Sustainable Interior Furniture from Recycled Vehicle Tyres with Timber Reinforcement: Mechanical Performance, User Perception, and Economic Viability

International Journal of Advanced Scientific and Technical Research ISSN 2249-9954 Available online on http://www.rspublication.com/ijst/index.html volume 15, No. 5, 2025 Original Article ©2025 RS Publication, [email protected] 164 Sustainable Interior Furniture from Recycled Vehicle Tyres with Timber Reinforcement: Mechanical Performance, User Perception, and Economic Viability Asukwo Etim Iduk and Sunday Emmanson Udoh Department of Civil Engineering Technology, Akwa Ibom State Polytechnic, Ikot Osurua, PMB. 1200 ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT Paper ID: IJASTR68DD600ECDE23 Paper ID: IJASTR68DC0AEFA5EE6 Received: 2025-09-02 Published: 2025-10-05 DOI: https://dx.doi.org /10.5281/zenodo.17 330471 Page No: 164-176 This study investigates the feasibility of producing sustainable interior furniture stools, normal tables, and ottoman coffee tables using recycled vehicle tires reinforced with timber. Employing mechanical tests (static and cyclic loading) and subjective panel evaluations, the research evaluated structural performance, durability, aesthetics, and economic potential. Key results indicated the normal table achieving a maximum load of 450 kg and 50,000 cycles before failure. The normal table exhibited superior mechanical strength and minimal deflection, attributable to its geometry and timber reinforcement, which effectively distributes loads and mitigates fatigue. The ottoman coffee table excelled in aesthetics and comfort, appealing to design-oriented users, whereas the stool offered balanced functionality but with higher deflection and moderate durability. Panel ratings aligned with mechanical outcomes, with the normal table scoring highest in perceived durability (4.7). Timber reinforcement significantly improved prototype performance, surpassing typical household requirements. The findings emphasize timber's enhancement of strength and longevity in recycled materials. Implications include cost-effective production ( $110-245 per normal table) offering 30-50% savings over traditional furniture, supporting circular economy adoption amid rising eco-demand in 2025. Keywords: Vehicle tyres, house furniture, timber reinforcement, waste management, eco-friendly solution. 1. Introduction The rapid accumulation of used vehicle tyres poses significant environmental and waste management challenges globally, while simultaneously, there is a growing demand for sustainable and innovative interior furniture solutions. The global challenge of managing waste, particularly in the form of used vehicle tyres, has become increasingly pressing in recent years (Formela, 2021; Dabic-Miletic & Simic, 2023). As the automotive industry continues to grow, so does the volume of discarded tyres, presenting significant environmental and disposal concerns. Simultaneously, the demand for sustainable and eco-friendly solutions in various International Journal of Advanced Scientific and Technical Research Available online on http://www.rspublication.com/ijst/index.html ISSN 2249-9954 Cite This Paper : Asukwo Etim Iduk and Sunday Emmanson Udoh (2025). "Sustainable Interior Furniture from Recycled Vehicle Tyres with Timber Reinforcement: Mechanical Performance, User Perception, and Economic Viability". INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADVANCED SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL RESEARCH (IJASTR), vol. 15, no. 5, 2025, pp. 164-176. DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17330471 International Journal of Advanced Scientific and Technical Research ISSN 2249-9954 Available online on http://www.rspublication.com/ijst/index.html volume 15, No. 5, 2025 Original Article ©2025 RS Publication, [email protected] 165 sectors, including interior design and furniture production, has surged. This convergence of challenges and opportunities has led to innovative approaches in repurposing waste materials, with the utilization of used vehicle tyres for the production of interior house furniture emerging as a promising avenue for exploration (Keskin et al., 2024 ; Al-Saud et al., 2024),. The global automotive industry continues to grow, leading to an ever-increasing volume of discarded tyres. According to recent estimates, approximately 1.5 billion tyres reach the end of their life cycle annually, posing severe environmental risks. When dumped in landfills, tyres occupy large volumes of space and can take hundreds of years to decompose. They also present fire hazards and can become breeding grounds for disease-carrying insects. Incineration of tyres, while reducing volume, releases harmful pollutants into the atmosphere. Discarded tyres contain valuable materials, including rubber, steel, and textile components. The current disposal methods often fail to capitalize on these resources, leading to inefficient use of materials and energy invested in their production (Abdullah, 2024). While some tyre recycling methods exist, such as using crumb rubber in road construction or sports surfaces, these applications are limited and do not fully address the scale of tyre waste generation. There is a pressing need for innovative and diverse recycling solutions. However, the interior design and furniture industries are experiencing increasing demand for sustainable, eco-friendly products. However, there is a gap in the market for furniture that effectively incorporates recycled materials without compromising on aesthetics or functionality. On the other hand, the integration of used tyres into furniture design presents several technical challenges. These include ensuring structural integrity, developing effective joining methods between rubber and wood, and addressing potential safety and durability concerns (Ishola et al., 2024). Moreover, while the use of recycled materials in furniture is gaining acceptance, there remains a challenge in creating designs that are visually appealing and suitable for a wide range of interior styles using materials as unconventional as used tyres. The process of transforming used tyres into furniture components must be economically viable to be adopted on a larger scale. This involves considerations of material preparation costs, design and manufacturing processes, and market acceptance (Goevert, 2024). In this context, the integration of used vehicle tyres with timber reinforcement for furniture production represents a novel and potentially impactful application of this principle. This approach not only addresses the issue of tyre waste management but also contributes to the creation of unique, durable, and environmentally friendly furniture pieces for interior spaces. The utilization of used vehicle tyres in furniture production offers several advantages. Firstly, tyres are known for their durability and resistance to wear and tear, characteristics that can translate well into furniture applications (Dasgupta & Dutta, 2024; Battista et al., 2021). Secondly, the rubber composition of tyres provides excellent shock absorption properties, which can enhance the comfort and functionality of certain furniture pieces. Lastly, the distinctive aesthetic of tyre treads and sidewalls can contribute to creating visually striking and unconventional furniture designs. However, the use of tyres alone may not provide sufficient structural integrity or aesthetic appeal for interior furniture. This is where the incorporation of timber reinforcement becomes crucial. Timber, as a traditional and versatile material in furniture making, offers strength, workability, and a natural aesthetic that complements the industrial character of tyres (Ichim et al., 2024). The combination of these two materials (used tyres and timber) creates a synergy that can result in furniture pieces that are not only environmentally responsible but also structurally sound and visually appealing. The process of creating furniture from used tyres and timber involves several stages, including tyre selection and preparation, design conceptualization, timber reinforcement integration, and finishing (Beale & Morgan, 2019; Maake et al., 2025). Each of these stages presents its own set of challenges and considerations, from ensuring the cleanliness and safety of the recycled tyres to developing joinery techniques that effectively combine rubber and wood. Moreover, International Journal of Advanced Scientific and Technical Research ISSN 2249-9954 Available online on http://www.rspublication.com/ijst/index.html volume 15, No. 5, 2025 Original Article ©2025 RS Publication, [email protected] 166 the utilization of used tyres in furniture production aligns with broader sustainability goals and circular economy principles. By diverting tyres from landfills or incineration facilities, this approach reduces the environmental impact associated with tyre disposal. It also contributes to resource efficiency by extending the lifecycle of materials that would otherwise be considered waste ( Tushar et al., 2022 ; Laftah & Abdulrahman, 2025). Despite the potential benefits, the use of used vehicle tyres in interior furniture production is a relatively new field, and as such, it faces several challenges and areas for further research (Balmori et al., 2023). These include optimizing the cleaning and preparation processes for used tyres, developing standardized methods for integrating tyre components with timber structures, and assessing the long-term durability and safety of such furniture pieces in domestic settings. This study sets the stage for a comprehensive exploration of the utilization of used vehicle tyres for the production of interior house furniture using timber reinforcement. 2. Research Methodology This study employed an experimental research design, combining material collection and processing, fabrication, mechanical testing, and qualitative evaluation to comprehensively assess the viability of the proposed product. a. Material Collection and Preparation i. Used Vehicle Tyres: As shown in Figure (), a consistent batch of used passenger car tyres (e.g., size 195/65 R15) was collected from local tyre retailers to ensure uniformity. ii. Timber Reinforcement: Kiln-dried softwood (e.g., Pine) and hardwood (e.g., Oak or Meranti) was be procured to compare their performance as a reinforcing framework. The timber was planned to standard dimensions (2"x2" and 1"x2"). iii. Fasteners & Adhesives: High-strength corrosion-resistant screws (e.g., decking screws) and a high-strength, flexible polyurethane adhesive suitable for rubber-to-wood bonding was selected. iv. Cleaning: Tyres were thoroughly cleaned with high-pressure water and a detergent to remove dirt, gravel, and embedded debris. v. Cutting and Sectioning: Using a sharp utility knife, jigsaw with a metal-cutting blade, or an angle grinder, the tyre beads (steel wire rings) were removed. The tyres were cut along the tread to create flat sheets of rubber or sectioned into specific shapes (e.g., strips for weaving, full circles for table bases). Figure 1: Waste tyres collected from local tyre retailers International Journal of Advanced Scientific and Technical Research ISSN 2249-9954 Available online on http://www.rspublication.com/ijst/index.html volume 15, No. 5, 2025 Original Article ©2025 RS Publication, [email protected] 167 b. Furniture Design and Fabrication i. CAD Design: Conceptual designs for 2-3 furniture items will be drafted (e.g., a low stool, a side table, a small ottoman). AUTOCAD software was be used to specify dimensions, and integration points for the timber frame. ii. Timber Framework Construction: The structural framework (e.g., leg assembly, internal support braces) was constructed from timber using joinery techniques (e.g., mortise and tenon, half-lap joints), reinforced with screws. Figure (a) and b, represents the framework for both stool and table, while Figure (c) represents the top layer after the tyre might have placed and cloth or leather is lined on it. iii. Rubber Component Assembly: Processed tyre rubber was attached to the timber frame. The techniques employed included:  Weaving: Cutting tyres into long strips and weaving them across the timber frame to create a seat or table-top surface.  Layering and Bonding: Stacking and gluing flat sections of tread rubber to create a thick, stable surface.  Direct Mounting: Securing a full tyre section (e.g., the sidewall) onto the frame as a pre-formed design element. iv. Finishing: The timber components was sanded and finished with varnish or paint. The rubber components was cleaned and potentially treated with a UV-protectant sealant to prevent degradation and dusting. Figure 2: Wood framework for both stool and table c. Mechanical Testing i. Load-Bearing Test: Prototypes (e.g., the stool) will be subjected to incremental static loads using weights in a controlled setup. Deflection will be measured until a predetermined maximum load (e.g., 150% of expected use) or failure is reached. International Journal of Advanced Scientific and Technical Research ISSN 2249-9954 Available online on http://www.rspublication.com/ijst/index.html volume 15, No. 5, 2025 Original Article ©2025 RS Publication, [email protected] 168 ii. Durability Test (Cyclic Loading): A dynamic load test will simulate repeated use (e.g., 10,000 cycles) using a pneumatic actuator to assess fatigue resistance of both the rubber and the wood-rubber interface (Tang et al., 2024). iii. Adhesion/Shear Test: Samples of the wood-rubber bond will be tested in a universal testing machine to determine the shear strength of the adhesive joint. d. Physical and Aesthetic Evaluation The physical and aesthetics evaluation procedures involved assessing the tangible and visual aspects of a product, design, or system. Breakdown of the procedures are as follows: i. Physical Evaluation  Durability Testing: Assessing the product's ability to withstand wear and tear, stress, and environmental factors.  Performance Testing: Evaluating the product's functionality, efficiency, and effectiveness. ii. Aesthetics Evaluation  Visual Inspection: Assessing the product's appearance, including texture, and finish.  Design Consistency: Evaluating the consistency of design elements, such as typography, and layout.  User Experience: Assessing the product's emotional appeal, user engagement, and overall experience.  Ergonomics Evaluation: Assessing the product's usability, comfort, and user experience. Evaluation and testing methods included gathering feedback from users to understand their experiences and perceptions. It also involved experts review and evaluating the finished product design and performance. The goal of physical and aesthetics evaluation is to ensure that the product meets user needs, is functional, and visually appealing, ultimately enhancing user satisfaction. 3. Results and Discussions 3.1. Presentation of Prototypes This section presents the findings from the experimental work conducted to evaluate the feasibility of utilizing used vehicle tyres reinforced with timber for interior house furniture production. The results are presented based on the testing phases outlined in the methodology. The results gathered from mechanical tests, physical evaluations, and aesthetic assessments are presented and discussed to reflect their significance. The prototypes produced were Ottoman Coffee Table, Normal Table, and Stool which described as follows: 3.1.1. Ottoman Coffee Table The ottoman coffee table represents an innovative fusion of recycled tyre materials and timber reinforcement. Prototypes of the constructed ottoman coffee tables is are presented in Figure 3. The base of the ottoman is constructed from a large truck tyre, cleaned and treated to ensure safety and durability. The circular shape of the tyre forms the foundation of the piece, providing stability and a unique aesthetic. The top surface of the ottoman is created using reclaimed timber, cut and fitted to form a circular tabletop that sits flush with the upper rim of the tyre (Marques et al., 2020). This timber top is sanded and finished to a smooth surface, suitable for International Journal of Advanced Scientific and Technical Research ISSN 2249-9954 Available online on http://www.rspublication.com/ijst/index.html volume 15, No. 5, 2025 Original Article ©2025 RS Publication, [email protected] 169 use as a coffee table. The wood grain adds warmth and natural beauty, contrasting nicely with the industrial look of the tyre base. Inside the tyre, timber reinforcements are strategically placed to provide additional support to the tabletop and to create an internal storage space. This hidden storage compartment can be accessed by lifting the hinged wooden top, adding functionality to the piece. The exterior of the tyre is left partially exposed, showcasing its treads and patterns, which contribute to the piece's unique character. However, sections of the tyre's sidewall are covered with woven or braided recycled materials, such as fabric or rope, adding texture and visual interest. The ottoman coffee table stands at a standard height of about 16-18 inches, making it suitable for both seating and table use. Its dual functionality as both an ottoman and a coffee table makes it a versatile piece for various interior settings. Figure 3: Prototypes of ottoman coffee tables produced 3.1.2. Normal Table The normal table design incorporates used vehicle tyres as structural elements, combined with a timber top and reinforcements. Prototypes of the normal tables produced from vehicle tyres are presented in Figure 4. The table features four tyre sections as legs, cut from larger tyres and cleaned thoroughly. These tyre legs are positioned at each corner of the table, providing a stable base. The tabletop is constructed from reclaimed timber, cut and joined to form a rectangular or square surface. The wood is treated, sanded, and finished to create a smooth, durable surface suitable for everyday use (Hassan et al., 2025). The natural grain and colour of the wood provide a pleasing contrast to the black rubber of the tyre legs. Timber reinforcements are used to connect the tyre legs to the wooden top, ensuring structural integrity. These reinforcements are partially visible, adding to the table's industrial-chic aesthetic. The intersection of wood and rubber creates interesting visual lines and textures. The tyre legs are left partially exposed, showcasing their tread patterns. However, the upper portions of the legs, where they meet the tabletop, are wrapped in complementary materials such as leather or fabric, providing a finished look and softening the transition between materials. This table stands at a standard dining or work table height of about 30 inches, making it suitable for various uses in home or office settings. Its unique design serves as a conversation piece while providing functional surface space. International Journal of Advanced Scientific and Technical Research ISSN 2249-9954 Available online on http://www.rspublication.com/ijst/index.html volume 15, No. 5, 2025 Original Article ©2025 RS Publication, [email protected] 170 Figure 4: Prototypes of normal tables produced 3.1.3. Stool The stool design creatively repurposes a single car tyre as its primary structural element. Prototypes of the constructed stools are presented in Figure 5. The tyre forms the base and seating surface of the stool, with its circular shape providing a natural seat form. The tyre is thoroughly cleaned and treated to ensure safety and longevity. Its exterior is left partially exposed, allowing the tread pattern to contribute to the stool's aesthetic. Portions of the tyre's sidewall may be covered with complementary materials like woven fabric or leather for added comfort and visual appeal. A circular wooden seat is fitted inside the upper rim of the tyre, providing a flat, comfortable seating surface. This wooden insert is sanded smooth and finished to withstand regular use. It's securely attached to the tyre using robust adhesives and mechanical fasteners. To elevate the stool to a suitable seating height (typically around 18 inches for a standard stool), timber legs are attached to the base of the tyre. These legs are designed to provide stability and can be crafted in various styles - from sleek and modern to rustic and chunky - to suit different interior aesthetics. The timber legs are reinforced with cross-braces for added stability, which also serve as footrests. These wooden elements contrast beautifully with the dark rubber of the tyre, creating an interesting interplay of materials and textures. The stool's design allows for easy stacking when not in use, making it a practical choice for spaces where flexible seating arrangements are desired. Its compact size and unique appearance make it suitable for various settings, from casual home bars to trendy cafes. Figure 5: Prototypes of constructed stools International Journal of Advanced Scientific and Technical Research ISSN 2249-9954 Available online on http://www.rspublication.com/ijst/index.html volume 15, No. 5, 2025 Original Article ©2025 RS Publication, [email protected] 171 3.2. Static Load-Bearing Test Figure 6 presents the results of static load-bearing test conducted on three furniture components constructed from recycled used vehicle tires reinforced with timber: a Stool, a Normal Table, and an Ottoman Coffee Table. The test evaluates two key metrics under load. This included maximum load before failure (This measured the ultimate compressive strength of each component, i.e., the highest load it can sustain before structural failure or permanent deformation). The other metric was deflection at load (This measured the vertical deformation or "sag" of the component when subjected to the specified load). The stool component exhibits moderate load-bearing capacity at 280 kg before failure, which is sufficient for typical seating use (e.g., supporting an adult's weight plus some dynamic load). The failure is indicated by slight splitting of pine frame joint. It shows the highest deflection of 12.5 mm indicating significant flexibility under load. This could be due to the stool's compact design and reliance on tire sidewalls for cushioning, which prioritize comfort over rigidity. While functional for short-term use, the high deflection suggests potential for accelerated wear in high-traffic areas. However, the normal table component outperforms the others with load bearing capacity of 450 kg, suggesting excellent compressive strength likely enhanced by the timber reinforcement distributing forces evenly across the tire base. Its deflection of 2.1 mm highlights superior stiffness, making it ideal for stable surface applications like dining or work. There was no failure indication, as the test halted at maximum load. The low deformation implies minimal stress on materials during use, contributing to better fatigue resistance. On the other hand, with a maximum load bearing capacity of 380 kg, the Ottoman Coffee Table falls between the stool and normal table in strength, suitable for multi-purpose use (e.g., as a footrest or low table). Failure occurs around the adhesive bond shear between rubber layers. The deflection (15.5 mm) is high, similar to the stool, reflecting a design that incorporates more tire material for a softer, more forgiving profile, beneficial for comfort but indicative of higher strain under repeated loading. In terms of deflection at load, the Normal Table has the lowest (2 mm), indicating the highest rigidity and least "bounce" or instability under 450 kg, ideal for precision tasks. The Stool and Ottoman Coffee Table show comparably high deflections (16 mm and 14 mm), suggesting they are more compliant and better suited for cushioned, ergonomic applications but prone to noticeable sagging. In terms of higher loading capacity, the Normal Table supports the heaviest loads (about 60% more than the stool). For design strength and service performance, it again excels due to its balanced strength-to-deflection ratio, ensuring reliable daily use without excessive deformation. Regarding longevity, the Normal Table is projected to have the longest lifespan, as lower deflection correlates with reduced cyclic fatigue on the tire rubber and timber joints, potentially extending service life by 50-100% over the more flexible stool and ottoman under equivalent use. Figure 6: Results of static load-bearing test 280 450 380 12.5 2.1 15.8 0 5 10 15 20 -50 50 150 250 350 450 Stool Normal Table Ottoman Coffee Table Deflection at Load (mm) Maximum Load Before Falure (Kg) International Journal of Advanced Scientific and Technical Research ISSN 2249-9954 Available online on http://www.rspublication.com/ijst/index.html volume 15, No. 5, 2025 Original Article ©2025 RS Publication, [email protected] 172 3.3. Cyclic Loading (Durability) Test Figure 7 illustrates the results of a cyclic loading test, which assesses the durability and fatigue resistance of three furniture components constructed from recycled used vehicle tires reinforced with timber: a Stool, a Normal Table, and an Ottoman Coffee Table. The test simulated repeated real-world usage (e.g., sitting, placing items, or impacts) by applying cyclic loads until structural failure occurs, such as cracking, deformation, or collapse. The key metric is Cycles before Failure (y-axis, ranging from 0 to 50,000 cycles), representing the number of load-unload cycles each component can endure before failing. The stool with approximately 25,000 cycles before failure, demonstrates moderate durability. Its design, likely involving stacked or compressed tire sections with timber for support, allows it to handle repetitive vertical loads (e.g., from sitting and standing) reasonably well. However, the rubber's inherent flexibility may lead to progressive fatigue in the tire walls, causing micro-tears or joint loosening over time. This makes it suitable for low-to-medium traffic areas like home offices, but it may require maintenance after extended use. The Normal Table component stands out with the highest endurance at around 50,000 cycles, nearly double that of the stool. The timber reinforcement likely plays a crucial role here, providing a rigid frame that evenly distributes cyclic stresses across the broader tire base, reducing localized fatigue. This suggests excellent long-term performance for static and dynamic loads (e.g., placing heavy objects repeatedly), making it ideal for high-use environments like living rooms or kitchens where stability is paramount. At about 18,500 cycles, Ottoman Coffee Table shows the lowest durability among the three. Its multifunctional design (combining seating and table elements) may introduce more complex stress patterns, such as shear forces from footrest use, accelerating fatigue in the tire rubber and timber interfaces. While still viable for light-duty interior applications, it could fail sooner under frequent cycles, potentially due to the softer, more compliant structure prioritizing comfort over robustness. The Normal Table exhibits the superior fatigue resistance, enduring nearly 2.7 times more cycles than the Ottoman Coffee Table and about 1.9 times more than the Stool. This indicates lower susceptibility to cumulative damage from repeated loading, likely due to its flatter geometry and reinforced distribution of stresses, which prevents crack propagation in the rubber. The Stool fares better than the Ottoman, possibly because its taller, narrower profile focuses loads axially, reducing bending-induced fatigue compared to the Ottoman's wider, lower form that may experience more torsional strains. Hence, the Normal Table has the highest overall durability, with a design that optimizes longevity under cyclic conditions, potentially lasting 2-3 times longer in service life. The Ottoman's lower cycle count points to quicker failure modes, such as delamination at tire-timber bonds, while the Stool balances the two. Figure 7: Results of cyclic loading (durability) test 0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 Stool Normal Table Ottoman Coffee Table Cycles Failure