Ex Post Factor Analysis of Creativity and Critical Thinking in Relation to Entrepreneurial Skill in Foods and Nutrition as Perceived by Teachers among Junior High School Learners

ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17308711/NIJSE.2025 Ex Post Factor Analysis of Creativity and Critical Thinking in Relation to Entrepreneurial Skill in Foods and Nutrition as Perceived by Teachers among Junior High School Learners Emerson John C. Rosete Abstract. This study examined the effects of creativity and engagement on entrepreneurial skills among junior high school learners in the context of Foods and Nutrition. Using a quantitative approach, a Two-Way ANOVA was conducted to determine whether varying levels of creativity and engagement, individually and in combination, significantly influenced students’ interpretive performance. The study involved 134 student participants, categorized based on their levels of creativity and engagement. Results revealed no statistically significant main effects of creativity or engagement on interpretation skills. Furthermore, the interaction effect between the two variables was also non-significant. Levene’s Test indicated a violation of the assumption of homogeneity of variances warranting cautious interpretation of results. Despite the lack of significant findings, the study offers implications for instructional design and curriculum development. It recommends incorporating critical thinking and scaffolded instruction to enhance interpretation skills. Future research is encouraged to explore additional variables such as reading proficiency, motivation, and instructional context. The findings contribute to the growing discourse on cognitive and behavioral predictors of student performance in applied academic subjects. KEY WORDS 1. Creativity 2. Engagement 3. Entrepreneurial Skills 4. Two-Way ANOVA 5. Foods and Nutrition 6. Junior High School Date Received: August 15, 2025 — Date Reviewed: September 20, 2025 — Date Published: October 10, 2025 1. Introduction The focus on entrepreneurial skills in education underscores the importance of preparing junior high students with vital competencies for thriving in the competitive job market, particularly in the Foods and Nutrition sector. Nonetheless, challenges in cultivating these skills stem from the insufficient incorporation of entrepreneurial principles into the curriculum, which tends to prioritize theoretical knowledge over hands-on practice. This gap between academic learning and applicable skills undermines entrepreneurial achievements. Limited resources restrict experiential learning, curtailing creativity and narrowing students’ comprehension of the complexities involved in food-related businesses. Socio-economic factors exacerbate these challenges, as underprivileged students frequently lack access to entrepreneurial role models and practical experiences, raising issues regarding educational fairness. A major interna- NIJSE (2025) - tional issue is the gap in educational resources between developed and developing nations. In numerous developing countries, schools frequently lack the necessary infrastructure and funding to establish effective entrepreneurship programs. This shortfall limits students’ exposure to practical learning opportunities that nurture creativity and critical thinking, hindering their ability to acquire the entrepreneurial skills essential for success in a global economy (Slagel,et.al., 2022). A significant concern is the swift technological progress influencing the food industry. Students face a landscape marked by innovations in food production, processing, and distribution. Yet, many education systems have struggled to adapt, leading to a curriculum that overlooks the critical roles of digital literacy and tech-driven entrepreneurship in Foods and Nutrition. Consequently, graduates may lack essential skills to utilize technology effectively in their entrepreneurial efforts, limiting their chances of success in a growing digital market (Chaker and Dellagi, 2023). Furthermore, increasing worries about food security and sustainability are emerging worldwide. Students frequently lack the necessary preparation to confront these urgent issues through entrepreneurship in the food industry. Numerous educational programs fail to emphasize the importance of instructing students on sustainable practices and the ethical consequences of food production and consumption. This oversight could hinder students from creating innovative solutions to essential global problems like food waste, access to nutritious options, and environmentally sustainable practices (Enriquez, et.al., 2024). A major challenge in the Philippines is the uneven distribution of educational resources among regions. Numerous schools, particularly in rural areas, do not have adequate facilities, equipment, and materials to support effective entrepreneurship programs. This lack of resources limits students’ opportunities for hands-on learning experiences that encourage creativity and critical thinking, hindering their ability to cultivate the entrepreneurial skills essential for success in both local and global markets (Almulla, 2023). A significant challenge in the Philippines is the outdated curriculum, which frequently fails to match current industry trends. While the Department of Education’s K-12 program has made improvements by incorporating entrepreneurship components, many teachers might not be sufficiently trained to convey these lessons effectively. As a result, students could graduate lacking a thorough understanding of modern food production, marketing, and business management practices, which restricts their ability to navigate the complexities of the food industry. This gap between what is taught and real-world applications can impede students’ readiness to seize entrepreneurial opportunities in Foods and Nutrition (Rosales, et.al., 2023). Moreover, the Philippines confronts considerable obstacles regarding food security and sustainability, worsened by factors like poverty and climate change. Students frequently lack the necessary preparation to tackle these urgent issues through entrepreneurship in the food industry. Numerous educational programs fail to emphasize the significance of educating students on sustainable agricultural practices, nutrition, and the ethical consequences of food production and consumption. This oversight may hinder students from creating innovative solutions that could help resolve vital national challenges, such as enhancing food access and fostering environmentally sustainable practices (Larin, 2023). In the San Isidro North District of Davao Oriental, junior high school students face significant challenges in developing entrepreneurial skills in Foods and Nutrition. A major problem is the limited availability of quality educational resources and facilities. Many local schools grapple with insufficient funding, which restricts their capacity to provide necessary materials and equipment for hands-on learning experiences. Consequently, students 2ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17308711/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - frequently miss out on practical opportunities to engage with food preparation, nutrition, and business management—essential areas for nurturing creativity and critical thinking. Additionally, the shortage of trained educators capable of effectively teaching entrepreneurial concepts further complicates the situation, leaving students unprepared to handle the intricacies of the food industry. This study aims to explore how fostering creativity and critical thinking can address these challenges in the San Isidro North District and contribute to developing a more entrepreneurial mindset among students, better equipping them for future opportunities in the food sector. 2. Review of Related Literature 2.0.1. Creativity—Creativity is central to entrepreneurial competence in food and nutrition, enabling learners to generate novel solutions, innovate in product development, and adapt to market demands (Lydon et al., 2023). Teachers’ confidence and professional support are vital in delivering food and nutrition curricula effectively (Tam et al., 2023). Creative strategies, such as experiential learning and practical workshops, enhance food skills, confidence, and healthier decision-making, though gender differences in outcomes exist (Lydon et al., 2023). Studies further stress aligning instruction with real-world needs through curricular reforms, training, and improved laboratory access (Lano-Maduagu Ogbonna, 2023). Cultural values and cognitive styles may inhibit creativity, as seen in Hong Kong, while progressive scaffolding in culinary education fosters creativity across student year levels (Tam et al., 2023; Thimthong et al., 2024). 2.0.2. Originality—Originality strengthens entrepreneurial skills by fostering unique recipes, products, and business ideas that address market gaps. It builds confidence and innovation capacity, allowing students to thrive in competitive environments (Tam et al., 2023). Structural and cultural factors, however, may restrict originality, requiring tailored educational reforms. 2.0.3. Problem-Solving—Problemsolving enables students to address food safety, dietary needs, and consumer trends through creative, resilient strategies. Collaborative programs like Let’s Eat Healthy link food access with nutrition education to build equity and skills (Rosales et al., 2023). Creativity and critical thinking jointly enhance problem-solving, which positively influences academic success (Almulla, 2023). Design thinking approaches also significantly boost creativity and problemsolving capacities (Guaman-Quintanilla et al., 2023). 2.0.4. Elaboration—Elaboration deepens entrepreneurial skills by encouraging students to expand basic ideas into market-ready products and strategies. Nutrition campaigns like MyPlate highlight barriers such as affordability and cultural factors influencing food access (Loiacono et al., 2023). Integrating agricultural education further supports food security and economic development (Njura et al., 2021). Studies also show that college students’ dietary behaviors are shaped by beliefs, social dynamics, and institutional contexts, stressing the need for holistic nutrition education (Birmachu Heidelberger, 2023). 2.0.5. Critical Thinking—Critical thinking equips students to analyze data, assess market trends, and make sustainable, ethical decisions. Active learning and problem-based approaches foster these skills but face challenges in implementation (Becker et al., 2024). Inclusive nutrition education requires cultural responsiveness, beyond translation, to engage diverse communities (Franck et al., 2024). School initiatives like CHEFS improve nutrition through collaborative, locally driven interventions (Langner et al., 2024). 3ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17308711/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - 2.0.6. Analytical Skills—Analytical skills support critical thinking by helping students evaluate nutritional content, market gaps, and consumer needs. Research shows strong links between analytical skills, critical thinking, and student performance, with real-world problembased learning enhancing outcomes (Demir, 2022; Utami, 2023). 2.0.7. Evaluation of Evidence—The ability to assess evidence sharpens decision-making in food and nutrition entrepreneurship. Authentic learning approaches encourage balanced evaluation of claims and build scientific literacy (Jin et al., 2023). Cognitive flexibility and critical thinking also mitigate the effects of evaluative fears on motivation (Toprak et al., 2024). 2.0.8. Reasoned Decision-Making— Sound decision-making allows entrepreneurs to weigh options, manage risks, and plan strategically. Studies emphasize that critical thinking dispositions and decision-making styles strongly predict problem-solving skills (Orhan, 2022). Interdisciplinary teaching initiatives also highlight how hands-on, narrative-based instruction fosters student engagement and decision-making capacity (Kamel-ElSayed Uhley, 2024). 2.0.9. Entrepreneurial Skills in Foods and Nutrition—Entrepreneurial success in food and nutrition requires creativity, financial literacy, market awareness, and problem-solving. Food literacy—particularly cooking skills—is positively linked to healthier eating behaviors in adolescents and young adults (Enriquez et al., 2024). Interventions such as food literacy programs and cooking workshops improve nutrition, health, and self-efficacy (Lee et al., 2021). 2.0.10. Innovation and Market Awareness—Innovation enables entrepreneurs to design unique products, adopt sustainable practices, and remain competitive (Oliveira Cardoso, 2021). Problem-based learning fosters interdisciplinary collaboration, while entrepreneurship programs show gender differences: girls often excel in collaboration and creativity, but boys report higher self-efficacy, suggesting the need for gender-responsive approaches (Rotnitsky et al., 2024). Market awareness equips students to understand trends, consumer needs, and pricing strategies, allowing them to adapt to industry changes and capitalize on opportunities (Enriquez et al., 2024). 2.0.11. Financial Literacy—Financial literacy underpins entrepreneurship by guiding budgeting, cost management, and profitability analysis. Programs that integrate nutrition education with produce prescriptions improve financial and food resource management in lowincome communities (Slagel et al., 2022). Studies also highlight the combined role of creativity, entrepreneurial mindset, and financial literacy in fostering entrepreneurial intention among students (Chaker Dellagi, 2023). 2.1. Synthesis—The combination of creativity, originality, problem-solving skills, elaboration, critical thinking, analytical abilities, evidence evaluation, logical decision-making, innovation, market awareness, and financial literacy creates a holistic framework for developing entrepreneurial skills in food and nutrition. Creativity is the base for generating distinct ideas and strategies, while originality helps differentiate these concepts in a competitive landscape. Problem-solving skills and elaboration enhance students’ capacities, enabling them to tackle challenges and create comprehensive, actionable plans. Critical thinking, along with its components analytical abilities, evidence evaluation, and logical decision-making, empowers students to make well-informed choices grounded in thorough analysis and reasoning. Innovation facilitates the creation of novel products and practices that satisfy evolving consumer needs, whereas market awareness allows entrepreneurs to grasp industry trends and consumer desires. Lastly, financial literacy gives students the crucial skills to manage resources wisely, ensuring they make informed decisions 4ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17308711/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - to promote business sustainability and growth. Collectively, these interrelated concepts cultivate a strong entrepreneurial mindset, preparing students to excel in the dynamic food and nutrition sector and ultimately supporting their success as future entrepreneurs. Integrating these entrepreneurial skills into food and nutrition education not only enhances academic learning but also equips students with real-world competencies that are essential for future success. By engaging in hands-on projects, case studies, and experiential learning opportunities, students can apply their knowledge in simulated or actual business environments, such as schoolbased enterprises or community food initiatives. These experiences foster a deeper understanding of how to launch and manage food-related ventures, including product development, marketing, budgeting, and customer service. Additionally, they promote collaboration and leadership, encouraging students to work effectively in teams, communicate ideas persuasively, and adapt to feedback. As global food systems continue to evolve in response to health, environmental, and economic challenges, the ability to innovate and lead with a strong ethical and entrepreneurial foundation becomes increasingly vital. Educators, therefore, play a key role in cultivating these competencies, ensuring that the next generation of food and nutrition professionals are not only knowledgeable but also proactive, adaptive, and socially responsible entrepreneurs. 2.2. Theoretical / Conceptual Framework —This study is based on Constructivist Learning Theory, which asserts that learners actively build knowledge through their experiences and interactions with the environment. It highlights the significance of experiential learning and reflection. In food and nutrition education, constructivism suggests that students cultivate entrepreneurial skills through hands-on activities like developing recipes, performing market research, and collaborating on projects. By engaging proactively in the learning experience, students can connect theoretical concepts to realworld applications, enhancing their understanding and retention of knowledge (Tam, et.al., 2023). The Social Cognitive Theory enhances the constructivist framework by emphasizing how observational learning and social interactions aid skill development. This theory posits that students learn not just from direct experiences but also by watching peers and mentors. In the realm of food and nutrition, this might mean students observe successful entrepreneurs, take part in group discussions, and engage in collaborative projects that encourage innovation and problem-solving. Furthermore, the focus on self-efficacy in the Social Cognitive Theory highlights how crucial students’ beliefs in their entrepreneurial success are, which can be bolstered through positive feedback and support from teachers and classmates (Thimthong, et.al., 2024). The Entrepreneurial Education Framework aligns with this study’s goals by outlining key components necessary for developing entrepreneurial competencies, including creativity, critical thinking, market awareness, and financial literacy. This framework provides a structured approach to integrating these skills into the curriculum, guiding educators in designing effective learning experiences that promote the entrepreneurial mindset among students (Guaman-Quintanilla, et.al., 2023). In this study, the interaction between the independent variables (IVs) creativity, critical thinking, and their specific indicators such as originality, problem-solving ability, analytical skills, and elaboration and the dependent variable (DV) of entrepreneurial skills in food and nutrition reveals a dynamic relationship that is crucial for fostering effective entrepreneurship among junior high school students. The theories presented, particularly Constructivist Learning Theory and Social Cognitive Theory, provide a robust framework for understanding this interaction. According to Constructivist Learning The5ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17308711/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - Fig. 1. Theoretical / Conceptual Framework of the Study ory, students learn best when they actively engage in problem-solving and creative processes, allowing them to construct knowledge through experience. This engagement enhances their ability to innovate and make reasoned decisions in real-world contexts, directly impacting their entrepreneurial skills. Simultaneously, Social Cognitive Theory emphasizes the importance of observational learning and self-efficacy, suggesting that students build confidence in their creative and critical thinking abilities as they observe and interact with peers and mentors. This confidence fosters an entrepreneurial mindset, enabling students to navigate challenges in the food industry effectively. The interplay between the IVs and the DV highlights how creativity and critical thinking develop individual competencies and contribute to a comprehensive entrepreneurial skill set, aligning with the principles of these educational theories. 2.3. Statement of the Problem —This study aims to examine the extent to which creativity and critical thinking influence the development of entrepreneurial skills among junior high school students in the field of Foods and Nutrition. Anchored in the premise that both cognitive and innovative competencies contribute to fostering an entrepreneurial mindset, this research provides empirical insights to support curriculum enhancement and policy reforms in the Technology and Livelihood Education (TLE) domain. Specifically, the study investigates the perceived impact of students’ creativity and critical thinking skills on their entrepreneurial abilities, as assessed by junior high school teachers in San Isidro North District, Davao Oriental. The study seeks to address the following research questions: (1) What is the socio-demographic profile of the teacher-respondents in terms of: (1) Number of subjects handled/being taught; (2) Number of years in teaching in the public school system; (3) RPMS performance rating for School Year 2024–2025; (4) RPMS descriptive rating for School Year 2024–2025 6ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17308711/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - (2) W hat is the effect of perceived creativity levels on the entrepreneurial skills of junior high school students in Foods and Nutrition? (3) W hat is the effect of perceived critical thinking levels on the entrepreneurial skills of junior high school students in Foods and Nutrition? (4) I s there a statistically significant interaction effect between creativity and critical thinking on the entrepreneurial skills of junior high school students in Foods and Nutrition? (5) D o students with varying levels of creativity and critical thinking exhibit significant differences in their entrepreneurial skills in Foods and Nutrition? 2.4. Hypotheses—To test the theoretical assumptions and validate the conceptual model proposed in this study, the following null hypotheses were formulated and tested at the 0.05 level of significance: (H): There is no significant interaction effect between creativity and critical thinking on the entrepreneurial skills of junior high school students in Foods and Nutrition. (H): There is no significant difference in the entrepreneurial skills of junior high school students when grouped according to their levels of creativity and critical thinking. Learners – The study would help learners develop essential skills in creativity, critical thinking, and entrepreneurship, which are crucial for their personal and professional growth. By focusing on Foods and Nutrition, students would be better equipped to pursue careers in the food industry, nutrition, or related fields, increasing their employability and entrepreneurial potential. Engaging in creative and critical thinking activities would make learning more interactive and enjoyable, fostering a deeper understanding of the subject matter. Teachers – Teachers would gain insights into effective strategies for fostering creativity and critical thinking in their classrooms, enhancing their pedagogical skills. The study’s findings can guide teachers in designing more effective lesson plans and assessments that integrate entrepreneurial concepts into Foods and Nutrition education. Encouraging collaborative projects can strengthen teacher networks and promote the sharing of best practices among educators. Creativity – It is the intellectual skill to produce original ideas, concepts, or solutions that are both new and useful. It encompasses not just unique thinking but also the ability to adapt and merge existing knowledge in innovative ways. In the context of studying how to enhance entrepreneurial skills in Foods and Nutrition, creativity is crucial as it allows students to create inventive recipes, develop distinct food products, and tackle nutritional challenges with innovative viewpoints. This study seeks to investigate how encouraging creativity in the classroom can improve learners’ entrepreneurial skills, enabling them to think creatively, spot market opportunities, and address real-world issues in the food sector. By incorporating creative thinking into the educational framework, this research fosters a learning environment that encourages innovation and prepares students for successful careers in a competitive industry. Critical Thinking – It is a structured process of analyzing, synthesizing, and evaluating information to guide decision-making. It involves questioning assumptions, assessing evidence, and drawing logical conclusions. Critical thinking enables students to assess nutritional data, evaluate food quality, and determine business feasibility in the context of entrepreneurial skills in Food and Nutrition. This study explores how strengthening critical thinking enhances students’ ability to make informed choices, solve complex challenges, and respond effectively to consumer demands, ultimately fostering innovation and responsible entrepreneurship in the food industry. 7ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17308711/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - Entrepreneurial Skills – It is in the food and nutrition focus on a specific set of competencies that empower individuals to recognize opportunities, innovate, and deliver value in the food industry. These skills include market awareness, product development creativity, financial understanding, and effective communication. In this study, entrepreneurial skills are examined as vital capabilities for students to manage the complexities of the food and nutrition sector. By emphasizing the enhancement of these skills, the research aims to explore how incorporating creativity and critical thinking into the curriculum can improve students’ capacity to develop and launch food-related ventures. The study intends to offer insights into how cultivating entrepreneurial skills can equip learners for successful careers in the food industry, allowing them to meet market demands, create innovative products, and contribute to the sector’s overall growth. 3. Methodology This chapter contains the processes and steps for conducting the study. These include selecting the study’s design, the respondents and sampling method, the research instruments for data gathering, the procedure, the ethical considerations, and the data analysis. These steps are essential to ensure appropriateness and correctness and produce sound data collection, analysis, and interpretation. 3.1. Research Design—The research design appropriate for this study is a quantitative, causal-comparative design utilizing a TwoWay Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). Causalcomparative research, or ex post facto research, is a non-experimental design that identifies cause-and-effect relationships by comparing groups based on a predetermined variable without manipulating any variables (Creswell, 2023). In this design, the researcher examined existing differences among groups and attempted to establish a cause-effect relationship by analyzing the effects of one or more independent variables on a dependent variable (Cohen and Morison, 2021). The Two-Way ANOVA is particularly useful in this context as it allows for the simultaneous analysis of two independent variables and their interaction effect on a dependent variable, providing a more comprehensive understanding of the relationships at play. This design is widely used in educational research to assess the influence of various factors on educational outcomes, making it a suitable choice for studies aiming to explore complex, multifaceted relationships. Two-Way ANOVA’s applicability in enhancing entrepreneurial skills in Foods and Nutrition through creativity and critical thinking is significant for several reasons. This statistical method allows researchers to examine the effects of two independent variables creativity and critical thinking on a dependent variable, which in this case is entrepreneurial skills. Employing Two-Way ANOVA, the study can analyze the individual effects of creativity and critical thinking on students’ entrepreneurial skills and the interaction effects between these two variables. This is particularly important in educational research, as it recognizes that the combined influence of creativity and critical thinking may yield different outcomes than when considered separately. Moreover, Two-Way ANOVA facilitates the exploration of how different groups, such as students from various backgrounds or levels of prior knowledge, respond to creativity and critical thinking interventions. This comprehensive analysis enables educators and policymakers to draw nuanced conclusions about effective strategies for fostering entrepreneurial skills, ultimately contributing to the design of targeted educational programs that enhance student out8ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17308711/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - comes in the field of Foods and Nutrition. 3.2. Ethical Considerations —The ethical consideration section of this study will address the key principles that ensure the protection and well-being of the teacher-respondents involved. This includes adhering to confidentiality, informed consent, and the voluntary nature of participation, ensuring that the research is conducted with integrity and respect for the rights of all respondents. Social Value – The study on enhancing entrepreneurial skills in Foods and Nutrition through creativity and critical thinking holds significant social value due to its potential positive effects on individuals and communities. By developing these essential skills among students, we aim to empower the next generation of entrepreneurs who can contribute to local economies and advocate for healthy eating practices. Fostering creativity and critical thinking in the realm of food and nutrition not only prepares students for successful careers but also inspires them to devise innovative solutions to urgent societal challenges, including food security and health issues related to nutrition. Additionally, the findings from our research can guide educators, policymakers, and community leaders in creating programs that bolster sustainable food practices and entrepreneurial initiatives. Ultimately, I view our study as a bridge between education and real-world application, promoting social responsibility and the ethical growth of future leaders ready to impact their communities meaningfully. Informed Consent and Assent – I acknowledge the necessity of obtaining informed consent and assent from all participants. Informed consent involves sharing detailed information about the study’s aims, methods, potential risks, and rewards, making sure participants completely grasp what their involvement entails before they agree to take part. I am dedicated to clearly conveying this information to both students and their guardians, providing opportunities for them to ask questions and address any concerns. For younger participants, I will also seek assent by explaining the study in a way that is easy for them to understand, ensuring they feel at ease and eager to participate. This two-pronged approach honors the autonomy of both participants and their families, cultivating an ethical research atmosphere. By emphasizing informed consent and assent, I strive to uphold the values of respect and integrity in my research, ensuring participants feel appreciated and their rights are safeguarded throughout the study. Vulnerability of Research Respondents – In my research aimed at enhancing entrepreneurial skills in Foods and Nutrition through creativity and critical thinking, I recognize the vulnerability of my respondents, especially since they are mainly junior high school students. This age group is particularly prone to external pressures and may not fully comprehend the implications of their involvement in research. Acknowledging this vulnerability, I am dedicated to implementing measures that prioritize their safety and well-being throughout the study. Participation will be entirely voluntary, with students able to withdraw at any time without any repercussions. Furthermore, I will strive to cultivate a supportive environment where respondents feel at ease sharing their thoughts and experiences. Understanding the significance of confidentiality, I will protect their identities and any personal information disclosed during the research process. By being attentive to my respondents’ vulnerabilities, I aim to promote ethical research practices that not only respect their rights but also empower them to engage meaningfully, contributing to their personal growth and educational development. Privacy and Confidentiality – I emphasize the importance of privacy and confidentiality for all respondents. I recognize that participants may share personal insights and experiences, so it’s my duty to safeguard their identities and sensitive information. To ensure 9ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17308711/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - is the most commonly reported rating among the respondents. The mean RPMS rating is 3.92 with a standard deviation of 0.50, reflecting a generally high level of performance with relatively low variability. The minimum observed rating is 2.50, while the maximum is 4.50. These results suggest that most teachers received performance ratings at the higher end of the RPMS scale, implying satisfactory performance levels across the sample. The consistency in scores, as evidenced by the low standard deviation, may reflect standardized evaluation practices or generally strong instructional performance within the division. Table 3. Mode in RPMS Rating nMode Mean Std. Deviation Minimum Maximum RPMS PRSY 2024–2025 134 4.300a 3.922 0.500 2.500 4.500 [a] Mode is reported in whole numbers. 4.1.4. Mode in RPMS Descriptive Rating— Table 4 presents the frequency and percentage distribution of teacher-respondents based on their RPMS Descriptive Rating for School Year 2024–2025. The majority of the teachers (72.39 %) received a Very Satisfactory rating, followed by 26.12 % rated as Satisfactory. Only a small proportion (1.49 %) achieved an Outstanding rating. No missing data were recorded for this variable, indicating complete reporting across the sample. The findings highlight that most teachers are performing well within the expectations set by the RPMS framework, particularly within the Very Satisfactory band, which is consistent with the overall mean performance rating discussed in Table 1.3. The limited number of outstanding ratings may reflect the rigor of the performance standards or the conservatism of evaluators when assigning the highest rating. This distribution aligns with DepEd’s RPMSPPST standards, where Very Satisfactory is often the benchmark for effective and consistent performance across key result areas (DepEd, 2021). Table 4. Mode in RPMS Descriptive Rating RPMS Frequency Percent Outstanding 2 1.493 Satisfactory 35 26.119 Very Satisfactory 97 72.388 Missing 0 0.000 Total 134 100.000 Note. The following variables have more than 10 distinct values and are omitted: RPMS PRSY 2024–2025, PST. 4.2. Effect of Perceived Creativity Levels on the Entrepreneurial Skills of Junior High School Students in Foods and Nutrition—Table 5 presents the results of a one-way ANOVA conducted to examine whether there is a statistically significant difference in the interpretation skills (INTREP) of students based on their level of creativity (LOC). The analysis revealed that the main effect of LOC on INTREP was not statistically significant, F(1,132) = 0.277 , p=.599 , η2=.002 . The small effect size ( η2=.002 ) indicates that only 0.2% of the variance in interpretation skills is explained by the level of creativity, suggesting a negligible practical impact. 16 ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17308711/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - This result implies that the creativity level, whether moderate or high, does not significantly affect how students perform in interpretationrelated tasks within the context measured. These findings are consistent with literature that emphasizes the multifactorial nature of interpretive skills, often influenced by language proficiency, prior knowledge, and instructional support (Facione, 2015; Halpern, 2014), rather than creativity alone. Table 5. Descriptive Statistics for INTREP LOC NMean SD SE Coefficient of Variation High 121 4.052 0.457 0.042 0.113 Moderate 13 3.985 0.029 0.008 0.007 Assumption Check: Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances The descriptive statistics further illustrate the lack of meaningful difference between the two groups. Students classified under the high creativity group (N = 121) had a mean INTREP score of M = 4.052, with a standard deviation of SD = 0.457, and a coefficient of variation of 0.113, indicating a relatively low response spread. On the other hand, those under the moderate creativity group (N = 13) had a slightly lower mean of M = 3.985, but with extremely low variability (SD = 0.029), suggesting homogeneity in responses within this small group. Although there is a numerical difference between the means, the difference is minimal (0.067 points) and not statistically significant. Test for Equality of Variances (Levene’s) F d f1d f2p Levene’s Test 23.041 1.000 132.000 <.001 Levene’s Test for homogeneity of variances was conducted to verify the ANOVA assumption. The result was significant, F(1, 132) = 23.041, p < .001, indicating that the variances across the creativity groups are not equal. This violation suggests caution in interpreting the ANOVA result, as unequal variances can affect the reliability of the F-test. Despite this, the actual difference in means remains minimal, and the sample sizes between groups are highly unequal (121 vs. 13), reducing the power to detect meaningful differences. Post Hoc Test (Tukey HSD) A post hoc Tukey HSD test was performed to confirm the absence of significant differences. The test found no significant mean difference between the high and moderate creativity groups in their interpretation scores, t(132) = 0.527, p = .599, with a small effect size of Cohen’s d = 0.154. This reinforces the ANOVA result and confirms that the level of creativity does not significantly distinguish students’ interpretive performance in this context. Post Hoc Comparisons for LOC Comparison Mean Difference SE d f t Cohen’s d ptukey High Moderate 0.067 0.127 132 0.527 0.154 0.599 17 ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17308711/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - In summary, the findings suggest that creativity does not significantly impact interpretation skills, and any observed differences are trivial in both statistical and practical terms. These results support the view that interpretation, as a cognitive and analytical process, may be more directly influenced by other academic competencies or instructional methods rather than creativity alone (Paul Elder, 2014; Ennis, 2011). Recent studies affirm the interconnected roles of creativity and critical thinking in enhancing students’ interpretation skills, although their influences may differ in magnitude. Kaufman et al. (2023) found that creativity can significantly predict academic performance, indicating its value in educational outcomes beyond traditional assessments. Meanwhile, Ayala et al. (2024) emphasized the foundational importance of critical thinking in processes such as analysis, interpretation, and evaluation, calling for more robust educational strategies to develop these skills. Similarly, Lucas et al. (2023) underscored the need for valid and reliable tools to assess creative thinking, which can support deeper learning and problem-solving. Maphalala and Mpofu (2023) also demonstrated that well-designed instructional practices can cultivate students’ critical thinking, further influencing their interpretive abilities. Complementing these findings, the OECD (2024) launched a framework advocating for integrating creative and critical thinking in the curriculum, viewing both as core competencies for 21st-century learners. These studies reinforce the view that while creativity may not directly predict interpretation in every context, critical thinking remains a more consistent and statistically significant factor in developing interpretive competence. 4.3. Effect of Perceived Critical Thinking Levels on the Entrepreneurial Skills of Junior High School Students in Foods and Nutrition— Table 6 presents a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) conducted to examine whether there is a significant difference in interpretation skills (INTREP) among students with varying levels of creativity, as grouped under the variable Critical Thinking Level (CTL). The analysis yielded a statistically significant result, F(1,132) = 15.34 , p<.001 , with an effect size of η2=.104 . This indicates that approximately 10.4% of the variance in interpretation skills can be attributed to differences in the students’ creativity levels, suggesting a moderate effect size (Cohen, 2021). The result provides compelling evidence that the level of creativity significantly influences students’ ability to interpret information effectively, reinforcing the theoretical links between creative cognitive processes and higherorder thinking skills (Facione, 2023; Kaufman & Beghetto, 2023. Table 6. ANOVA – INTREP Cases Sum of Squares d f Mean Square F p η2 CTL 2.620 1 2.620 15.337 <.001 0.104 Residuals 22.545 132 0.171 Note. Type III Sum of Squares. The descriptive statistics further clarify the nature of this difference. Students in the high creativity group (N = 99) had a mean interpretation score of M = 4.13 (SD = 0.43), while those in the moderate creativity group (N = 35) reported a lower mean score of M = 3.81 (SD = 0.37). Although both groups demonstrated relatively low variability in scores (coefficient of variation < 0.11), the difference of 0.32 points in mean scores suggests a meaningful and con18 ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17308711/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - sistent disparity favoring students with higher creative abilities. This finding supports claims in the literature that creativity enhances one’s capacity for synthesizing, evaluating, and interpreting information, key components of higherorder cognition (Lucas et al., 2023). Descriptive Statistics for INTREP by LOC 15 LOC 15 NMean SD SE Coefficient of Variation High 99 4.128 0.428 0.043 0.104 Moderate 35 3.810 0.368 0.062 0.097 Levene’s test for homogeneity of variances was conducted to determine whether the assumption of equal variances across groups was met. The test result was not significant, F(1, 132) = 0.19, p = .660, indicating that the variances of interpretation scores in both creativity groups were statistically equal. Therefore, the assumption of homogeneity was satisfied, supporting the validity of the ANOVA results. Test for Equality of Variances (Levene’s) F d f1d f2p Levene’s Test 0.194 1.000 132.000 0.660 A Tukey HSD post hoc test was conducted to explore the group differences further. The analysis revealed a statistically significant difference between the high and moderate creativity groups, with a mean difference of 0.318, p < .001. The effect size was measured at Cohen’s d = 0.770, which is considered a moderate to large effect, indicating a practically meaningful difference in interpretation performance between the two groups. These results underscore the value of fostering creativity in instructional settings, especially in domains requiring analytical and interpretive reasoning. Taken together, these findings suggest that students with higher creativity levels significantly outperform their moderately creative peers in tasks involving interpretation skills. The consistency across ANOVA, descriptive, and post hoc results confirms that creativity serves as a substantive cognitive resource for engaging with and making sense of complex information. These findings are aligned with educational research emphasizing the role of creativity in promoting flexible thinking, problem-solving, and meaningmaking (Kaufman Sternberg, 2019; OECD, 2024). Post Hoc Comparisons for LOC 15 Comparison Mean Difference SE d f t Cohen’s d ptukey High Moderate 0.318 0.081 132 3.916 0.770 <.001 4.4. Significant Interaction Effect Between Creativity and Critical Thinking on the Entrepreneurial Skills of Junior High School Students in Foods and Nutrition—A two-way ANOVA was conducted to examine the main and interaction effects of Level of Creativity (LOC) and Critical thinking (CT) on students’ interpretation skills (INTREP). The results, pre19 ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17308711/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - sented in Table 7, revealed no statistically significant main effects nor interaction effects at the 0.05 significance level. Specifically, the main effect of creativity on interpretation skills was not significant, F(1,130) = 0.88 , p=.351 , η2=.007 . This indicates that students’ creativity levels (high vs. moderate) did not significantly affect their interpretation scores. Similarly, the main effect of critical thinking was also not significant, F(1,130) = 0.72 , p=.399 , η2=.005 , suggesting that the level of engagement alone did not significantly impact interpretation skills. The interaction effect between creativity and critical thinking was likewise not significant, F(1,130)=0.43 , p=.512 , η2=.003 , demonstrating that the combination of these factors did not produce a statistically meaningful influence on students’ interpretative performance. These small effect sizes (² < .01) suggest that only a negligible proportion of the variance in interpretation skills could be explained by either creativity, critical thinking, or their interaction. This could be attributed to the possible overlapping cognitive demands of interpretation tasks that draw from a range of other variables, such as reading comprehension, prior knowledge, or critical thinking, as supported by Halpern (2021) and Facione (2021). Table 7. ANOVA – INTREP Cases Sum of Squares d f Mean Square F p η2 LOC 0.164 1 0.164 0.877 0.351 0.007 CT 0.134 1 0.134 0.716 0.399 0.005 LOC ×CT 0.081 1 0.081 0.433 0.512 0.003 Residuals 24.342 130 0.187 Note. Type III Sum of Squares. Although not statistically significant, the descriptive results show that the highest mean score was observed among students with high creativity and moderate engagement (M = 4.21, SD = 0.31), while the lowest was from the moderate creativity and high engagement group (M = 3.98, SD = 0.04). Interestingly, students with high creativity consistently performed slightly better than those with moderate creativity across both engagement levels, but the margin was too small to be considered meaningful. Furthermore, students in the moderate creativity and moderate engagement group displayed no variance, which may suggest uniformity due to either a small sample size or ceiling effects. Descriptive Statistics for INTREP by LOC and CT LOC CT NMean SD SE Coefficient of Variation High High 97 4.012 0.480 0.049 0.120 Moderate 24 4.212 0.311 0.064 0.074 Moderate High 8 3.975 0.035 0.012 0.009 Moderate 5 4.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 The post hoc analysis using Tukey’s HSD test indicated that there were no statistically significant pairwise differences between the groups. Specifically, the comparison between levels of creativity yielded t(130) = 0.94, p = .351, while the comparison between levels 20 ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17308711/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - of engagement produced t(130) = -0.85, p = .399. These results confirm that neither creativity nor engagement demonstrated meaningful group-level differences in students’ interpretation skills when analyzed individually. In light of these findings, all null hypotheses posed in the study were retained. The first null hypothesis (H), which states that creativity has no significant main effect on interpretation skills, was not rejected. Similarly, the second null hypothesis (H), which posits no significant main effect of engagement on interpretation skills, was also not rejected. Finally, the third null hypothesis (H), which asserts that there is no significant interaction effect between creativity and engagement on interpretation skills, was likewise not rejected. These outcomes suggest that neither variable independently nor in combination significantly influenced the interpretation performance of the student respondents in this context. Lucas et al. (2023) argue that while creativity enhances idea generation, its impact on comprehension or interpretation may depend on instructional context and task design. Likewise, Ayala et al. (2024) suggest that cognitive engagement, enhances analytical tasks like interpretation, but only when paired with critical thinking strategies. Maphalala and Mpofu (2023) found that instructional scaffolding has a greater impact on interpretative outcomes than either creativity or engagement in isolation. These findings align with the current study, which suggests that interpretation may be a more multi-dimensional cognitive skill not strongly predicted by creativity or engagement levels alone. Test for Equality of Variances (Levene’s) F d f1d f2p Levene’s Test 10.241 3.000 130.000 <.001 Post Hoc Comparisons for LOC Comparison Mean Difference SE d f t ptukey High Moderate 0.124 0.133 130 0.937 0.351 Note. Results are averaged over the levels of CT. Post Hoc Comparisons for CT Comparison Mean Difference SE d f t ptukey High Moderate -0.112 0.133 130 -0.846 0.399 Note. Results are averaged over the levels of LOC. 4.5. Varying Levels of Creativity and Critical Thinking Exhibit Significant Differences in their Entrepreneurial Skills In Foods and Nutrition—A two-way ANOVA was conducted to examine the effects of creativity (LOC) and critical thinking (CT) on students’ interpretation skills (INTREP). Results revealed no statistically significant main effect of creativity, F(1,130) = 0.88 , p=.351 , η2=.007 , and no significant main effect of critical thinking, F(1,130) = 0.72 , p=.399 , η2=.005 . Additionally, the interaction between creativity and critical thinking was not significant, F(1,130)=0.43 , p=.512 , η2=.003 , indicating that the combined effect of creativity and critical thinking did not significantly influence interpretation outcomes. 21 ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17308711/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - Table 8. ANOVA Results for Creativity (LOC) and Critical Thinking (CT) Source SS d f MS F p η2 Creativity (LOC) 0.164 1 0.164 0.88 .351 .007 Critical Thinking (CT) 0.134 1 0.134 0.72 .399 .005 LOC ×CT 0.081 1 0.081 0.43 .512 .003 Residuals 24.342 130 0.187 Note. Type III Sum of Squares. Post hoc comparisons using Tukey’s HSD confirmed no pairwise group differences reached statistical significance. Specifically, there was no significant difference in interpretation scores between creativity levels, t(130) = 0.94, p = .351, or between engagement levels, t(130) = -0.85, p = .399. Levene’s test for equality of variances was significant, F(3, 130) = 10.24, p < .001, suggesting heterogeneity of variance. Therefore, caution is advised when interpreting these results, especially in unequal group sizes. Based on these findings, the study failed to reject the three null hypotheses. Neither creativity nor critical thinking nor their interaction had a significant effect on interpretation skills among junior high school students in the Food and Nutrition context. Although the current study found no statistically significant main or interaction effects of creativity and engagement on interpretation skills, existing literature highlights the nuanced contributions of these cognitive and behavioral traits to educational performance. Kaufman and Beghetto (2023) argue that creativity influences metacognitive strategies and flexibility in problem-solving, which can enhance complex tasks like interpretation under the right instructional conditions. Lucas et al. (2023) emphasize assessing and nurturing creativity in higher education, linking it to better cognitive engagement. Meanwhile, Ayala et al. (2024) found that critical thinking and engagement significantly improve students’ capacity to analyze and interpret academic content, although these may function in interaction with scaffolding and feedback. Maphalala and Mpofu (2023) noted that instructional design elements are crucial in fostering critical engagement, suggesting that interpretation skills may depend more on contextual learning support than on cognitive traits alone. These findings indicate that while creativity and engagement are important, their effects on interpretation may be mediated by additional instructional and situational variables not captured in the current analysis. 5. Conclusions and Recommendations This chapter presents the conclusions drawn from the study’s results and outlines relevant recommendations based on the statistical findings and thematic interpretations. Guided by the research objectives and hypotheses, the study explored the effects of creativity and engagement on students’ interpretation skills in the context of Foods and Nutrition among junior high school students. Using Two-Way ANOVA, the investigation sought to determine the individual and combined influence of creativity and engagement levels on interpretation performance. While the findings revealed no statistically significant main or interaction effects, the analysis provided meaningful insights into the dynamics of cognitive and behavioral factors in educational settings. This chapter synthesizes these results into conclusive statements and proposes evidence-based 22 ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17308711/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - recommendations to inform teaching practices, curriculum development, and future research directions. 5.1. Findings—The analysis showed no significant main effect of creativity level on the interpretation skills of students. Although students with high creativity had a slightly higher mean score than those with moderate creativity, the difference was not statistically significant. There was no significant main effect of engagement level on interpretation skills. Students with higher engagement did not perform significantly better than their moderately engaged peers. The interaction effect between creativity and engagement levels on interpretation skills was also not statistically significant. This indicates that the combined influence of these variables did not produce a meaningful variation in students’ interpretive performance. Post hoc comparisons using Tukey’s HSD confirmed the absence of significant pairwise differences among the levels of creativity and critical thinking. Levene’s test for equality of variances was significant, indicating a violation of the homogeneity of variance assumption, which calls for caution in interpreting the results. 5.2. Conclusion—Based on the results of the Two-Way ANOVA, the study concludes that neither creativity nor engagement, individually or in combination, significantly influenced the interpretation skills of junior high school students in the context of Foods and Nutrition. These findings suggest that interpretation as a higher-order cognitive skill may depend more heavily on other instructional or contextual variables such as content familiarity, critical thinking, scaffolding, or reading comprehension strategies. Although creativity and engagement are both vital in the learning process, their direct effect on interpretation outcomes may be limited without the presence of targeted instructional design and cognitive strategy support. 5.3. Recommendations—Based on the findings and insights derived from the study, targeted recommendations are proposed to enhance the development of interpretation skills within the context of Foods and Nutrition education. These recommendations are designed to support key teachers, school principals, and future researchers in addressing observed challenges and leveraging opportunities for improved student outcomes. By focusing on instructional strategies, assessment practices, and further research avenues, these suggestions aim to foster a more effective and inclusive learning environment that promotes critical thinking and practical application in real-world nutrition scenarios. For the Teachers Integrate Critical Thinking Strategies – Since interpretation skills rely on analytical reasoning, educators are encouraged to embed critical thinking exercises (e.g., analysis of food labels, comparison tasks, evaluation of food safety protocols) into Foods and Nutrition lessons. Enhance Instructional Design – Teachers should use differentiated instruction and scaffolded activities to provide clearer cognitive pathways for students to practice interpretation tasks, especially in performance-based subjects. For School Principal Monitor Variance in Student Performance – Given the significant result of Levene’s Test, schools should examine sources of performance variation across classrooms and implement support strategies for students with widely differing abilities. Encourage Multi-Modal Assessments – Interpretation skills can be evaluated more effectively through project-based outputs, practical assessments, and real-life scenarios that simulate decisionmaking in food and nutrition contexts. For the Future Researchers Conduct Further Research – Future studies may benefit from exploring the mediating roles of instructional practices, reading proficiency, and student motiva23 ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17308711/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - tion on interpretation skills. A mixed-methods approach may also uncover qualitative factors that statistical models cannot detect. 5. References Almulla, M. A. (2023). Constructivism learning theory: A paradigm for students’ critical thinking, creativity, and problem solving to affect academic performance in higher education. Cogent Education,10(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2023.2172929 Ayala, J. A., Palaoag, T. T., & De Leon, A. (2024). 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