Quantitative determination of cellulose content of peels of selected plants growing in Enugu Urban

 Corresponding author: Babarinde Taofeek Olajide Copyright © 2025 Author(s) retain the copyright of this article. This article is published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Liscense 4.0. Quantitative determination of cellulose content of peels of selected plants growing in Enugu Urban Enem Chukwudike Eric 1, Chikezie Kenechukwu Cosmas 2, Adeoye Kayode Abiodun 3, Babarinde Taofeek Olajide 4, *, Ifeanyichukwu Blessed Chisom 5 and Ezenwa Nwaeze Franklyn 6 1 Student/ Graduate Assistant, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, College of Art and Science, Lamar University, P.O. Box 10022 Beaumont, Texas 77710, USA. 2 Student/ Graduate Assistant, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Lamar University, P.O. Box 10022 Beaumont, Texas 77710, USA. 3 Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Lamar University, P.O. Box 10022 Beaumont, Texas 77710, USA. 4 Department of Agricultural Economics, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, P.M.B. 4000, Ogbomoso, Nigeria. 5 Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Imo State University, Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria. 6 Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry Lamar University, P.O. Box 10022 Beaumont, Texas 77710, USA. World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 21(01), 250-267 Publication history: Received on 29 November 2024; revised on 08 January 2025; accepted on 10 January 2025 Article DOI: https://doi.org/10.30574/wjbphs.2025.21.1.0034 Abstract Recycling agricultural waste into industrial raw materials can lessen pollution in the environment and encourage entrepreneurship among the increasing number of unemployed life science graduates. This study created cellulose from plantain and cassava peels that had physicochemical characteristics similar to those of cellulose that are made commercially. For 16 hours, 90% ethanol was used to defat the powdered cassava and plantain peels (CPP and PPP, respectively), with sporadic shaking using a mechanical shaker set to 150 rpm. Every defatted PP was dried for seven hours at 800C in a hot air oven. Deproteination was accomplished by soaking in 1mol of NaOH solution at a PH of 11.6 for 24 hours at a ratio of 1.10w/v (100g PP/1000ml). For three hours, the deflated and deproteinated PPP and CPP were immersed in 15% hydrogen peroxide. Hausner's Quotient of CPC and PPC, bulk density, packed density, hydrated density, emulsifying activity, and water and oil retention capabilities were all examined. For CPP and PPP, the peel powders have crude fat concentrations of 3.20% and 2.18%, respectively, and protein contents of 4.50% and 3.85%. The bulk densities of CPC, PPC, and CC are 0.52, 0.55, and 0.21, respectively, while their packed densities are 0.68, 0.73, and 0.28. The CC (1.98) has a lower water retention capacity (WRC) than the CPC (3.09) and PPC (2.96). The ORC of 3.23 for the CC was higher than that of the PPC and CPC (0.11). Keywords: Quantitative determination; Cellulose content; Peels; Selected plants; Enugu Urban; Cellulose analysis; Plant peels; Biomass 1. Introduction Wastes derived from agricultural products are known as agricultural biomasses. Most commonly, biomass refers to plants or plant-based materials—specifically, lignocellulose biomass—that are not utilized for food or feed. The processing industry and pollution monitoring organizations have challenges due to the seasonality and high perishability of agricultural biomass. (Emaga and others, 2006). Methane and leachate are released by rotted agricultural biomass, and carbon (IV) oxide (CO2) and other pollutants are produced when farmers burn their land in the open (Heinimo, J. et al, 2009). Therefore, poor handling of agricultural biomass waste is causing local air pollution, water and soil contamination, and climate change. Around the world, biomass is a renewable alternative energy source. World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 21(01), 250-267 251 Forests, plant waste, and agricultural crops are examples of biomass resources. Horticultural and arable field crops have yielded a number of leftovers during the agricultural production of fruits and vegetables. Energy policies and planning that ensure global food security should support the use of biomass for energy at the local, national, and international levels (Avcıoğlu et al., 2019). One of the primary fruit crops cultivated in Nigeria is plantains, or Musa Paradisiaca, which is one of the top producers in the world. Plantains are used mostly unripe, their flesh is starchy rather than sweet, and it needs to be cooked. They look like bananas that haven't ripened. Thirty percent of the fruit is the peel, the main by-product. This by-product is hazardous to the environment because of its high water content, which leaves it open to microbial modification, as well as its high levels of nitrogen and phosphorus. Plantain peel flour might offer a new product with a specific composition for a variety of domestic and commercial uses, claim Emaga et al. (2007). The process of making plantain peel flour, how the ripeness stage affects the plantain peel's pectin, and nutritional fiber components. Nigeria has a large plantation of cassava (Manihot esculenta), a woody shrub that is a member of the spurge family (Euphorbia cease). It is commonly planted as an annual crop in tropical and subtropical nations due to its edible starchy tuberous root, which is a substantial source of carbohydrates. Fifty million tonnes of cassava are produced annually in Nigeria by about three million households, the majority of which are women. About 14 million tonnes of the crops' byproducts, such as peels and undersized tubers, are discarded as waste, whereas the majority of the crops are used for human use (International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, IITA, 2016). Cassava peels are higher in protein and cyanogenic glycosides than other tuber portions (Tewe, 2014). Cassava peels have three main disadvantages: they spoil quickly, contain a lot of phytate, and contain cyanogenic glycosides. The processing of cassava generates a lot of trash and is widely thought to be a major cause of environmental degradation. In Nigeria, cassava waste is typically burned or allowed to decompose, making room for more waste heaps to form. According to Aro et al. (2010), the heaps produce a strong, unpleasant odor and release carbon dioxide. Large concentrations of cyanogenic glucosides found in cassava peels have the potential to pollute surface waters, particularly if they are stored in areas that receive a lot of rain or are just dumped in surface waters. Since cellulose makes up the bulk of plant cell walls worldwide, it is currently the most well-known and prevalent dietary fiber. The polymer of anhydro-β-d-glucopyranose units, cellulose, is favored by β-1,4-glycosidic linkages. Cellobiose, cellotriose, and cellotetraose are the dimers, trimers, and tetramers of cellulose's oligosaccharides, also referred to as cellodextrins. Each bundle of fibers in cellulose has hydrogen bonds, which provide it strength and resistance to chemical and biological hydrolysis (Dhingra et al., 2012). It can absorb a large amount of water molecules, making its water-holding capacity one of its noteworthy characteristics. Because the enlarged cellulose makes the body feel fuller, it can help with weight control. To optimize the health benefits of cellulose, its solubility is increased through enzymatic and chemical modifications. One of the byproducts of the hydrolytic breakdown of cellulose is glucose, along with cellodextrins and shorter-chain cellulose polymers. To make cellulose products more pure, partial purification is necessary. The potential of watersoluble cellulose as a fermentable fiber is being investigated further. Recent research indicates that small cellulose molecules can promote the growth of probiotics (Nsor-Atindana et al., 2020). The study also discovered a small amount of cellulose that was very soluble in water, suggesting that it may have prebiotic qualities. The goal of the study was to address the growing need for functional food fibers by examining the potential of cellulose modification. The goal of the study was to increase cellulose's solubility by using hydrolytic techniques. The inquiry was centered on evaluating the capability of soluble cellulose and cellodextrins to function as prebiotics and serve as carbon sources for probiotics. 1.1. Statement of the Problem According to the survey released by the United Nations Development Program, solid waste disposal problem was ranked as the second most urgent urban challenges surpassed only by unemployment and followed by poverty (Agagu, 2008). In Nigeria, the peels constitute sizable portion of solid wastes with negative environmental implications, however, few types of research have been reported on the utilization of cassava peels as raw materials for application in industries, especially in production of cellulose of food or pharmaceutical grades. Recycling of these peels into economically viable products will mitigate environmental hazards associated with them and add values to the cassava and plantain products. Production of cellulose from the peels is one of the many ways to solve the problem of peels environmental pollution, and improve energy structure and agricultural development. World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 21(01), 250-267 252 Aim and Objective The aim of the study is comparative evaluation of some physicochemical properties of cellulose prepared from two different agricultural biomass (cassava and plantain peels). 1.2. Specific objectives The specific objectives are • To produce cellulose from cassava peel. • To produce cellulose from plantain peel. • To compare some physicochemical properties of the cellulose produced with those of the commercial cellulose. 1.3. Significance of the Study Tonnes of Agricultural wastes are discarded in the environment. To recycle the randomly discarded agricultural waste, give value to them which can be essential for commercial and industrial purposes and drastically reduce environmental pollution, promote entrepreneurial opportunities to the teaming unemployed graduates of the life sciences and enhance public health 2. Literature Review 2.1. Agricultural Biomass Waste derived from agricultural products is known as agricultural biomass. Most commonly, biomass refers to plants or plant-based materials—specifically, lignocellulose biomass—that are not utilized for food or feed. The processing industries and pollution monitoring organizations face challenges due to the seasonality and high perishability of agricultural biomass. During agricultural crop production, biomass residues and crop yield are directly correlated. The more crops produced, the more crop residues there are because they comprise a certain percentage of the crop. The leftovers from the cutting and pruning of stems, straws, stalks, leaves, branches, and other agricultural materials after the main crop harvest are the biomass residues that are being discussed here. One can determine the biomass energy potential by knowing these parameters. Crop yield, biomass residues, and their agronomic development are also impacted by environmental factors such as soil and climate (Avcıoğlu et al., 2019). Making agricultural waste into a resource that can be used rather than simply thrown away should be the goal. The main ways that agricultural wastes can improve food security are by producing energy, using them as animal feed, and using them as soil amendments and biofertilizer. Many of them are risk-free when added straight to the soil and contain significant amounts of organic matter. The conversion of agricultural wastes, such as crop residues and animal manures, into organic fertilizers (through composting) is one of the waste treatment technologies that makes it possible to use organic waste as fertilizer, even in populated areas. Technology is crucial to increasing soil fertility and, in turn, crop productivity (Hargreaves et al., 2008; Sabiiti et al., 2011). In the majority of Africa, where a lack of nutrients poses a significant barrier to food production, the use of organic fertilizers is especially crucial (Sabiiti et al, 2011). Additionally, composting eliminates pathogens, lowers weed germination in agricultural fields, eliminates odors, and reduces the volume of waste, all of which help to address major environmental issues related to the disposal of large amounts of waste. The compost can be utilized on the same farm or sold to generate extra income. Additionally, the growing demand for organic products like maize and goat meats has led to an increase in the production of compost for agricultural use (Sabiiti et al, 2011). Animal waste and crop residues can both be utilized as animal feed. However, the kind of feed, bedding material, and animal species all affect how nutrient-rich the waste is. A common practice in cattle feeding is the use of broiler litter. It is important to remember that animals, particularly ruminants, can help reduce potential pollutants by turning crop residues into food. The only microbial enzyme capable of breaking down cellulose, the most prevalent plant product, is found in the rumen (Sabiiti et al. 2011). Nutrients in byproducts are used by ruminants and do not cause waste disposal issues (Sabiiti et al. 2011). Different regions of the world have used agricultural waste to produce energy to differing degrees (Tumuhairwe et al., 2009). In addition to making money from the energy generated, waste-to-energy projects provide a different and sustainable way to dispose of waste. Furthermore, a valuable by-product of the schemes is a high-quality, almost odorless agricultural fertilizer. Anaerobic digestion is becoming more and more popular as a renewable energy source due to worries about future energy shortages and the rising prices of conventional fuels and the electricity produced World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 21(01), 250-267 253 from them. Due to the massive amount of waste generated by cassava processing facilities in Nigeria and the potential for catastrophic environmental effects, appropriate management and release of these wastes. Agricultural wastes can be a useful resource for increasing food security, but if they are not handled, stored, or disposed of appropriately, they may pollute the environment or even endanger human health (Sabiiti et al., 2011). This necessitates raising public awareness of the advantages and possible risks associated with agricultural waste, particularly in developing nations. 2.2. Plantain (Musa Paradisiaca) Nigeria is one of the world's top producers of plantains (Musa Paradisiaca), a major fruit crop. Plantains are bigger and have starchy flesh, much like unripe bananas. 30% of the fruit is made up of the peel, a primary by-product that presents environmental problems because of its high water, phosphorus, and nitrogen content, which makes it vulnerable to microbial modification. According to Emaga et al. (2007), plantain peel flour offers the possibility of producing standardized goods for a range of commercial and residential uses. In addition to a thorough review of banana and plantain cultivars with an emphasis on Pacific Island cultivars (Ploetz et al., 2007), research has examined value addition to plantain peel, including flour production and the effect of ripeness on dietary fiber and pectin content (Emaga et al., 2008). 2.3. Use of Plantain Peels With a production of over 165 million tonnes in 2011, plantains are a fruit that is consumed all over the world. Once peeled, the fruit can be eaten raw or cooked, but the peel is usually thrown away, adding significantly to organic waste (FAOSTAT 2011). In some areas, especially on small farms that grow bananas, plantain peels are used as feed for a variety of animals, such as cattle, goats, pigs, monkeys, poultry, fish, and zebras. But there are issues with the peels' tannins and how they affect the health of the animals (Heuze et al., 2017). Plantain peels' nutritional makeup varies depending on the cultivar and maturity; for example, they have less fiber than dessert plantain peels, and as they ripen, their lignin content rises from 7% to 15% dry matter. Peels from plantains typically make up 6-9% dry matter of protein and 20-30% fiber (measured as NDF). Green plantain peels have 40% starch, which converts to sugars upon ripening. Water purification (A. Chaparadza et al., 2012), ethanol production (Oberol et al., 2011), cellulose extraction (Hai-Yan Sun et al., 2011), lactase production (N. Pareek et al., 2011), fertilizer, and composting are just a few of the many uses for plantain peels outside of animal feed (F. Kalemelawa et al., 2012). 2.4. Peeling method Enzymatic and chemical techniques are used to alter the solubility of cellulose in order to increase its health benefits. The general hydrolysis of cellulose results in the production of glucose, cellodextrins, and different kinds of shorterchain cellulose polymers. Partial purification is necessary to produce more pure cellulose products. Further research is being done on the use of water-soluble cellulose as fermentable fiber. A small amount of cellulose can help probiotics grow, per a recent study (Nsor-Atindana et al., 2020). But according to the study's findings, the small amount of cellulose was highly soluble in water, suggesting that it might have prebiotic properties. 2.5. Cassava (Manihot esculenta) Because of its starchy tuberous roots, which are an important source of carbohydrates, cassava (Manihot esculenta), a woody shrub of the Euphorbiaceae family, is widely grown in Nigeria as an annual crop in tropical and subtropical regions. Fifty million tonnes of cassava are produced annually in Nigeria by about three million households, most of which are made up of women. About fourteen million tonnes of by-products, such as peels and undersized tubers, are thrown away as waste even though humans eat the majority of the crop (International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, 2016). Although cassava peels have a higher protein content and cyanogenic glycoside content than other tuber parts (Tewe, 2014), they have three major drawbacks: they spoil quickly, they contain phytates, and they have a high cyanogenic glycoside content. Processing cassava produces a lot of waste, which greatly contributes to pollution in the environment. To make room for more waste, cassava waste in Nigeria is frequently burned or allowed to decompose, which releases carbon dioxide and has a strong odor (Aro et al., 2010). Because they contain high levels of cyanogenic glucosides, cassava peels can pollute surface water, particularly when they are left out in the rain or dumped in bodies of water. Peeling and washing the tubers mechanically yields waste peels, which make up around 15% of the root (Aro et al., 2010) (Otache et al., 2017). The tubers may be harmed by improper handling during harvest (Otache et al., 2015). The periderm, cortex, and pulp are the three separate layers visible in a transverse section of the cassava root (Wheatley et World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 21(01), 250-267 254 al., 2008; Otache et al., 2017). Cassava roots are comparatively rich in vitamin C and contain significant amounts of minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, and iron (Otache et al., 2017). Nevertheless, the hydrocyanic acid content of cassava peels, which can impede growth and development, limits their use as feed for non-ruminant animals (Apata et al., 2012). To increase cassava's feeding value, processing methods like sun-drying, parboiling, soaking, and retting have been used (Ekwe et al., 2011; Ooye et al., 2014). Smallholders in Nigeria who use the leftover cassava peels to raise goats have begun to pay more attention to drying them on black plastic sheets (Adebayo et al., 2008). Garri and starch processing facilities generate the majority of the waste from cassava processing, and it won't be useful until the peels can be used to make animal feed. Reducing the cost of raising cattle and addressing the issue of their waste disposal are two benefits of using cassava peels for animal feed. Processing results in the production of large quantities of liquid pulp and cassava peels (Jideofor et al, 2015). Most of these wastes are used as animal feed, though some become solid municipal waste (Adesanya et al, 2008). Furthermore, the liquid residue that remains after processing cassava can be gathered and converted into bioethanol, and the muck deposits that result can be utilized as manure to raise the nutrient value of the soil. Natural fibers made from wood, annual plants, and agricultural waste are primarily composed of cellulose. Cellulose is a plentiful, sustainable resource. In a single plane, the chains are made up of β-D-glucopyranose units connected by 14-glycosidic bonds (Fig. 1.1). According to Moran et al. (2008), cellulose is a linear polymer (Fig. 1.2). There are three OH groups in every glucose ring, which are the functional groups found in cellulose chains. Depending on where the OH groups are located at the glucose unit, cellulose molecules can form two different kinds of hydrogen bonds. Intramolecular and intermolecular hydrogen bonds are two different kinds. Figure 1 Cellulose and D-glucose Figure 2 Cellulose molecules Both crystalline and amorphous regions are created when cellulose molecules group together. The crystalline areas are inaccessible to water due to their highly ordered structure, which is preserved by hydrogen bonds. The notable elastic modulus of native cellulose fibers, approximately 150 GPa, is primarily due to the extended chain structure of crystalline cellulose. The longitudinal tensile strength of crystalline cellulose is approximately 10 GPa. The degree of polymerization of cellulose, a naturally occurring polymer, is roughly 10,000 glucopyranose units in wood and 15,000 World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 21(01), 250-267 255 in cotton. Cellulose comes in three different varieties: cellulose I, also known as native cellulose, cellulose II, cellulose III, and cellulose IV. Native cellulose and cellulose II differ in two significant ways despite their many similarities. First, cellulose II has a "anti-parallel" chain direction arrangement and a staggered, antiparallel center chain (Granstrom 2009). Along with antiparallelism, one of the hydrogen bonding patterns that is different from cellulose I is a clear hydrogen bond between the center chain and the distant corner chains between O2 and O2. Because cellulose II's crystal structure is more thermodynamically stable than native cellulose's, cellulose I can be transformed into cellulose II but not the other way around. Another cellulose allomorph, cellulose III, is produced when cellulose Iβ and cellulose II are treated with liquid ammonia or particular amines. According to Yui et al. (2010), cellulose III can return to its parent forms. Figure 3 Cellulose structure of cellulose I and II Most of the regenerated cellulose that is currently available to consumers is composed of cellulose II. Cellulose II can be made in a few easy steps. The most popular method is simple mercerization using a strong alkali solution. For instance, rayon fibers are widely used. They consist of a polymer of β-1,4-linked D-glucopyranose, in which no more than 15% of the hydrogen of the hydroxyl groups has been substituted by pigments, fire retardants, and manufacturing impurities. Usually, rayon fibers are used to make textiles. (Well and Levchik, 2008). World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 21(01), 250-267 256 Figure 4 SEM image of regenerated cellulose (Ghorani et al., 2013) 2.6. Cellulose Remaking Cellulosic fibers offer an enticing opportunity to reinforce petroleum-based polymers and bioplastics while also adding more bio-based material to petroleum-based polymers due to their biodegradable nature and relatively high mechanical qualities. However, there are still limitations on using cellulose fibers as a reinforcing agent. This restriction results from cellulosics' high hydroxyl group content, which makes them hydrophilic and incompatible with the polymer matrices' hydrophobic behavior. Because they are readily available in the plastics market and have low melting points, high density polyethylene (HDPE), low density polyethylene (LDPE), polyethylene (PP), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) are the polymers most frequently filled with cellulosic fibers. The product's poor interface and low resistance to moisture adsorption are caused by the fiber/matrix incompatibility. The interface is actually one of the most important parts of the composites. The composite's resistance to failure can be increased by transferring load to it when the matrix phase and the dispersed (reinforcing) phase are sufficiently bonded. Three techniques have been employed to distribute cellulose evenly and strengthen the interface between the thermoplastic matrix and the cellulose reinforcement: compatibilizing, grafting, and chemical modification. Compatibility testing uses a co-polymer that has a region that mimics the matrix polymer chemically and another that can interact with the hydroxyl groups of cellulose. One example is maleic anhydride polypropylene (MAPP) for composites made of natural fiber and polypropylene. Stark and Rowlands (2008) found that the composites produced with 3 weight percent MAPP added to natural fibers (fiber weight ratio: PP = 40:60) were roughly three times as stiff and twice as strong as the composite without MAPP treatments. Using fibers, the second strategy, grafting, generates radicals that initiate the chain growth of polymers that complement the matrix polymers. For example, (Stenstad et al. 2008) used a cerium-induced grafting technique to add epoxy groups, carbon-carbon double bonds, cationic groups (amines), and anionic groups (carboxyls) to microfibriallated cellulose. They also demonstrated how grafting polymer brushes and layers can hydrophobicize cellulose. These results imply that cellulose can form composites through interactions with a potentially wide range of matrix polymers. The alternative tactic, chemical modification, involves changing the fibers' hydroxyl groups to a hydrophobic functional group in order to make them compatible with the hydrophobic matrix polymer. Acetylation and propionylation are two examples. For instance, acetylation causes cellulose to become hydrophobic by reacting with acetic anhydride and replacing the cell wall's hydroxyl groups with acetyl groups. (Li and others, 2007). Polyethylene glycol (PEG) is also utilized in certain applications to alter the characteristics of cellulose. Water-soluble, lubricating, odorless, neutral, nonvolatile, nonirritating, and miscible with ionic liquid are all properties of polyethylene glycol. PEG is used to plasticize or alter cellulose in the field of food science. In medical engineering, electroactive papers are created by combining cellulose with polyethylene oxide (PEO) and polyethylene glycol (PEG). Cellulose nanowhiskers are dispersed in polylactic acid polymer using PEG in the nanocomposite field (Lijunberg et al., 2005). Furthermore, a strong alkali system was used to dissolve cellulose in PEG (Han and Young 2009). The cellulose that precipitated from the solution after washing was examined for the presence of residual PEG using thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and dynamic scanning calorimetry (DSC). For pure PEG, the DSC displayed a strong peak at about 58°C; World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 21(01), 250-267 257 however, the precipitated sample did not exhibit this peak (Fig. 1.5), indicating that the PEG in the solvent had been thoroughly cleaned. Figure 5 DSC curves of PEG-2000 and all-cellulose composite Figure 6 TGA curves of cellulose, PEG-2000 and all-cellulose composite 2.7. All-cellulose composites The creation of green composites, which are characterized by their sustainability, environmental friendliness, and compostability, can be accelerated by fusing cellulose fibers with a "green" matrix. Maya et al. (2007) provided a comprehensive examination of green composites using biodegradable matrices such as poly(lactic acid), poly(butylene succinate), poly(hydroxybutanoate), and soy-based polymers. They concluded that this was a significant obstacle because biodegradable matrices are substantially more costly than conventional ones. Cellulose is another promising matrix material for composites. When the matrix and reinforcement phases are composed of the same polymer, such as cellulose, the products are referred to as self-reinforced polymeric materials (SRPMs) (Kmetty et al., 2010). SRPMs outperform traditional composites and are more economical. All-polymer composites were previously made by impregnating polymer fibers with a polymer matrix that had a lower melting point. A new manufacturing technique for all-polymer composites called "hot compaction" was created by University of Leeds researchers. This method involves melting a portion of the polymer fiber and then recrystallizing it into a matrix that improves the interface and fortifies the fibers. World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 21(01), 250-267 258 Nishino et al. (2009) were the first to expand on the success of all-polypropylene composites (Cabrera et al., 2004) by applying this technique to cellulosic materials. They produced all-cellulose composites by dissolving Kraft fibers and using the cellulose solution as a binder matrix for ramie fibers that were aligned uniaxially. These composites' remarkable compatibility improves interfacial adhesion because the reinforcement and matrix are composed of the same material. As a result, these all-cellulose composites had tensile strengths between 480 and 540 MPa. Additionally, cellulose materials can be selectively dissolved to create all-cellulose composites. The matrix is created by dissolving and regenerating a surface layer of cellulose, with the undissolved core serving as reinforcement. Duchemin et al. (2009a) partially dissolved microcrystalline cellulose in LiCl/DMAc and precipitated the dissolved portion to form a matrix around the undissolved core. The cellulose materials for this selective dissolution method can also be pre-formed mats such as filter paper (Nishino and Arimoto, 2007) or regenerated cellulose fibers (Soykeabkaew et al., 2009) using the LiCl/DMAc solvent system. More recently, Han and Yan (2010) employed a PEG/NaOH aqueous solution to dissolve filter paper selectively. All-cellulose composites are more mechanically sound than other natural fiber-based composites. For instance, Gindl and Keckes (2005) demonstrated that all-cellulose composites derived from MCC exhibit tensile properties that surpass the typical range of randomly oriented biofiber-reinforced polymer composites in terms of elastic modulus (1–13 GPa) and tensile strength (15–140 MPa). 2.8. Cellulose Dissolution Cellulose is insoluble in water and the majority of organic solvents, although it can dissolve in certain solvents. Complexing agents like cupriethylenediamine (Cuene) and cadmium ethylenediamine (cadoxene) break down the hydrogen bonds in cellulose and facilitate dissolution by forming complexes with its hydroxyl groups. These chemicals are commonly used to dissolve pulp fibers so that capillary viscosity, a measure of cellulose polymerization degree, can be determined. Furthermore, urea dissolves cellulose more easily than strong alkalis like NaOH, which keeps free water in the solution and stops cellulose chains from forming hydrogen bonds. Recent solvent systems for the dissolution of cellulose include N-methylmorpholine N-oxide (NMMO) and lithium chloride/N,N-dimethylacetamide (LiCl/DMAc). Tencel fibers, a type of lyocell fiber, are produced commercially using NMMO. Strong cellulose-solvent interactions and little intrinsic viscosity loss over time make LiCl/DMAc an efficient solvent. An early instance of the use of ionic liquids for this purpose was Graenacher's 1934 discovery that cellulose could be dissolved by combining molten Nethylpyridinium chloride with bases that contained nitrogen. Ionic liquids were once thought to be impractical, but their potential for dissolving cellulose has since been reassessed. Rogers and his team at the University of Alabama have conducted extensive research on cellulose regeneration and dissolution in ionic liquids. Cellulose can be dissolved without derivation using hydrophilic ionic liquids such as 1-N-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride (BMIMCl) and 1allyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride (AmimCl). By choosing the right ionic liquid ingredients, it is possible to precisely control the solubility of cellulose in these liquids as well as the characteristics of the final solution. Although it can reach up to 25 weight percent with the use of microwave heating, the dissolution capacity usually falls between 10 and 15 weight percent of the ionic liquid. BMIMCl's high chloride activity and concentration are thought to be very effective at breaking down the complex hydrogenbonding network in cellulose, which is essential to its dissolution. However, because of competitive hydrogen-bonding with its microfibrils, the water in BMIMCl drastically decreases the solubility of cellulose. It is easy to precipitate cellulose in BMIMCl solution by adding acetone, ethanol, or water. The regenerated cellulose has nearly the same degree of polymerization and polydispersity as the original, despite having a very different morphology due to the microfibrils fused into a relatively uniform macrostructure. By altering the regeneration procedures, cellulose can be created in a range of structural forms, including powder, tubes, beads, fibers, and films. By altering the degree of crystallinity of the dissolved cellulose during regeneration, amorphous to crystalline cellulose can be produced under different conditions. Additionally, the duration of storage of the cellulose ionic liquid solution affects the microstructure of the regenerated cellulose; a few weeks of room temperature storage can yield amorphous cellulose (Zhu et al. 2006). Ionic liquids can be recovered and reused following cellulose regeneration, as demonstrated by Zhu et al. (2006). Among the recovery methods are evaporation, ionic exchange, pervaporation, reverse osmosis, and salting out. Pure cellulose is available commercially in a number of forms, each with distinct pharmacological and mechanical properties. The differences in the particles' size, shape, and crystallinity (agglomerated or fibrous) account for these disparities. Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) is a prevalent and extensively utilized form in the pharmaceutical industry. MCC grades are multifunctional excipients that increase viscosity and thicken liquid dosage forms, bind in wet and dry granulation World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 21(01), 250-267 265 science entrepreneurs. The physicochemical characteristics of cellulose were produced in this study by processing the peels of plantains and cassava close to those of commercially sold cellulose. Recommendation Appropriate government agencies and private industry sectors should start raising public awareness of the advantages of using agricultural biomass. The process of turning plantain and cassava peels into industrial raw materials like cellulose will reduce the environmental harm caused by these wastes, unavoidably increasing crop value, giving farmers more financial leverage, and creating jobs for life science graduates. Compliance with ethical standards Acknowledgement I express my profound gratitude to God Almighty for guiding me through the period of my study and for favour & wisdom granted to me during my year of studies. My appreciation goes to my supervisor Professor Stella Inya-Agha, my head of department Dr C.E Achukanu, Project Supervisor, Dr Eze Steven Peter, my Lectures Professor Okaka ANC, Professor Stan, Dr Frank, Eneh F.U, Dr Ezenwali Moses, Dr Ujah I.I, Mr Nsude AC, Mr Okoli K.C, AnekeOnyTshi, C.E Mamah, K.C Uzoigwe, C.C Ebuka and the Scientist Dr Otuu, Fred, Stratech Laboratory Enugu, ANSA Laboratory Enugu. The Department of Applied Biochemistry Laboratory, ESUT Project Development Agency Enugu, Department of Applied Biochemistry UNN. My innermost appreciation goes to my parents Engr and Mrs Paul and Eunice Enem for bringing me into this world and for being there always, and my siblings Ifechukwu, Chinenye, Ijeoma, Chidera, love you all infinitely. I also appreciate Miss Precious Ogbodo who helps in typesetting and Mr Chukwuma Jahmobim Nwokwu and all my friends who contributed in making this thesis a reality. Disclosure of Conflict of Interest The authors declare that they have no known financial or personal conflicts of interest that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. References [1] Adebayo, A.O. (2008) Using cassava waste to raise goats. Project 2008-4345. World Bank Development Marketplace; 2008; 2008-4345. [2] Adesanya, O.A., Oluyemi, K.A., Josiah,S.J., Adesanya, R.A., Shittu, L.A.J., Ofusori, D., Bankole, N, Babalola G.(2017). 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