Code Switching Practices and Learning Comprehension in English of Grade 8 Students

ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17339912/NIJSE.2025 Code Switching Practices and Learning Comprehension in English of Grade 8 Students Freddie Rick B. Padayao Abstract. The primary objective of this study was to evaluate which domains of code switching practices significantly influenced the learning comprehension in English of Grade 8 students in Cluster 1 Public Secondary Schools in Davao City, employing a non-experimental quantitative descriptive-correlational design. A sample of 339 Grade 8 learners was selected using a stratified random sampling method, and modified survey questionnaires were pilot tested to ensure high reliability and internal consistency. Findings indicated that the overall code switching practices were moderately extensive, with students often alternating languages and maintaining consistent language pairing in their classroom interactions. Specifically, the frequency of language alternation and the initiation of code switching demonstrated significant positive associations with English comprehension, whereas contextual relevance and consistency in language pairing did not exhibit a significant impact. These results suggested that students who proactively engaged in code switching were more likely to exhibit enhanced comprehension of English texts. The statistical analysis revealed a weak yet significant relationship between overall code switching practices and learning comprehension, indicating the potential benefits of strategic, student-driven language alternation. The study concluded that dynamic and responsive code switching behaviors can serve as effective tools to enhance academic performance in multilingual classroom settings. KEY WORDS 1. Code switching 2. learning comprehension 3. adaptive instruction Date Received: August 15, 2025 — Date Reviewed: September 20, 2025 — Date Published: October 10, 2025 1. Introduction In many educational contexts, inadequate English comprehension among students in different grade levels remains a pressing concern that often jeopardizes their performance in multiple subjects. This challenge frequently arises from limited vocabulary, insufficient language exposure, and suboptimal teaching strategies. In multilingual classrooms, code-switching, the practice of alternating between English and the students’ native language, commonly occurs and can further influence their grasp of English. To address these issues, this research will investigate the effects of code-switching on learners’ English comprehension. Specifically, the study will determine whether code-switching enhances understanding or creates additional barriers, thereby guiding future pedagogical approaches to bolster student outcomes. In the United States, students often struggle with English language comprehension due to a variety NIJSE (2025) - of socio-economic and educational factors. For instance, Hall et al. (2020) suggest that disparities in educational resources across different school districts play a significant role in this issue. Hayati and Puspitaloka (2022) noted that limited parental engagement and exposure to English outside of school also contribute to poor comprehension. These factors collectively result in a gap in language proficiency that can persist through the students’ academic careers, affecting their overall educational outcomes. Therefore, addressing these systemic and home environment issues is crucial for improving English comprehension among students. In Arab countries, the challenges of English comprehension are notably linked to the fundamental differences between Arabic and English in terms of script, syntax, and phonetics. As an example, Hezam et al. (2022) have pointed out that the lack of exposure to native English speakers and reliance on traditional methods of language teaching exacerbate these problems. Also, Ibrahim and Alhosani (2020) pointed out that the rote learning approach prevalent in many schools does not support the development of critical language skills necessary for comprehension. Students therefore often find themselves unable to apply English in practical, everyday contexts, hindering their ability to learn effectively. Progressive teaching methods that incorporate more practical language use might bridge this comprehension gap. In Asia, English comprehension issues often stem from high-stakes testing environments, which prioritize exam results over genuine language acquisition. Nanda and Azmy (2020) states that this focus on scoring well on tests can lead to a lack of proficiency in practical English usage. According to Park (2022), many Asian education systems emphasize memorization over the development of comprehension skills and critical thinking. This educational culture leads to a superficial understanding of the language, where students can recognize written English but struggle with verbal communication and real-world application. Consequently, a shift towards more interactive and communicative teaching styles is needed to enhance comprehension skills among students. In the Philippines, English is both a medium of instruction and a subject in its own right, yet students still show significant gaps in comprehension. Bernardo et al. (2021) shows how inconsistent use of English across different regions and schools results in varying levels of language mastery. In addition, Santos et al. (2022) noted that although English is widely used in media and government, many students do not have enough opportunities to practice English in meaningful contexts. The educational system’s challenge is to integrate English more thoroughly into daily activities and to encourage its use in more engaging and practical ways. In researcher’s setting, the multilingual nature of the population, with individuals often fluent in Bisaya, Tagalog, and English, poses unique challenges for English comprehension. The frequent switching between languages in informal settings can sometimes interfere with the acquisition of a solid foundation in any one language, including English. Additionally, the educational strategies employed often do not take this linguistic diversity into account, leading to less effective English instruction. To improve comprehension, educational policies and practices need to consider the multilingual backdrop against which these students learn. Tailoring English education to respect and incorporate local linguistic contexts could enhance comprehension and usage among students in Davao City. There is a clear research gap regarding how code-switching practices affect English learning comprehension, especially among Grade 8 students in Cluster 1 public secondary schools in Davao City. Many studies focus on general language learning but do not offer detailed quantitative findings about code-switching in this particular setting. Moreover, existing literature often presents mixed conclusions, with some 2ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17339912/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - experts suggesting that code-switching helps students understand new concepts, while others claim it hinders their ability to fully master English. These conflicting views create a need for a focused investigation that provides concrete data on whether code-switching positively or negatively influences comprehension. Consequently, the absence of a clear consensus highlights the importance of carrying out a specific quantitative study in these schools. In addition, the urgency of conducting this research in the local context stems from the unique language environment in Davao City, where students frequently switch between local languages and English. Teachers and school administrators lack sufficient evidence-based guidelines on whether to encourage or discourage code-switching in their lessons. By addressing this gap, the study aims to support educators in making more informed decisions about instructional practices. This, in turn, can help improve students’ English comprehension and overall academic performance. Hence, investigating the influence of code-switching in this particular setting is both timely and necessary. 1.1. Theoretical/Conceptual Framework of the Study —This study was anchored on Sociocultural Theory (Vygotsky, 1978). Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory posits that social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition. Vygotsky argues that community and culture profoundly influence learning, with language being a crucial tool for cognitive development. This theory is highly relevant for studying the impact of codeswitching on learning comprehension, as codeswitching is inherently a social and linguistic practice that can mediate cognitive functions. Vygotsky’s emphasis on the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) could help explain how code-switching between familiar and academic language enhances understanding and learning. In support, the Cummins’ (1979) Linguistic Interdependence Theory posited that there is a transfer of cognitive/academic proficiency from the first language to the second language, meaning that skills acquired in one language can support the development of skills in another language. This theory supports the study of code-switching as it implies that bilingual students’ ability to switch between languages can enhance their comprehension abilities in both. According to this theory, code-switching might not only help maintain fluency across languages but also foster deeper understanding and retention of content in English. Investigating codeswitching from the perspective of Linguistic Interdependence could demonstrate how students leverage their first language to bolster English comprehension, supporting the view that bilingual abilities are an asset in educational contexts. Lastly, the study build its foundation on Cognitive Load Theory (Sweller, 1988). Cognitive Load Theory deals with the way information is processed and learned; it posits that educational activities should be designed to take into account the limitations of working memory, suggesting that too much information can overwhelm the learner and hinder understanding. When considering the cognitive processes involved in code-switching, this theory can be instrumental in exploring how switching between languages affects the cognitive load of Grade 8 students. Code-switching could either simplify cognitive processing by using a more familiar language or increase cognitive load if it introduces complexity in language use. Studying code-switching through the lens of Cognitive Load Theory could reveal whether such practices streamline comprehension and learning in English or complicate it, thereby affecting educational outcomes. This study is compose of two variables, as shown in Figure 1. The independent variable is code switching practices of students or the habitual use of two or more languages interchangeably within a conversation or across different communication contexts. The measures of code switching practices are fre3ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17339912/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - Fig. 1. Theoretical/Conceptual Framework quency of language alternation or the measures how often students switch between languages during a single conversation; contextual relevance of switching or the factor that assesses whether students switch languages based on the topic of conversation or the social context they are in; consistency in language pairing or the process examines whether students consistently pair certain languages with specific subjects or conversations; and initiation of code switching or the steps which identifies who begins the switch in language during group interactions. The dependent variable is learning comprehension in English of students or the ability to understand, interpret, and critically analyze information presented in various forms such as text, speech, and visuals. The indicators for learning comprehension in English are question generation or the ability of students to formulate relevant questions about the content they are learning; summarization skills or the process that assess how effectively students can condense a larger text or speech into its essential points without losing the core message; application of concepts or the ability of students to use learned information in different or practical scenarios; and inference making or the ability to understand implicit meanings and conclusions not explicitly stated within the content. 2. Methodology This section provides a comprehensive overview of the research design, including details on the research respondents, ethical considerations, research instruments, and procedural steps. It also outlines the methods for data collection and analysis, ensuring a clear framework for the study. 4ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17339912/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - 2.1. Research Design—In the context of this study, the researcher opted for a quantitative descriptive-correlational research design. Quantitative research design involved the systematic collection and analysis of numerical data to identify patterns, relationships, and trends. It emphasized objectivity (Watson, 2015). Applying a quantitative descriptive-correlational design in the study of code switching and English learning comprehension was suitable as it allowed for the precise measurement and analysis of the extent and nature of relationships between variables. This design was effective for establishing patterns that could predict student outcomes based on their code switching practices. Furthermore, it provided a structured approach to test hypotheses regarding the influence of code switching on learning comprehension, offering a robust framework for drawing statistically valid conclusions. Further, the descriptive research approach aimed to accurately describe characteristics, behaviors, or phenomena within a specific population or context. It focused on providing a detailed and systematic account without manipulating any variables (Rahi, 2017). In the context of exploring how code switching impacted English comprehension, the descriptive research approach was ideal for initially gathering detailed information on how frequently code switching occurred among Grade 8 students and their typical English comprehension levels. This approach provided valuable baseline data on the behaviors and characteristics of the student population. It also helped in identifying and describing the variables relevant to the study, which was essential before examining the relationships between them. Furthermore, the correlational research approach examined the relationship between two or more variables to determine whether and how they were associated. It did not imply causation but identified the strength and direction of relationships (Lau, 2017). Using a correlational research approach was highly relevant for investigating whether a relationship existed between the degree of code switching and English comprehension among students. This method revealed the strength and direction of the association, indicating whether more frequent use of code switching correlated with higher or lower comprehension scores. Additionally, it helped control for confounding variables, thus refining the understanding of how code switching independently affected learning outcomes, which was essential for educational planning and intervention in Davao City schools. 2.2. Ethical Consideration—The researcher strictly followed the established protocols outlined in the standard guidelines for executing the research, paying close attention to the specified criteria for managing both the population and the data. The survey questionnaires, along with other related materials, were submitted for evaluation and approval. Upon receiving the green light from the RMC-Ethics Committee, the researcher proceeded to the subsequent phase of the study. The study on the predictive power of code switching practices on learning comprehension in English among Grade 8 students offered valuable insights that benefited society as a whole. By understanding how code switching affected language learning, educators and policymakers were able to improve teaching strategies. Better language instruction led to enhanced communication skills among students, ultimately contributing to a more educated and competitive workforce. As these learners grew into adults, they could use their improved language skills to interact more effectively in various social, academic, and professional settings. This study also had the potential to inform educational reforms and curriculum development, thereby promoting more inclusive and culturally sensitive instructional methods. When schools recognized the positive role that code switching might play, they crafted policies that respected students’ linguistic backgrounds. Such policies 5ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17339912/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - helped reduce language barriers and increase engagement, leading to higher academic achievements. Thus, the findings from this research guided educators, policymakers, and the community in supporting students who came from diverse linguistic backgrounds. This collaborative effort fostered a healthier, more harmonious educational landscape that valued cultural diversity and language rights. 2.3. Research Respondents—The respondents for this study consisted of 339 Grade 8 students, selected from an estimated pool of 2200 students enrolled in Cluster 1 public secondary schools in Davao City. The selection of this specific number of respondents was guided by the Slovin formula, a widely used statistical tool for determining sample sizes in research. This formula ensured that the sample was representative of the larger student population, thereby enabling more accurate and generalizable findings from the study. By employing this method, the research aimed to achieve a balance between efficiency and comprehensive data collection. The use of the Slovin formula supported the reliability of the research outcomes by minimizing sampling error. Regarding the inclusion criteria for selecting the respondents, the researcher set specific guidelines to ensure a relevant and appropriate sample. These criteria included students who were officially enrolled in Grade 8 during the academic year of the study, ensuring that all respondents were experiencing the educational context being examined. Additionally, the students had to have parental or guardian consent to participate, adhering to ethical standards of research with minors. Students with diagnosed learning disabilities or those undergoing special language intervention programs were excluded to maintain the focus on typical language comprehension scenarios in the classroom. These criteria were designed to create a homogeneous group, thereby controlling for external variables that might have influenced the study’s outcomes. For the selection of respondents, the Stratified Random Sampling Technique was used. This method involved dividing the population into distinct subgroups, or strata, that shared similar characteristics, and then drawing a random sample from each stratum (Kim et al., 2013). The process began by categorizing all eligible students into strata based on variables relevant to the study, such as previous academic performance. A random sample was then drawn from each stratum, ensuring each subgroup was proportionately represented in the final sample. This technique enhanced the statistical efficiency of the sampling process and ensured that the sample accurately reflected the diversity within the population. 2.4. Research Instrument—The researcher made use of an adapted and modified survey questionnaire to suit the investigation. The scaling was done by having one-half of the value of 5 as the average cut-off point or the fair level, with a uniform interval of 0.80. Before the administration of the instrument, it was subjected to validation by three experts and was revised according to their expert comments. The first part measured the code switching practices of Grade 8 students through the domains: frequency of language alternation, contextual relevance of switching, consistency in language pairing, and initiation of code switching. The Cronbach alpha value for this instrument was 0.847, described as high and interpreted as reliable, indicating high internal consistency among the items. Responses were collected using a 5-point Likert scale to assess the extent of agreement or disagreement with each statement, with subsequent analysis based on predefined ranges of means that categorized the data effectively. 6ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17339912/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - Range of Mean, Descriptive Level, and Interpretation for Code Switching of Grade 8 Students Range of Mean Descriptive Level Interpretation 4.20 – 5.00 Very Extensive The code switching of Grade 8 students is always practiced. 3.40 – 4.19 Extensive The code switching of Grade 8 students is oftentimes practiced. 2.60 – 3.39 Moderately Extensive The code switching of Grade 8 students is sometimes practiced. 1.80 – 2.59 Less Extensive The code switching of Grade 8 students is seldom practiced. 1.00 – 1.79 Not Extensive The code switching of Grade 8 students is never practiced. The second part of the instrument measured the learning comprehension in English of Grade 8 students through the indicators: question generation, summarization skills, application of concepts, and inference making. The Cronbach alpha value for this instrument was also 0.939, described as excellent and interpreted as highly reliable, demonstrating strong internal consistency among the items. The data collection utilized a 5-point Likert scale, allowing respondents to indicate their level of agreement or disagreement with each statement. The gathered responses were then analyzed using predefined mean ranges to systematically categorize the data. Range of Mean, Descriptive Level, and Interpretation for Learning Comprehension in English of Grade 8 Students Range of Mean Descriptive Level Interpretation 4.20 – 5.00 Very Extensive The learning comprehension in English of Grade 8 students is always evident. 3.40 – 4.19 Extensive The learning comprehension in English of Grade 8 students is oftentimes evident. 2.60 – 3.39 Moderately Extensive The learning comprehension in English of Grade 8 students is sometimes evident. 1.80 – 2.59 Less Extensive The learning comprehension in English of Grade 8 students is seldom evident. 1.00 – 1.79 Not Extensive The learning comprehension in English of Grade 8 students is never evident. 2.5. Data Gathering Procedure— 7ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17339912/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - Several steps were undertaken by the researcher in conducting the study. The steps were enumerated as follows: The initial step in securing permission to conduct the study involved the researcher obtaining an endorsement from the Dean of the Graduate School at The Rizal Memorial Colleges, Inc., Davao City. This endorsement served as a formal recognition and support of the research project, validating its academic merit and alignment with the institution’s research objectives. Subsequently, the researcher applied for ethical clearance from the Graduate School RMC-Research Ethics Committee (GSRMC-REC). The ethical clearance was crucial as it ensured that the study adhered to established ethical standards, particularly in terms of confidentiality, consent, and the overall welfare of the respondents. Once the endorsement and ethical clearance were secured, the researcher approached the Schools Division Superintendent in Davao City to request permission to conduct the study within the schools of Cluster 1 Public Secondary Schools. This request included attaching copies of both the endorsement from the Dean and the ethical clearance certificate to demonstrate compliance with academic and ethical standards. Following approval from the superintendent, the researcher proceeded to contact the principals of the individual schools in Cluster 1 Public Secondary Schools. During this phase, the researcher explained the study’s purpose, its potential benefits for the academe, and the specific roles and expectations of the schools and their teachers, ensuring transparency and fostering cooperation. The first step in the distribution of the questionnaire involved the selection of research respondents, which was based on the established inclusion criteria ensuring all respondents were bona fide Grade 8 students in Cluster 1 Public Secondary Schools. This was followed by a pilot test conducted on a small group of respondents to ensure the clarity and reliability of the questionnaire. The pilot test helped to identify any ambiguities or biases in the questions and allowed the researcher to make necessary adjustments. This testing phase was crucial for validating the questionnaire’s effectiveness in accurately collecting the intended data. Following the successful pilot test, the main distribution of the research questionnaires took place. The selected respondents were given sufficient time to complete the questionnaire, ensuring they could provide thoughtful and thorough responses. Respondents had the flexibility to choose their preferred method of completion, either face-to-face or online, accommodating their convenience and comfort levels. This approach not only facilitated a higher response rate but also accommodated the diverse preferences and schedules of the respondents, potentially enhancing the quality and accuracy of the data collected. The final phase involved the retrieval of the completed questionnaires. The researcher established a deadline for submission, which was communicated clearly at the time of distribution. Respondents submitted their completed questionnaires through the predetermined method, either by returning the physical documents in face-to-face settings or submitting them electronically. Once all questionnaires were collected, the researcher proceeded with data analysis, using statistical software to quantify the results and examine the relationships between code switching practices and learning comprehension in English of students. 2.6. Data Analysis—The following statistical tools were utilized by the researcher in processing the gathered data: Mean. This was used to measure the extents of code switching practices and learning comprehension 8ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17339912/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - in English of Grade 8 students in Public Secondary Schools in Davao City. This was used to answer the obectives 1 and 2. Pearson ProductMoment Correlation. This was used to evaluate to examine the relationship between code switching practices and learning comprehension in English of Grade 8 students in Public Secondary Schools in Davao City. Pearson product-moment correlation assesses the strength and direction of a linear relationship between two continuous variables. This was used to answer the obective 3. Regression Analysis. This technique was utilized to examine which domains of code switching practices significantly influence the learning comprehension in English of Grade 8 students in Public Secondary Schools in Davao City. Regression analysis involves identifying the equation that best predicts a dependent variable based on one or more independent variables. This was used to answer the obective 4. 3. Results and Discussion This chapter presents the results generated from the data gathered. It is sequenced based on the objectives of the study as presented in the first chapter. Thus, it presents the extents of code switching practices and learning comprehension in English of Grade 8 students; the significant relationship among these variables; and the influence of code switching practices on the learning comprehension in English of Grade 8 students in Cluster 1 Public Secondary Schools in Davao City. 3.1. Code Switching Practices of Students—The code switching practices of students in this study is measured in terms of frequency of language alternation, contextual relevance of switching, consistency in language pairing, and initiation of code switching. The extent of this variable and its domain is presented in the tables below. Summary on Code Switching Practices Overall, the code switching practices acquired a mean score of 3.38, categorized as moderately extensive. This indicates that Grade 8 students in Cluster 1 Public Secondary Schools in Davao City sometimes practice code switching, which reflects a variable but ongoing use of this linguistic behavior in classroom interactions. This implies that they selectively alternate languages, using this strategy only as needed rather than habitually. Temesgen and Hailu (2022) observed that such moderate code switching can be an effective communicative tool, helping learners negotiate meaning and maintain bilingual proficiency. Caballero and Celaya (2022) further argued that even moderate use of native language resources in academic contexts can support cognitive transfer, thereby enhancing overall language development and learning outcomes. Notably, the code switching practices in terms of consistency in language pairing achieved the highest mean of 3.49 or extensive. In contrast, code switching practices in terms of initiation of code switching registered the lowest mean of 3.23 or moderately extensive. These findings illustrate that while students frequently adhere to consistent language pairings, their proactive initiation of code-switching is comparatively less common. As noted by Almelhi (2020), code-switching not only supports linguistic accessibility in the classroom but also enhances student participation and engagement by providing a bridge to new language acquisition. Therefore, code-switching practices, when appropriately applied, can enrich the language 9ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17339912/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - Beaudrie, S., Amezcua, A., & Loza, S. (2019). Critical language awareness for the heritage context: Development and validation of a measurement questionnaire. Language Testing, 36(4), 573–594. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0265532219844293 Bernardo, A. B., Cordel, M. O., Lucas, R. I. G., Teves, J. M. M., Yap, S. A., & Chua, U. C. (2021). Using machine learning approaches to explore non-cognitive variables influencing reading proficiency in english among filipino learners. Education Sciences,11(10), 628. Bravo-Sotelo, K. P., & Metila, R. A. (2023). Determining the pedagogical value of code-switching: Functions of teacher code-switching in tertiary level mathematics classrooms. International Journal of Multilingualism,20(3), 1088–1105. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/ abs/10.1080/14790718.2021.2002332 Brdarevi ´ cˇ Celjo, A., Ahmetovi ´ c, E., & Baji ´ c, E. (2024). Variation in attitudes towards codeswitching and code-switching frequency among multilingual speakers. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development,45(5), 1493–1508. https://www.tandfonline.com/ doi/abs/10.1080/01434632.2021.1983580 Brunfaut, T., Kormos, J., Michel, M., & Ratajczak, M. (2021). Testing young foreign language learners’ reading comprehension: Exploring the effects of working memory, grade level, and reading task. Language Testing,38(3), 356–377. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/ full/10.1177/0265532221991480 Buchmann, R. A., Ghiran, A. M., D ¨ oller, V., & Karagiannis, D. (2019). Conceptual modeling education as a “design problem”. Complex Systems Informatics and Modeling Quarterly, (21), 21–33. https://journals.rtu.lv/index.php/CSIMQ/article/view/csimq.2019-21.02 Caballero, N., & Celaya, M. L. (2022). Code-switching by primary school bilingual efl learners: A study on the effect of proficiency and modality of interaction. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism,25(1), 301–313. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/ abs/10.1080/13670050.2019.1671309 Chung, S. C., Chen, X., & Geva, E. (2019). Deconstructing and reconstructing cross-language transfer in bilingual reading development: An interactive framework. Journal of Neurolinguistics,50, 149–161. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/ S0911604417300532 Classroom interaction in efl contexts at the university of larbi tebessi tebessa in algeria: The case of second year students of english lmd [Doctoral dissertation, University of Martyr Sheikh Larbi Tebessi Tebessa]. (n.d.). http://dspace.univ-tebessa.dz:8080/jspui/handle/ 123456789/12188 Diah, A. R. P. (2021). The correlation between students’ reading comprehension and their translation ability at the sixth semester of english language education of uin raden intan lampung in the academic year of 2019/2020 [Doctoral dissertation, UIN Raden Intan Lampung]. https://repository.radenintan.ac.id/15766/ Eide, A., & Skeistrand, E. S. (2019). Statistical learning and inconsistent language input: An experiment in grammar learning [Master’s thesis, University of Bergen]. https://bora.uib. no/bora-xmlui/handle/1956/20199 Espi ˜ na, J., & Ibojo, D. T. (2023). Developing comprehension skills in english and filipino through code switching: An experimental study. Psychology and Education: A Multidisciplinary Journal,12(9), 920–934. https://scimatic.org/show manuscript/1888 16 ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17339912/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - Falloon, G. (2019). Using simulations to teach young students science concepts: An experiential learning theoretical analysis. Computers & Education,135, 138–159. https: / / www. sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S036013151930051X Filipi, A. (2019). Language alternation as an interactional practice in the foreign language classroom. In Multilingual education yearbook 2019: Media of instruction & multilingual settings (pp. 25–42). Springer. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-03014386-2 2 Gamelo, L. P., & Raymundo, J. L. (2024). Code-switching practices of junior high school teachers and learners in english as second language (esl) classes: Basis in designing intervention program. International Journal of Linguistics, Literature & Translation,7(7), 1–12. https://openurl.ebsco.com/... Gamotin, F. T. (2021). Speaking performance and the types of code-switching of senior high school students. International Journal of English Language Studies,3(10), 38–71. https: //www.al-kindipublisher.com/index.php/ijels/article/view/2247 Guan, M., Mondal, S. K., Dai, H. N., & Bao, H. (2023). Reinforcement learning-driven deep question generation with rich semantics. Information Processing & Management,60(2), 103232. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0306457322003338 Hall, C., Vaughn, S., Barnes, M. A., Stewart, A. A., Austin, C. R., & Roberts, G. (2020). The effects of inference instruction on the reading comprehension of english learners with reading comprehension difficulties. Remedial and Special Education,41(5), 259–270. Hamouda, A. (2021). The effect of lexical inference strategy instruction on saudi efl learners’ reading comprehension. Education Quarterly Reviews,4(1). https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/ papers.cfm?abstract id=3791100 Kheder, S., & Kaan, E. (2021). Cognitive control in bilinguals: Proficiency and code-switching both matter. Cognition,209, 104575. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/ pii/S0010027720303942 Kim, Y. J., Oh, Y., Park, S., Cho, S., & Park, H. (2013). Stratified sampling design based on data mining. Healthcare Informatics Research,19(3), 186–195. Kkese, E. (2020). The role of teacher code-switching and its functions in the l2 english classroom: Insights into cg students’ attitudes at tertiary level education. Journal of Mediterranean Studies,29(1), 95–120. https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/303/article/779814/summary Kumar, A. P., Nayak, A., K, M. S., Chaitanya, & Ghosh, K. (2024). A novel framework for the generation of multiple choice question stems using semantic and machine-learning techniques. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education,34(2), 332–375. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40593-023-00333-6 Kurdi, G., Leo, J., Parsia, B., Sattler, U., & Al-Emari, S. (2020). A systematic review of automatic question generation for educational purposes. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education,30, 121–204. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40593019-00186-y Lainatussyifah, D. (2022). The impact of using code-switching on teaching and learning effectiveness in bilingual class [Doctoral dissertation, UIN Ar-Raniry]. https://repository.arraniry.ac.id/id/eprint/25674/ Lau, F. (2017). Methods for correlational studies. In Handbook of ehealth evaluation: An evidencebased approach. University of Victoria. 17 ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17339912/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - Li, L., Geissinger, J., Ingram, W. A., & Fox, E. A. (2020). Teaching natural language processing through big data text summarization with problem-based learning. Data and Information Management,4(1), 18–43. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/ S2543925122000572 Lin, T. M., Ansarian, L., Tik, O. L., & Nair, A. B. (2019). The effects of problem-based language learning on the listening comprehension skills of malaysian undergraduate students. Journal of Asia TEFL,16(3), 996. Ling, C. Y., Osman, S., Daud, M. F., & Hussin, W. N. W. (2019). Application of vee diagram as a problem-solving strategy in developing students’ conceptual and procedural knowledge. International Journal of Innovative Technology and Exploring Engineering,8(10), 2796– 2800. Lo, Y. Y. (2019). Development of the beliefs and language awareness of content subject teachers in clil: Does professional development help? International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism,22(7), 818–832. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/ 13670050.2017.1318821 Martinez-Lincoln, A. (2019). The influence of student engagement on the effects of an inferencemaking intervention for middle school students with reading difficulties [Doctoral dissertation, University of Texas]. https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/items/7179663b-992e40e2-9a09-0c5a06dd3a76 Melandita, Y. (2019). Students’ difficulties in comprehending the english reading text at the second semester of the eighth grade of smp darul falah bandar lampung in the academic year of 2018/2019 [Doctoral dissertation, UIN Raden Intan Lampung]. https://repository. radenintan.ac.id/8042/1/A%20Thesis%20Full.pdf Mulla, N., & Gharpure, P. (2023). Automatic question generation: A review of methodologies, datasets, evaluation metrics, and applications. Progress in Artificial Intelligence,12(1), 1–32. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13748-023-00295-9 Murtiningsih, S. R., Munawaroh, M., & Hidayatulloh, S. M. M. (2022). Code-switching in efl classrooms: Factors influencing teachers to use code-switching and its types used in the classrooms. Journal on English as a Foreign Language,12(2), 318–338. https://ejournal.iain-palangkaraya.ac.id/index.php/jefl/article/view/3941 Nanda, D. W., & Azmy, K. (2020). Poor reading comprehension issue in efl classroom among indonesian secondary school students: Scrutinizing the causes, impacts and possible solutions. Englisia: Journal of Language, Education, and Humanities,8(1), 12–24. Nuworsu, A., Diabah, G., & Amuzu, E. K. (2019). Mi fioo!!”: Codeswitching at inter-ethnic traditional marriage ceremonies in southern ghana. Multilingua,38(3), 283–311. https: //www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/multi-2017-0097/pdf Nylander, E. (2019). “Two brains are often better than one, probably”: Adult ESL learners’ paired and individual lexical inferencing task performances, in relation to L2 proficiency [Unpublished manuscript]. https://lup.lub.lu.se/luur/download?func=downloadFile& recordOId=8969764&fileOId=8969765 Park, E. (2022). Coping with diverse accented english: Comprehension strategies deployed by east asian international students at an australian university. International Education Journal: Comparative Perspectives,21(1), 1–19. 18 ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17339912/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - Perez-Cortes, S., & Giancaspro, D. (2022). (in) frequently asked questions: On types of frequency and their roles in heritage language variability. Frontiers in Psychology,13, 1002978. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1002978/full Quintana Aguilera, J. A., Restrepo Castro, D., Romero Mart ´ ınez, G., & Messa, G. A. C. (2019). The effect of content and language integrated learning on the development of english reading comprehension skills. Lenguaje,47(2), 427–452. http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo. php?pid=S0120-34792019000200427&script=sci arttext&tlng=en Rahi, S. (2017). Research design and methods: A systematic review of research paradigms, sampling issues and instruments development. International Journal of Economics & Management Sciences,6(2), 1–5. Ramzan, M., Aziz, A., & Ghaffar, M. (2021). A study of code-mixing and code-switching (urdu and punjabi) in children’s early speech. Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies,17(2), 869–881. https://search.informit.org/doi/abs/10.3316/informit.216304495772762 Raviv, L., Meyer, A., & Lev-Ari, S. (2019). Larger communities create more systematic languages. Proceedings of the Royal Society B,286(1907), 20191262. https://royalsocietypublishing. org/doi/full/10.1098/rspb.2019.1262 Reyes, J., Insorio, A. O., Ingreso, M. L. V., Hilario, F. F., & Gutierrez, C. R. (2019). Conception and application of contextualization in mathematics education. International Journal of Educational Studies in Mathematics,6(1), 1–18. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/ijesim/ issue/43715/454218 Rice, M., & Wijekumar, K. K. (2024). Inference skills for reading: A meta-analysis of instructional practices. Journal of Educational Psychology. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2024-63383001 Rosemeyer, M., & Schwenter, S. A. (2019). Entrenchment and persistence in language change: The spanish past subjunctive. Corpus Linguistics and Linguistic Theory,15(1), 167–204. https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/cllt-2016-0047/html San Isidro, X., & Lasagabaster, D. (2019). Code-switching in a clil multilingual setting: A longitudinal qualitative study. International Journal of Multilingualism,16(3), 336–356. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14790718.2018.1477781 Santos, A., Fernandez, V., & Ilustre, R. A. M. I. L. (2022). English language proficiency in the philippines: An overview. International Journal of English Language Studies,4(3), 46–51. https://www.ijels.com/ Sek, S., Katenga, J. E., & Mushunje, A. T. (2021). Reading comprehension of thai students improved by extensive reading when learning english as a foreign language. Human Behavior, Development & Society,22(3). https://pws. npru.ac. th/sopheak/ system/ 20221224185836 208563e9af2070c660e17348d87c33e9.pdf Sofia, S. (2023). Improving students’ writing skill through summarizing technique on ted talks video at the eleventh grade of ma ddi lil-banat parepare [Doctoral dissertation, IAIN PAREPARE]. https://repository.iainpare.ac.id/id/eprint/5102/ Soodmand Afshar, H. (2020). Test-takers’ perceptions of paired speaking tests and the role of interlocutor variables in pairing. Journal of Research in Applied Linguistics,11(1), 89–123. https://rals.scu.ac.ir/article 15418 077daf487f24439421db73486328f9bf.pdf 19 ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17339912/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - Temesgen, A., & Hailu, E. (2022). Teachers’ codeswitching in efl classrooms: Functions and motivations. Cogent Education,9(1), 2124039. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10. 1080/2331186X.2022.2124039 Trebits, A. (2021). Degree of multilingualism, code-switching and intensity of target language contact predict pragma-linguistic awareness in an english as a foreign language context. International Journal of Multilingualism,18(3), 475–490. https://www.tandfonline.com/ doi/abs/10.1080/14790718.2019.1678626 van Dijk, R. B. J. (2024). English learners’ code-switching during gameplay: Analyzing norwegian lower-secondary students’ speech during gameplay in the esl classroom [Master’s thesis, University of Agder]. https://uia.brage.unit.no/uia-xmlui/handle/11250/3137400 van Zeijts, B. E., Ganushchak, L. Y., de Koning, B. B., & Tabbers, H. K. (2024). Stimulating inference-making in second grade children when reading and listening to narrative texts. Reading and Writing,37(9), 2201–2227. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11145023-10463-x Watson, R. (2015). Quantitative research. Nursing Standard,29(31). Wigdorowitz, M., P ´ erez, A. I., & Tsimpli, I. M. (2023). A holistic measure of contextual and individual linguistic diversity. International Journal of Multilingualism,20(2), 469–487. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14790718.2020.1835921 Zainil, Y., & Arsyad, S. (2021). Teachers’ perception of their code-switching practices in english as a foreign language classes: The results of stimulated recall interview and conversation analysis. Sage Open,11(2), 21582440211013802. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/ 10.1177/21582440211013802 Zehentner, E. (2019). Competition in language change: The rise of the english dative alternation (Vol. 103). Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. Zhang, P., & Graham, S. (2020). Vocabulary learning through listening: Comparing l2 explanations, teacher codeswitching, contrastive focus-on-form and incidental learning. Language Teaching Research,24(6), 765–784. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/ 1362168819829022 Zhao, C., Zhang, J., & Tian, J. (2024). Research on teaching reform of business english graduation thesis (design) writing course for application-oriented undergraduate students based on obe concept. Creative Education,15(5), 828–837. https://www.scirp.org/journal/ paperinformation?paperid=133450 20 ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17339912/NIJSE.2025