A Post Hoc Analysis of the Senior High School Teachers' Profile on Inquiry-Based Approaches

ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17308783/NIJSE.2025 A Post Hoc Analysis of the Senior High School Teachers’ Profile on Inquiry-Based Approaches Melina O. Dela Cruz Abstract. This study examined the effectiveness of Inquiry-Based Learning (IBL) approaches among Senior High School teachers, focusing on four key strategies: Problem-Based Learning, Project-Based Learning, Case-Based Learning, and Discovery Learning. Specifically, the research aimed to determine the demographic profile of the respondents, assess the extent of their perceptions of IBL effectiveness, and identify any significant differences in perception when grouped by age, marital status, teaching experience, and type of school. A descriptivecomparative research design was employed using a validated survey instrument administered to sixty (60) Senior High School teachers. Data were analyzed using frequency distribution and one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA).Findings revealed that most respondents were aged 41–50, married, had 11–15 years of teaching experience, and were employed in public schools. Teachers perceived IBL approaches as moderately to extensively practical, with ProblemThese findings suggest that teachers’ perceptions of IBL effectiveness are consistent, regardless of personal or institutional characteristics.The study recommends strengthened professional development, including all demographic profiles, and the institutional support necessary for broader IBL implementation in Senior High School settings. KEY WORDS 1. Inquiry-Based Learning 2. Problem-Based Learning 3. Project-Based Learning Date Received: August 15, 2025 — Date Reviewed: September 20, 2025 — Date Published: October 10, 2025 1. Introduction Inquiry-Based Learning (IBL) has become increasingly prominent in educational discourse, particularly in the context of social science instruction, where it is regarded as an effective pedagogical strategy for cultivating cultural awareness, civic understanding, and political literacy. IBL promotes active student engagement through questioning, exploration, and the construction of knowledge rather than passive reception. This learner-centered approach encourages critical thinking and meaningful connections to real-world issues (Kim Lee, 2022; Chen, Morales, Tan, 2023). Despite its theoretical strengths, IBL’s implementation remains complex and contested. Practical concerns have been raised about teacher readiness, the availability of instructional resources, and the appropriateness of assessment tools that align with IBL’s open-ended nature (Williams, Santos, De Guzman, 2021). Moreover, critics argue that without structured scaffolding, IBL may not sufficiently support the de- NIJSE (2025) - velopment of essential reasoning skills required for disciplinary literacy (Alamri Dey, 2021). Internationally, IBL has been integrated into various educational frameworks, yet its reception has been mixed. In Canada, for example, discovery-based approaches have come under scrutiny for yielding inconsistent outcomes, particularly in the absence of guided instruction (Taylor Francis, 2023). This critique has contributed to the growing emphasis on more structured models of inquiry, such as problem-based learning, which blend exploratory learning with teacher facilitation to enhance conceptual clarity and student achievement (Rahman Sinclair, 2024). As such, while IBL holds considerable promise for deepening student understanding in the social sciences, its effectiveness is contingent upon thoughtful implementation, adequate teacher preparation, and alignment with context-specific educational goals. IBL also plays a crucial role in fostering individual innovativeness, now seen as a key employability trait. Acar and Tuncdogan (2020) proposed a conceptual framework linking IBL with student innovation, emphasizing the benefits of open-ended, exploratory, and collaborative inquiry formats in enhancing creative capacities. Several instructional variations fall under IBL, including case-based and problem-based learning, as well as lecture-integrated approaches. These differ in the level of student autonomy and instructor guidance (Tawfik, Hung, Giabbanelli, 2020). In the Philippines, Schools are envisioned as active learning hubs where students cultivate critical and creative thinking to solve authentic problems. Antonio and Prudente (2024) found that IBL enhances higherorder thinking across disciplines and academic levels, though its integration remains limited in contexts where technological access is constrained. Conversely, Gudelos (2024) observed no significant performance differences between students exposed to IBL in reading comprehension and those taught through traditional methods, suggesting that academic outcomes may vary depending on content area or delivery method. The widespread adoption of IBL is hindered by systemic barriers, including insufficient teacher preparation and a prevailing culture of rote learning and exam-centric instruction. Educators, especially those teaching outside their specialization, often lack the confidence and skills to implement learner-centered approaches effectively. Addressing these challenges requires sustained investment in teacher training, adequate instructional resources, and gradual cultural shifts in pedagogy. These reforms are particularly relevant in settings such as the Third District of Cotabato Division, the focal area of the current study. 1.1. Theoretical/Conceptual Framework of the Study —The Constructivist theory serves as a foundational framework for analyzing the effectiveness of Inquiry-Based Learning (IBL) in enhancing social science literacy among senior high school students. Originating from the seminal works of Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky, Constructivism emphasizes that learners actively construct knowledge through experiential engagement, reflection, and meaningful interaction with their environment. This paradigm closely aligns with IBL, which prioritizes student-driven inquiry, critical thinking, and the integration of new information with prior knowledge to support deeper understanding (Chen et al., 2023; Kim Lee, 2022). In Constructivist learning environments, students are not passive recipients of content but active participants in constructing their understanding. Within IBL, students engage in authentic problem-solving and exploratory tasks, mirroring Piaget’s processes of assimilation and accommodation that facilitate cognitive growth (Alamri Dey, 2021). Vygotsky’s concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) further reinforces the importance of scaffolding and collaborative dialogue in learning, which are integral features of IBL activities that in2ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17308783/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - Fig. 1. Theoretical/Conceptual Framework volve group investigations and peer interactions (Lopez Thompson, 2022). Utilizing Constructivism as the theoretical lens for this study enhances its academic rigor and provides a pedagogical justification for using IBL in social sciences instruction. This approach supports the development of higher-order thinking skills, contextual learning, and knowledge retention by aligning teaching strategies with learners’ cognitive and social development trajectories (Williams et al., 2021). Recent empirical studies underscore the continued relevance of Constructivism in modern IBL applications, particularly those enhanced by technology. For instance, Thompson et al. (2021) highlighted how virtual simulations facilitate scientific inquiry by allowing students to manipulate variables and visualize complex systems. Likewise, Anderson and Hansen (2022) found that collaborative online tools foster peer interaction and social learning, reflecting Vygotsky’semphasis on the ZPD in digital learning environments. Additionally, Rahman and Sinclair (2024) demonstrated that blended IBL models supported by digital platforms promote active engagement and interdisciplinary skill development in social studies. In sum, Constructivism remains a highly relevant and adaptable framework in today’s educational landscape, particularly in guiding the implementation of IBL in social science classrooms. Its emphasis on active, contextual, and collaborative learning complements contemporary pedagogical goals focused on developing critical, informed, and globally aware learners. 2. Methodology This chapter outlines the essential procedures undertaken in conducting the study. It details the research design, sampling technique and respondent selection, data gathering instruments, procedural steps, ethical considerations, and data analysis methods. Each component is structured 3ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17308783/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - to ensure methodological appropriateness and accuracy, thereby facilitating the collection, analysis, and interpretation of reliable data. 2.1. Research Design—This study employs a quantitative comparative research design aimed at assessing the effectiveness of the inquiry-based learning approach in enhancing senior high school students’ understanding of culture, society, and politics within the Third District of the Division of Cotabato. This study utilized the descriptive quantitative-comparative research design is a systematic approach aimed at identifying and comparing differences among groups based on specific variables using statistical methods for analysis. In the study entitled ”A Post Hoc Analysis of the Senior High School Teachers’ Profile on Inquiry-Based Approaches,” this design is particularly appropriate for understanding how different teacher profiles—such as age, teaching experience, educational attainment, and professional development exposure—relate to their use of inquirybased teaching strategies. One-way ANOVA is the core statistical tool, allowing for the comparison of mean differences among multiple independent groups to determine whether these factors significantly differ in the effectiveness of inquiry-based approaches. When significant results are found, a post hoc analysis further explores specific group differences, providing deeper insights into how particular characteristics impact teaching strategies. In this study, the independent variable pertains to the distinct teacher profiles, while the dependent variable measures the extent of their use of inquiry-based instructional strategies, as indicated through survey responses, classroom observation ratings, or self-reported practices. The analysis begins with testing the null hypothesis, which assumes no significant differences among the groups, against the alternative hypothesis that at least one group differs significantly. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) is utilized to assess whether the variance in the dependent variable between groups is greater than the variance within groups. A significant F-statistic suggests differences in group means, prompting the use of post hoc procedures, such as Tukey’s or Bonferroni tests, to identify where these differences occur. This analytical framework facilitates a comprehensive understanding of how demographic and professional characteristics shape the implementation of inquirybased learning, thereby informing strategies for improving teaching practices. 2.2. Ethical Consideration—Ethical considerations ensure integrity and respect for individuals’ rights in research. Voluntary participation is fundamental, allowing individuals to decide freely whether to engage in the study. Informed consent requires participants to receive clear information about the study’s purpose, risks, and benefits before agreeing to participate. This approach upholds transparency and protects the well-being of respondents. 2.3. Research Respondents—To determine the appropriate sample size for the study involving 100 secondary senior high school teachers teaching Understanding Culture, Society, and Politics in the Third District of the Division of Cotabato, Slovin’s formula was applied to ensure a representative selection of respondents. Using a 5% margin of error, the computed sample size resulted in 80 teachers. This ensures that the data collected is both statistically reliable and practical for analysis while maintaining feasibility in terms of time and resources. The chosen sample size allows for a sufficient representation of the target population, minimizing potential biases and ensuring that the findings accurately reflect the respondents’ perspectives. If a lower margin of error were to be considered, a larger sample size would be necessary to achieve higher precision in the study’s results. In selecting the respondents for the study, 4ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17308783/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - three key inclusion criteria were established to ensure the relevance and reliability of the data collected. First, the respondents must be secondary senior high school teachers who are actively teaching Understanding Culture, Society, and Politics in the Third District of the Division of Cotabato during the academic year of the study. This criterion ensures that the participants have direct experience and familiarity with the subject matter, allowing them to provide informed responses. Second, the teachers must have at least one year of teaching experience in the subject to ensure sufficient exposure to the curriculum, pedagogical strategies, and associated challenges. This minimizes potential biases from newly appointed teachers who may still adjust to the subject. Lastly, the respondents must be willing to participate and provide informed consent, ensuring ethical considerations are met and that participants engage voluntarily in the study. These inclusion criteria collectively ensure that the sample comprises qualified, experienced educators who can contribute valuable insights to the research. 2.4. Research Instrument—In this research study, the researcher employed an adapted instrument derived from a comprehensive review of literature and related studies. A dedicated effort was made to collect and scrutinize literature to extract concepts that informed the content and offered support for the instrument and its associated strands. This meticulous process articulated a set of question items, addressing potential threats to the study’s validity. As the author argued, items were developed from the reviewed literature. The survey questionnaire had two parts. One determined the extent of inquiry-based learning approaches, such as problem-based learning, project-based learning, case-based learning, and discovery learning approaches. Likewise, the second part of the survey measured the extent to which respondents understood culture, society, and politics in terms of their application to everyday living, critical thinking, problem solving, and data interpretation. To validate the accuracy and consistency of the research instrument, the survey items were subjected to a reliability assessment using Cronbach’s Alpha at the 0.05 level of significance. Cronbach’s Alpha is widely recognized for measuring the internal consistency of a scale, evaluating the extent to which items collectively represent a single construct (Tavakol Dennick, 2011). According to George and Mallery (2003), a reliability coefficient above 0.70 is considered acceptable, above 0.80 is regarded as good, and above 0.90 is classified as excellent. In this study, the instrument yielded a Cronbach’s Alpha of 0.974, indicating exceptional internal consistency. This result confirms that the instrument is highly reliable for capturing relevant data on teachers’ adaptation strategies and learning outcomes in the context of curriculum change. The survey employed a 5-point Likert scale, with interpretation parameters outlined in the subsequent section. To assess the internal consistency of the research instrument, Frequentist Scale Reliability Analysis was conducted using Cronbach’s alpha (), which yielded a unidimensional reliability coefficient of 0.874, indicating a high level of internal consistency among the items measuring the perceived effectiveness of Inquiry-Based Learning (IBL) approaches. This value exceeds the threshold of 0.70 recommended by Nunnally and Bernstein (1994) as adequate for social science research. The 95% confidence interval for the alpha coefficient ranged from 0.110 to 0.958, with a standard error of 0.107, suggesting a relatively broad interval that may indicate variability in item consistency, thus warranting further review of specific survey items. 2.5. Data Gathering Procedure— 5ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17308783/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - Scale Descriptive Ratings and Interpretation of Inquiry-Based Learning Approaches Scale Descriptive Rating Interpretation 4.20 – 5.00 Very Extensive The inquiry-based learning approaches are always manifested. 3.40 – 4.19 Extensive The inquiry-based learning approaches are oftentimes manifested. 2.60 – 3.39 Moderately Extensive The inquiry-based learning approaches are sometimes manifested. 1.80 – 2.59 Less Extensive The inquiry-based learning approaches are rarely manifested. 1.00 – 1.79 Not Extensive The inquiry-based learning approaches are not manifested. The guidelines for this process adhere to the policies of The Rizal Memorial Colleges, Inc. As part of the formal request, researchers delineate their intentions regarding data collection, analysis, and dissemination, aligning these with the overarching research goals. This communication proactively addresses anticipated concerns or questions from recipients, providing assurances on ethical safeguards, confidentiality measures, and the potential benefits of the study. The formal permission request explicitly seeks authorization to proceed, emphasizing the pivotal role of their support in ensuring the research’s success. Permission to Conduct the Study In March 2025, before data collection, the researcher obtained necessary permissions from the relevant authorities, including the research adviser, the Dean of The Rizal Memorial Colleges, Inc., and the top management of Cotabato Schools Division Office, through the appropriate channels. This involved submitting a comprehensive research proposal outlining study design, procedures, and potential risks and benefits. The researcher provided detailed information about the study’s purpose, goals, and methods for data collection, analysis, and reporting. Furthermore, in February 2025, immediately after the conducted colloquium, the researcher took steps to ensure that all participants were fully informed about the study, their rights, and the nature of their involvement. Informed consent was obtained from each participant before they participated in the study. The researcher committed to data accuracy and completeness during the last week of May 2025. The distribution and retrieval of questionnaires were conducted using a standardized and systematic approach, ensuring reliability in collecting responses from participants. 2.6. Data Analysis—Mean scores and standard deviation will be used to address statement problems number one, the demographic profile of the respondents, and number two, the extent of different levels of inquiry-based learning in the Third District of Division of Cotabato. One-way ANOVA was used to answer statement problem number 3, on the significant difference of the perceived effectiveness of IBL approaches then respondents were grouped into Age, Marital status, Teaching experience and Type of school Post-hoc Analysis. A post hoc 6ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17308783/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - test on each dependent variable individually to see where the significant differences lie. This step is crucial for understanding the contribution of each variable to the overall model. All data processing and analysis were performed using Jeffrey’s Statistics Amazing Program (JASP) version 0.12.20. When results were yielded, discussions and interpretations followed. 3. Results and Discussion This chapter presents the analyzed data gathered from the respondents, organized according to the specific problems posed in the study. It includes presenting, interpreting, and discussing the results using appropriate statistical tools and procedures. The findings are systematically discussed about the study’s objectives and hypotheses, with the integration of relevant literature to support the interpretation. Emphasis is given to the differences in the perceived effectiveness of Inquiry-Based Learning (IBL) approaches among Senior High School teachers based on their demographic profiles, as measured through One-Way ANOVA. 3.1. Demographic Profile of Senior High School Teachers—Table 1 presents the demographic characteristics of the Senior High School teacher respondents, categorized by age, marital status, teaching experience, and type of school. These variables provide essential contextual understanding for interpreting their perceptions of Inquiry-Based Learning (IBL) approaches. In terms of age, the majority of respondents (53.3%) were within the 41–50 age bracket, followed by 31–40 years old (23.3%), while a smaller percentage were either 20–30 years old (8.3%) or 51 years and above (15.0%). This distribution suggests that the teaching workforce in the study is predominantly composed of mid-career professionals. Regarding marital status, a significant portion of the respondents were married (61.7%), while single teachers accounted for 23.3%, and a smaller proportion were widowed (10.0%) or separated (5.0%). This diverse representation indicates that family life situations vary across the teaching cohort, though as shown in ANOVA results, marital status does not significantly influence their views on IBL. For teaching experience, the data show that the largest group (33.3%) had been in service for 11–15 years, followed by those with 16 years or more (30.0%). Teachers with 6–10 years of experience comprised 21.7%, 13.3% had 1–5 years, and only 1.7% had less than 1 year of teaching experience. This suggests that most respondents are seasoned educators, likely to have been exposed to various pedagogical practices including IBL. In terms of type of school, the vast majority of respondents were from public schools (90.0%), while only 10.0% were from private schools. This imbalance reflects the predominant structure of the Philippine education system, where public school teachers make up a significant portion of the teaching force. Despite this, the study found no significant difference in IBL perceptions between public and private school teachers, aligning with prior research suggesting that institutional designation is not a determinant of pedagogical attitudes (Garcia Duran, 2023). Overall, the demographic profile illustrates a teacher population that is predominantly experienced, married, and working in public schools—factors that provide a stable basis for professional engagement with innovative teaching approaches such as IBL. 7ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17308783/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - Table 1. Demographic Profile of Respondents Demographic Variable Category F Percentage (%) Age 20–30 years old 5 1.7 31–40 years old 14 6.7 41–50 years old 32 53.3 51 and above 9 15.0 Marital Status Married 37 61.7 Single 14 23.3 Widowed 6 10.0 Separated 3 5.0 Teaching Experience (Years) Less than 1 year 1 1.7 1–5 years 8 13.3 6–10 years 13 21.7 11–15 years 20 33.3 16+ years 18 30.0 Type of School Public 54 90.0 Private 6 10.0 3.2. Extent of The Perceived Effectiveness of Inquiry-Based Learning (IBL) Approaches— Inquiry-Based Learning (IBL) is a pedagogical framework that emphasizes active student engagement in the learning process through questioning, exploration, and critical investigation. Rooted in constructivist theories of education, IBL encourages learners to construct knowledge by engaging with meaningful questions and realworld problems, thereby fostering deep understanding and lifelong learning habits (Pedaste et al., 2021). IBL approaches typically follow a structured cycle involving phases such as orientation, conceptualization, investigation, conclusion, and discussion, allowing learners to experience the process of scientific or disciplined inquiry (Keselman et al., 2023). In this setting, the teacher is a facilitator who scaffolds students’ learning by guiding them through inquiry processes rather than delivering direct instruction. 3.3. Significant Difference in the Perceived Effectiveness of Inquiry-Based Learning (IBL) Approaches—Table 3 displays the findings of a one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) used to examine potential differences in the perceived effectiveness of Inquiry-Based Learning (IBL) approaches among Senior High School teachers based on age groupings. The dependent variable DV AVE reflects the composite mean score measuring IBL effectiveness. The analysis produced an F-value of 1.085 and a corresponding p-value of 0.363, which exceeds the standard significance threshold of 0.05. Consequently, the null hypothesis—that no significant difference exists in IBL perceptions across age categories—is retained. This result suggests that teacher age does not have a statistically significant impact on their perceived effectiveness of IBL strategies. 8ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17308783/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - Table 2. Summary on the Extent of the Perceived Effectiveness of Inquiry-Based Learning (IBL) Approaches IBL Approach N Mean Descriptive Equivalent Problem-Based Learning 60 3.21 Moderately Extensive Project-Based Learning 60 3.37 Moderately Extensive Case-Based Learning 60 3.20 Moderately Extensive Discovery Learning 60 3.18 Moderately Extensive Overall Mean 60 3.24 Moderately Extensive Legend: Very Extensive = Always Manifested; Extensive = Oftentimes Manifested; Moderately Extensive = Sometimes Manifested; Less Extensive = Rarely Manifested; Not Extensive = Not Manifested Table 3. ANOVA Table on the Perceived Effectiveness of Inquiry-Based Learning (IBL) Approaches by Age Source Sum of Squares df Mean Square F p-value Age 0.122 3 0.041 1.085 0.363 Residuals 2.100 56 0.038 Decision Not Significant; Accept H0 Note. Type III Sum of Squares These findings are consistent with those of Zhu et al. (2022), who found that teacher age had no significant effect on attitudes toward inquiry-based instructional practices in a cross-disciplinary study. Similarly, Salam et al. (2023) reported that pedagogical orientation toward student-centered learning such as IBL tends to be more strongly influenced by training and institutional support rather than age or years of service. From a pedagogical standpoint, the result underscores the notion that effective engagement with IBL approaches is not agedependent, but rather shaped by professional development experiences, exposure to innovative teaching practices, and school-wide implementation culture (Nguyen Hallinger, 2021). This has implications for teacher development programs, suggesting that IBL-related interventions can be designed inclusively for educators of all age brackets without assuming differential readiness based on generational factors. Table 6.2 displays the results of a oneway Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) conducted to examine whether there are significant differences in teachers’ perceived effectiveness of Inquiry-Based Learning (IBL) approaches when grouped according to marital status. The dependent variable DV AVE represents the aggregated perception scores on IBL effectiveness. The ANOVA revealed an F-value of 0.397 and a p-value of 0.756, which is well above the alpha level of 0.05. Therefore, the null hypothesis is accepted, indicating that marital status does not significantly affect how Senior High School teachers perceive the effectiveness of IBL approaches. 9ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17308783/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - O’Neill, B. (2022). Discovery learning in humanities: A new approach to engaging students with history. O’Neill, P., Donnelly, J., & Fitzmaurice, M. (2023). 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