estimated distance to village (0-5 km, 6-10 km, 11-15 km, 16-20 km, >20 km) The questionnaire duration was approximately 7 minutes for one participant. In the present study, the researchers scored only the parameters under the climate value. The climate value category was scored with respect to the bioclimatic comfort criteria of individuals, including temperature: 17-24.9 °C, relative humidity: 30-65 and wind speed: 0-5 m/sn (Olgyay, 1973). Climate data was obtained from the General Directorate of Meteorology. Score 1 was given to the values below and above these levels and score 7 was given to each parameter when the value was within the abovementioned ranges. 2.2.1.Dataanalysis NBT attractions and activities have been indicated as satisfying wellnessseeking motives of tourists, highlighting the role nature plays in enhancing subjective wellbeing (Pyo et al., 1989; Kim et al., 2015; Lück and Aquino, 2021). Attraction is considered as the major capital in tourism activity operation (Rahayuningsih et al., 2016). People will choose space with specific characteristics for nature tourism activities. (Yuxi and Linshen, 2020). In naturebased tourism, the aesthetic experience is the core element, and contributes to tourist loyalty (Zhang and Xua, 2020). Therefore, the weight of attraction was
A METHOD TO DETERMINE THE NATURE-BASED TOURISM AREAS WITHIN THE . . . 309 determined as 60%. Accessibility is a significant factor of support in the tourism industry (Rahayuningsih et al., 2016), therefore the weighted value of this category was considered as 40%. The value of suitability was calculated with the formula below. VSNBT= VA (VR+VIS+VNBAS+ VC-VLED).0,6+VAc.0,4 VSNBT= Suitability of nature-based tourism value; VA= Attraction value; VR= Resource value; VIS= Infrastructure support value; VNBAS= Nature-based activity support; VC= Climate value; VLED= Value of level of environmental degradation; VAC= Value of accessibility. In the categorizing the data obtained from the questionnaire, the lowest value (-4.2) was subtracted from the highest value (163.8) achieved via the parameter evaluation and the remaining value was divided to 5 to conduct the evaluation under five categories, hence the following scale was obtained: The degrees of suitability were evaluated under five-point Likert type scale. 1 2 3 4 5 Not suitable at all Not very suitable Neutral Somewhat suitable Highly suitable 3. Results and Discussion Preserved landscapes and areas are potential zones for the development of ecotourism due to their biodiversity, extraordinary landscape characteristics, natural resources and cultural heritage of local communities. Such landscapes include interesting geographical formations, landscapes, cool microclimatic conditions, water resources, plant diversity, animals and their natural habitats, natural beauty, local foods, festivals, pageants, traditional agricultural structure, local handcrafts, regional clothing culture, traditional music, folk dances, art activities, archaeological and/or historical monuments, etc. (Lane, 1993; Gerry, 2001; Drzewiecki, 2001; Briassoulis, 2002; Mlynarczyk, 2002; Catibog-Sinha and Wen, 2008; Kiper, 2013; Acıksoz et al., 2016). Chen et al. (2017) stated that the tourist preferences evolved into a desire to establish a more direct communication with nature and environment in the developed tourist regions such as Europe and the new vacation models presented a growth due to an increasing interest in local traditions, folklore and resources. Contrary to the mass tourism, which facilitates sun, sand and sea as the sole source of tourism, ecotourism or nature-based tourism activities respond to the desires of individuals to participate in tours for different purposes such as relaxation, exploration, and learning, escaping to nature and distancing oneself
310 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V from the routine of everyday life. These activities also constitute the major axis of sustainable tourism (Alaeddinoglu and Can, 2011). Hanna et al., (2019) and Buckley, (2020) indicated that communing with the natural environment induces individuals to rethink their relationship with nature, achieve clarity of outlook in life, and change their worldviews (Lück and Aquino, 2021). Determination of the suitability of the resource values and areas for the diversification of nature-based tourism becomes a significant issue to ensure the sustainability of nature-based tourism areas within the balance of preservationutilization. Therefore, within the present study, a checklist was developed to determine the suitable areas for nature-based tourism. Precedent studies were reviewed prior to the development of this checklist. For instance, Priskin (2001) conducted an evaluation under parameters such as attractions, access, infrastructure support and level of environmental degradation. Fredman and Tyrväinen (2010) stated that the existence of services and infrastructure (eg, shops, supplies, parking, local public transport) described the tourism demand. Jozi et al. (2010) used the slope, distance from the habitats, distance from the main roads, geology and land capacity parameters to evaluate recreational suitability of their research area. Bunruamkaew and Murayam (2011) described the visibility, land use/cover, preservation, diversity of species, height, slope, proximity to cultural areas, distance to roads and settlement size as the criteria set, with respect to the opinions of the professional experts, to assess the suitability of the area for ecotourism. In addition, Rahayuningsih et al. (2016) evaluated the attraction (landscape variation with respect to land cover, object variation with respect to tourism object distribution, resource uniqueness with respect to land cover and object distribution, resource sensitivity with respect to value, scenery with respect to land cover and objects distribution, tourism activity alternatives with respect to land cover and objects distribution, changes in altitude and changes in slope) and accessibility (prediction of the distance between the village and the center of sub-district) parameters. Fossgard and Fredman (2019) identified a comprehensive framework of requirements, categorized along six dimensions (adapting to guests’ needs, access to resources, experience facilitation, risk management, crowding management and connection to place) which describes the relations between nature-based tourism experiences and associated resources in nature. Hong and Saizen (2019) proposed three criteria (attraction, accessibility, and adaptation) for the assessment of the suitability to tourism development. Syamsudin et al. (2020) performed data analysis in their study by scoring the result of criteria assessment
A METHOD TO DETERMINE THE NATURE-BASED TOURISM AREAS WITHIN THE . . . 311 in the form of tourist attraction, accessibility and socio-economic community around the tourist attraction. Yuxi and Linsheng (2020) used eight indicators (naturalness, water proximity, protected area proximity, landscape diversity, vegetation coverage, altitude suitability, relief suitability and climate comfort) to calculate the Landscape Attractiveness Index and found that more than 50% of the study areas have a value of landscape attractiveness, indicating a high nature-based tourism development potential. Attractive landscape is the most significant parameter that influences the travel destination choice and outdoor recreation (Tyrväinen et al., 2017). Observations of the tourists on their surroundings are often associated with the aesthetic factors and natural beauty (Schroeder, 2002; Tyrväinen et al., 2008; Barroso et al., 2012). Therefore, in various studies (Tyrväinen et al., 2001; Tyrväinen et al., 2008, Brown and Raymond, 2007) it was emphasized that landscape was the key attraction factor for nature-based tourism (Tyrväinen et al., 2017). As previously mentioned in the methodology section of the present study, a questionnaire was carried out including the main topics determined based on the literature review, namely, resource value, infrastructure provision, naturebased activities/facilities, environmental degradation, climate and accessibility. Hu and Ritchie (1993) indicated that climate and natural beauty were “universally important” in describing the attractiveness of a destination (de Urioste-Stone et al., 2016). Gössling et al. (2012) stated that climate conditions can affect the tourist’s enjoyment of a destination. Dube and Nhamo (2020) have been found that extreme temperatures, especially during certain months cause challenges for aviation in the area, threatening to disrupt tourist movements both into and out of the area. Rezvani et al. (2022) indicated that climate has an indispensable role due to its contribution in shaping natural environment. Once the climate data obtained from the General Directorate of Meteorology was examined, it was determined that the average relative humidity value of the area was 73.6%, average temperature was 13.68°C and the average wind speed was 2.44 m/sn according to the long-term averages. In this respect, the temperature and humidity were scored with 1 point, and the wind speed was scored as 7 points. The suitability of the study area for nature-based tourism was tested consistently with the obtained classification. Borçka Karagöl Nature Park was determined to have a somewhat suitability (VSNBT= 90.02) for nature-based tourism with respect to the formula defined in the methodology section.
312 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V For each parameter value, the maximum value that the area could hold was found to be 70 for resource value, 77 for infrastructure provision, 91 for nature-based activities/facilities, 49(-) for environmental degradation, and 21 for accessibility. Once all participant responses were evaluated, it was possible to assert that Karagöl Nature Park was found to be rich in terms of resource values (46.86), intermediate in terms of infrastructure (41.3), rich in terms of naturebased activities and had low levels of environmental degradation (-19.17). In addition, the area was evaluated as highly suitable with respect to accessibility (18.65) (Figure 4). ϭϭ Figure 4: Mean Values of the Parameters for The Evaluation of All Participant Responses Within the scope of the study area, the most effective parameters in terms of resource values were determined to be the presence of water (151), landscape diversity (149) and vegetative diversity (146), with a maximum value of 161, respectively.In terms of the infrastructure, it was determined that the lack of disabled access (62), lighting units (72) and security (77) parameters affected the potential of the area.In terms of nature-based activities, it has been observed that the area allows photography (150), picnics (145) and hiking/trekking (137) has an impact on tourism potential. Although there is not much environmental degradation in the area, it has been determined that the parameters that increase this negative impact in the area are garbage / waste (83), erosion / landslide areas (77) and structural elements (74).The site has high accessibility in terms of accessibility. The accessibility of the site by all types of vehicles (149), its appropriate paving (130) and the fact that it is not far from the nearest residential area (140) have increased its accessibility value. Priskin (2001) determined 65 potential resource areas for nature-based tourism in his study focusing on the Central Coast Region of Western Australia. It was determined that attraction diversity in the region was high, however the sources were found to be associated with poor accessibility, low levels of tourism infrastructure, and moderate levels of environmental degradation. Alaeddinoglu and Can (2011) found that the attraction potential of their study area was at a satisfactory level for the trips to the region and that the area had a low level of environmental degradation, which was considered significant by nature-based tourists. As a result of spatial analysis and evaluation of tourism resources, Rahayuningsih et al. (2016) stated that the areas recommended for nature-based tourism were the units of the Bogor -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Resource value Infrastructure Nature-based activities/facilities Environmental degredation Accessibility Suitability Values Evaluation Categories Figure 4: Mean Values of the Parameters for The Evaluation of All Participant Responses Within the scope of the study area, the most effective parameters in terms of resource values were determined to be the presence of water (151), landscape diversity (149) and vegetative diversity (146), with a maximum value of 161, respectively. In terms of the infrastructure, it was determined that the lack of disabled access (62), lighting units (72) and security (77) parameters affected the potential of the area. In terms of nature-based activities, it has been observed that the area allows photography (150), picnics (145) and hiking/trekking (137) has an impact on tourism potential. Although there is not much environmental degradation in the area, it has been determined that the parameters that increase this negative impact in the area are garbage / waste (83), erosion / landslide areas (77) and structural elements (74). The site has high accessibility in terms of accessibility. The accessibility of the site by all types of vehicles (149), its appropriate paving (130) and the fact that it is not far from the nearest residential area (140) have increased its accessibility value.
A METHOD TO DETERMINE THE NATURE-BASED TOURISM AREAS WITHIN THE . . . 313 Priskin (2001) determined 65 potential resource areas for nature-based tourism in his study focusing on the Central Coast Region of Western Australia. It was determined that attraction diversity in the region was high, however the sources were found to be associated with poor accessibility, low levels of tourism infrastructure, and moderate levels of environmental degradation. Alaeddinoglu and Can (2011) found that the attraction potential of their study area was at a satisfactory level for the trips to the region and that the area had a low level of environmental degradation, which was considered significant by nature-based tourists. As a result of spatial analysis and evaluation of tourism resources, Rahayuningsih et al. (2016) stated that the areas recommended for nature-based tourism were the units of the Bogor District and Municipality, which had high resources and high accessibility. In the present study, it was determined that the resource value of the nature park was high, the environmental degradation was low, and the accessibility parameter to the area was high. However, the present study was structured around the concept that the parameters, which were utilized in determining the suitability of the area for nature-based tourism, were the parts that constituted the whole, and suitability was tested accordingly. It is possible to assert that the responses that the participant groups provided for the questionnaire were commonly parallel to each other. For instance, the response scores regarding the resource values were distributed between 41.33 and 50.33, for the administrators and geographers, respectively. However, regarding the responses regarding infrastructure, it is possible to assert that the administrators evaluated the presence of the related parameters more positively. It was determined that the scores for infrastructure provision were distributed between 31 and 64, for landscape architects and administrators, respectively (Figure 5).
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